SSS 2 Data Processing

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DATA MANAGEMENT
Data management is the development, execution and supervision of plans,
policies, programs and practices that control, protect, deliver and enhance the value of
data and information assets. Data management comprises of all the disciplines related
to managing data as a valuable resource. It’s an administrative process that includes
acquiring, validating, storing, protecting, and processing data to ensure the
accessibility, reliability and timeliness of data for its users.

A Database Management System is a collection of program (or a computer-

software application) that enables one to store, modify and retrieve information from a
database. Well known DBMS include MS Access, MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server,
Oracle, SQLite etc.

Database is an organized collection of data

IMPORTANCE OF DBMS

1. Instant access to records

2. Editing of records in the database is efficient
3. Reports can be printed easily
4. Data storage management.
5. Reduce data redundancy: data redundancy means duplication of data.
6. Ensures data security
7. Controls data inconsistency
8. Maintain integrity
9. Enforce data standard
10. Facilitate data sharing

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Assignment

Differentiate between database and spreadsheet

Why a Spreadsheet Is Not a Database

While a spreadsheet allows for the creation of multiple tables, it does not support even
the most basic database functionality such as support for self-documentation through
metadata, enforcement of data types or domains to ensure consistency of data within a
column, defined relationships among tables, or constraints to ensure consistency of
data across related tables.

DATA MODEL
A data model can be defined as a simple representation of a more complex real-
world data structures. In general terms, a model is a simple abstraction of a more
complex real-world object or event. Data model can also be defined as the technique
for organizing and documenting a system’s data. Data model depicts what data items
are required and how such data must look.

REASONS FOR DATA MODEL

 Designing a database is much simpler when database model is used.

 Models help to understand the complexities of real-world environment.
 It enables the designer explore the characteristics of entities and the relationship
between them.

If the model created is not logically sound, then the database derived from the model
will also not be efficient. Good modeling yields a good database.

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TYPES OF DATA MODEL

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1. Hierarchical Model

This is a data model in which data is organized into a tree-like structure. The structure
allows representing information using parent/child relationship. A record (parent) can
have many children but each child can have only one parent. (1-to-many relationship).
However, a child record could itself be a parent to other records. Each element in the
structure is called a NODE and the starting node is called ROOTNODE.

PRINCIPAL

TEACHER 1 TEACHER 2 TEACHER 3 TEACHER 4 TEACHER 5

STUDENT 1 STUDENT 2 STUDENT 3 STUDENT 4 STUDENT 5 STUDENT n

2. NETWORK MODEL

This model was created to represent complex data relationship more efficiently
than the hierarchical model, to improve database performance, and to impose a
database standard. Though the network model is generally not in use again, it stands as
the basis for all modern data models. Unlike hierarchical model, network model allows
a child record to have more than one parent. An example is students to subject and
subject to student relationship.

STUDENT 1 STUDENT 2 STUDENT 3 STUDENT 4 STUDENT 5

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SUBJECT 1 SUBJECT 2 SUBJECT 3 SUBJECT 4 SUBJECT 5

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3. RELATIONAL MODEL

This is a model that focuses on the logical representation of data and its
relationships rather than the physical storage details. It uses tables to show the
relationship between various data.

Relational design begins by defining the required entities. An entity is a person,

place, event or thing for which we wish to collect data. For example, in a school
environment, entity of interest might be students, teachers, and subject’s etc. Entities
are grouped according to their common characteristics called entity set and the
characteristics for grouping the entities are called attributes. For example, students are
grouped together as one entity set. An entity set is a collection of like entities that
share a common characteristic or attribute.

Relational database has to do with data that share the same attributes to form an
entity.

Collection of four products (entities) in the PRODUCT.

4. ENTITY RELATIONSHIP MODEL

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An ERM is an abstract way of describing a database. In the case of a relational

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database, which stores data in tables, ERM use a graphical tool (Entity Relationship
Diagram - ERD) in which entities and their relationships are graphically represented.

Evaluation

1. Define the following

a. DBMS
b. Database
c. Data management
d. Data model
e. Model
f. Entity
g. Entity set
h. Attributes
2. Explain the types of data model, hence, differentiate between them

DATA MODELLING

Practical

 How to create a table in a new DB

 Creating tables in an existing DB
 Setting table and field properties

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 Data types
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 Relationships
 Keys

CREATING TABLES

A table is a database object that is used to store data about a particular subject
(e.g. students, employee or product). A table consists of records and fields.

A field contains data about one aspect of the table subject, such as first name or
e-mail address. A field is also commonly called a column or attribute.

A record contains data about one instance of the table subject, such as a
particular employee. A record is also called a row, tuple or an instance. A record
consists of field values.

Therefore, a table is a collection of records that describe similar data. A database

can contain many tables, each storing information about different subjects.

For example, the information clients fit into a single table and product on another table.
However, a single table would not handle both clients and product. You wouldn’t put
the records for your car’s repairs in the folder where you keep your Christmas cookie
recipes, right?

TABLE AND FIELD PROPERTIES

Table properties are attributes of a table that affect the appearance or behavior of
the tables as a whole. Table properties are set in the table’s property sheet in Design
View OR in the Table Properties option in the Table tab of Datasheet View.

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Field property applies to a single field in a table and defines one of the field’s
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characteristics or an aspect of the field’s behaviour. Field property can be set using
Fields tab in the Datasheet View or by using Field Property pane in the Design view.

DATA TYPES

A field data type indicates the kind of data that the field stores, such as text,
number, attached files etc. Every field has a data type. Data type is a field property that
determines what other properties the field has.

Data type denotes the type of information the field name will contain, if the field
name holds a numeric value, the data type will be number.

TABLE RELATIONSHIPS

A relationship is a logical connection between two tables that specifies fields that
the tables have in common. Although each table stores data about different subjects,
tables in a database usually stores data about subjects that are related to each other.
For example, a database might contain;

a) A customers table that list the company name and addresses

b) A product list that shows the product been sold and the prizes
c) An orders table that tracks customers’ orders.
Relationship is needed in order to bring together all the different subjects created
in separate table. It is used to tie data from different tables together, so that we can
compare related data from those tables.

KEY

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Fields that are part of a table relationship are called keys. In order to connect two
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or more tables together, you would need a KEY. The key is like a real world key, that
gives you access to the right row. A key is unique i.e. a key value cannot occur twice in
one table. There are two types of keys;

1. Primary key
2. Foreign key

PRIMARY KEY

A unique key or primary key is a key that uniquely identify each record in a table.
The primary key consist of characteristics that cannot collectively be duplicated by any
other row. For example, when creating a customer’s table where each customer has a
unique ID number. The customer ID field is the primary key of the customers table.

FOREIGN KEY

A foreign key contains values that correspond to values in the primary key of
another table. Foreign key is a common field between two tables.

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BENEFITS OF USING RELATIONSHIPS

I. CONSISTENCY: This prevents the repetition of a particular data. For

example, the name of a customer will be saved just once in a table that is
about customers which prevents the saving of customers name in a table
that contains other data
II. EFFICIENCY: when data is recorded in only one place and not in multiple
tables, it means that there will be efficiency whenever one wants to access
the data or use the data in relation to other data.
III. COMPREHENSIBILITY: With data well arranged on tables, the database
will be easy to understand and use for any event.

Access is a relational database package but can also work as a flat file. The difference
between a relational database and a flat file is that flat file has only one table and saves
all its data on a table which can cause data redundancy (repetition). An example is a
phonebook which can save a person’s name more than once as long as the person has
more than one phone number. A relational database will create different tables for
different data about an entity and create a key that could be used to link tables of
related data together. A relational database is more complex than a flat file.

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BENEFITS OF USING A DATABASE

a. IT REDUCES DATA REDUNDANCY: It removes unwanted data

b. IT ELIMINATES DATA INCONSISTENCY: It makes correct data available to users
c. IT IS USED FOR STORAGE AND PROCESSING OF LARGE QUANTITY OF DATA
d. GOOD SECURITY OF INFORMATION: It provides tight security of data
e. DATA INTEGRITY: It makes available required and accurate data or information
to the users
f. EFFICIENT UPDATING OF INFORMATION: It provides current and up-to-date
data or information.

Approaches to Data Modelling

1. Conceptual approach
2. Enterprise approach
3. Logical approach
4. Physical approach
5.

Levels of data modeling

Each level of data modeling has a different level of detail.

1. Conceptual data modeling gives a high-level view of the data structure, such as how data
interacts across an organization. For example, a conceptual data model may be used to define the
business requirements for a new database. A conceptual data model doesn't contain technical
details.

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2. Logical data modeling focuses on the technical details of a database such as relationships,
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attributes, and entities. For example, a logical data model defines how individual records are
uniquely identified in a database. But it doesn't spell out actual names of database tables. That's the
job of a physical data model.
3. Physical data modeling depicts how a database operates. A physical data model defines all
entities and attributes used; for example, it includes table names, column names, and data types for
the database.

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NORMALIZATION
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Normalization is used in relational database design. It is the process of organizing data

in a database to reduce redundancy. It involves the dividing of a database into two or
more tables and defining relationships between them. The objective is to isolate data so
that additions, deletions and modification of a field on a table will automatically take
effect on other tables.

Normalization is a systematic approach of decomposing tables to eliminate data

redundancy and undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and Deletion
Anomalies. It is a multi-step process that puts data into tabular form by removing
duplicated data from the relation tables.

Normalization is used for mainly two purposes

 Eliminating redundant data

 Ensuring data dependencies

NOTE: Data redundancy is a condition created within a database or data storage

technology in which the same piece of data is held in two separate places. Redundancy
wastes disk space and creates maintenance problems.

Problem without Normalization

Without Normalization, it becomes difficult to handle and update the database, without
facing data loss. Insert, Update and Delete Anomalies are very frequent if Database is
not normalized. To understand these anomalies let us take an example of Student
table.

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S_id S_Name S_Address Subject_opted

401 Adam Noida Bio

402 Alex Panipat Maths

403 Stuart Jammu Maths

404 Adam Noida Physics

 Update Anomaly: To update address of a student who occurs twice or more than
twice in a table, we will have to update S_Address column in all the rows, else
data will become inconsistent.
 Insert Anomaly: Suppose for a new admission, we have a Student id(S_id), name
and address of a student but if student has not opted for any subjects yet then we
have to insert NULL there, leading to Insertion Anomaly.
 Delete Anomaly: If (S_id) 401 has only one subject and temporarily he drops it,
when we delete that row, entire student record will be deleted along with it.

Normalization Rule

Normalization rules are called “Normal Forms”, they are;

1. First Normal Form

2. Second Normal Form
3. Third Normal Form

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4. BCNF
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First Normal Form (1NF)

In First Normal Form, no two Rows of data must contain repeating group of
information i.e each set of column must have a unique value, such that multiple
columns cannot be used to fetch the same row. Each table should be organized into
rows, and each row should have a primary key that distinguishes it as unique.

The Primary key is usually a single column, but sometimes more than one column can
be combined to create a single primary key. For example consider a table which is not
in First normal form

Student Table :

Student Age Subject

Adam 15 Biology, Maths

Alex 14 Maths

Stuart 17 Maths

In First Normal Form, any row must not have a column in which more than one value is
saved, like separated with commas. Rather than that, we must separate such data into
multiple rows.

Student Table following 1NF will be:

Std sub std age

Student Age Subject

Adam 15 Biology

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Adam 15 Maths

Alex 14 Maths

Stuart 17 Maths

Using the First Normal Form, data redundancy increases, as there will be many
columns with same data in multiple rows but each row as a whole will be unique.

Second Normal Form (2NF)

As per the Second Normal Form there must not be any partial dependency of any
column on primary key. It means that for a table that has concatenated primary key,
each column in the table that is not part of the primary key must depend upon the
entire concatenated key for its existence. If any column depends only on one part of the
concatenated key, then the table fails Second normal form.

In example of First Normal Form there are two rows for Adam, to include multiple
subjects that he has opted for. While this is searchable, and follows First normal form, it
is an inefficient use of space. Also in the above Table in First Normal Form, while the
candidate key is {Student, Subject}, Age of Student only depends on Student column,
which is incorrect as per Second Normal Form. To achieve second normal form, it
would be helpful to split out the subjects into an independent table, and match them up
using the student names as foreign keys.

New Student Table following 2NF will be :

Student Age

Adam 15

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Alex 14 16

Stuart 17

In Student Table the candidate key will be Student column, because all other column i.e
Age is dependent on it.

New Subject Table introduced for 2NF will be :

Student Subject

Adam Biology

Adam Maths

Alex Maths

Stuart Maths

In Subject Table the candidate key will be {Student, Subject} column. Now, both the
above tables qualify for Second Normal Form and will never suffer from Update
Anomalies. Although there are a few complex cases in which table in Second Normal
Form suffers Update Anomalies, and to handle those scenarios Third Normal Form is
there.

Third Normal Form (3NF)

Third Normal form applies that every non-prime attribute of table must be dependent
on primary key, or we can say that, there should not be the case that a non-prime
attribute is determined by another non-prime attribute. So this transitive functional

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dependency should be removed from the table and also the table must be in Second
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Normal form. For example, consider a table with following fields.

Student_Detail Table:

Student_id Student_name DOB Street city State Zip

In this table Student_id is Primary key, but street, city and state depends upon Zip. The
dependency between zip and other fields is called transitive dependency. Hence to
apply 3NF, we need to move the street, city and state to new table, with Zip as primary
key.

New Student_Detail Table :

Student_id Student_name DOB Zip

Address Table :

Zip Street city state

The advantage of removing transitive dependency is,

 Amount of data duplication is reduced.

 Data integrity achieved

Boyce Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

Boyce and Codd Normal Form is a higher version of the Third Normal form. This form
deals with certain type of anomaly that is not handled by 3NF.

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Class Work
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this table to 3NF

StudentNum Advisor Adv-Room Class1 Class2 Class3

1022 Jones 412 101-07 143-01 159-02
4123 Smith 216 201-01 211-02 214-01

sNum Adv AdvRoom Class

1022 Jones 412 101-07
1022 Jones 412 143-01
1022 Jones 412 159-02
4123 Smith 216 201-01
4123 Smith 216 211-02
4123 Smith 216 214-01

sNum Class
1022 101-07
1022 143-01
1022 159-02
4123 201-01
4123 211-02
4123 214-01

Adv AdvRoom
Jones 412
Smith 216

sNum Class Adv advroom

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Entity Relationship Model

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Entity relationship model can be best understood by using entity-relationship
diagrams.
Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagrams: this provides a graphical model of the things
that the organization deals with (entities) and how these are related to one another
(relationship).
An ER model is a high level, logical model used by both users and database
designers. It is logical because it provides a conceptual understanding of the data. It is
high-level because it does not require detailed information about the data.

Features of Entity Model

1. Object or Entity: an entity is a thing or an object in the real world that is
distinguishable from all other objects. E.g. Faculty, Students, Courses are entities.
An entity has a set of properties or attributes, e.g. students attributes are Name,
Address, State, Gender etc.
2. Attributes: are characteristics of an entity. Attributes are equivalent to fields.
3. Identifiers: this is used to distinguish an entity/record from another and
indicate that distinction in the data model. We can use the value of an attribute to
make the distinction. E.g. you can request for information about a customer for
whom the customer number is 1234. In this case, the customer number would be
an attribute that can be used to distinguish it from another customer.
4. Relationship: this describes an association or connection among entities. Data
models use three types of relationships.
a. One-to-many (1:M or 1…): e.g. A painter creates many paintings but each
painting is painted by only one painter.
b. Many-to-many (M:N or *..*): e.g. an employee may learn many skills and each
job skill may be learned by many employees.

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c. One-to-one (1:1 or 1..1): e.g. A store is managed by an employee and an

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employee manages a store.
5. Constraint: this is a restriction placed on the data. Constraints are normally
expressed in form of rules. E.g. each class must have only one teacher.
6. Cardinality: this is the numerical mapping between entities. It describes “how
many” of one entity are related to “how many” of another entity.

File Organization
File Organization is the physical arrangement of data in a file into records and/or
a secondary storage device.
Types of File Organization
1. Heap (unordered/random) File Organization: is the simplest type of file
organization. Records are placed in file in the same order as they are inserted. A
new record is inserted in the last page of the file; if there is insufficient space in
the last page, a new page is added to the file. This makes insertion very efficient.
However, as a heap file has no particular ordering with respect to field values, a
linear search must be performed to access a record. A linear search involves
reading pages from the file until the required is found. This makes retrievals from
heap files that have more than a few pages relatively slow, unless the retrieval
involves a large proportion of the records in the file.
To delete a record, the required page first has to be retrieved, the record
marked as deleted, and the page written back to disk. The space with deleted
records is not reused. Consequently, performance progressively deteriorates as
deletion occurs. This means that heap files have to be periodically reorganized by
the Database Administrator (DBA) to reclaim the unused space of deleted
records.

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2. Sequential (ordered) File Organization: in a sequentially organized file,

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records are written consecutively when the file is created and must be accessed
consecutively. Records are arranged in order and this makes retrieval of records
more efficient. However, when a new record is inserted, ordered file rearranges
its records, resulting in a lower insertion efficiency.
3. Index – Sequential File Organization: Records are stored sequentially. A
secondary set of hash tables known as indexes contain "pointers" into the tables,
allowing individual records to be retrieved without having to search the entire
data set. It is a data structure that allows the DBMS to locate particular records in
a file more quickly and thereby speed response to user queries.
An index in a database is similar to an index in a book. It is an auxiliary
structure associated with a file that can be referred to when searching for an item
of information.

Distributed Database
A Distributed Database (DDB) is a collection of multiple logically interrelated
databases distributed over a computer network. A distributed database management
system (DDBMS) is software that manages the DDB and provides an access mechanism
that makes this distribution transparent to the users.
Distributed Database Management System are of two types;
1. Homogeneous Distributed Database management systems
2. Heterogeneous Distributed Database management systems

Homogeneous Distributed Database Management Systems

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A homogeneous distributed database has identical software and hardware running

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all databases instances, and may appear through a single interface as if it were a single
database.

The following conditions must be satisfied for homogeneous database:

 The operating system used at each location must be same or compatible

 The data structures used at each location must be same or compatible.
 The database application (or DBMS) used at each location must be same or
compatible.

Heterogeneous Distributed Database

Heterogeneous distributed database may have different hardware, operating
systems, database management systems, and even data models for different databases.
Sites may not be aware of each other and may provide only limited facilities for
cooperation in transaction processing.
Examples of DDB
 Telephone Networks
 Computer Networks e.g. internet and intranet
 ATM Machines

Characteristic of DDB
1. All sites are interconnected
2. Logically related shared data can be collected
3. Fragments can be replicated
4. Data at each site is controlled by a DBMS

Advantages of DDB
1. Continuous operation, even if some nodes go offline
2. Distributed query processing can improve performance

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3. Modularity — systems can be modified, added and removed from the distributed
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database without affecting other modules (systems)
4. Protection of valuable data (security)
5. Increase reliability and availability
6. Easier expansion
7. Keeping track of data
8. Local autonomy or site autonomy — a department can control the data about
them
9. A DDB spreads out the system workload by processing data at several sites.

Disadvantages of DDB
1. Increased Complexity
2. Increased storage and infrastructure requirements
3. Difficult to maintain integrity — but in a distributed database, enforcing integrity
over a network may require too much of the network's resources to be feasible
4. Inexperience — distributed databases are difficult to work with, it requires high
level of technical know-how
5. Its more expensive
6. Probability of security lapses increases when data are located at multiple sites.

Parallel Database
A parallel database system seeks to improve performance through parallelization of
various operations, such as loading data, building indexes and evaluating queries.
Parallel databases improve processing ofinput/output speeds by using multiple CPUs
and disks in parallel. In parallel processing, many operations are performed
simultaneously, as opposed to serial processing, in which the computational steps are
performed sequentially.

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Similarities between DDB and PDB

They are both softwares where multiple processors or machines are interrelated
together to process databases that are distributed over a computer network. Multiple
users can execute and run queries over the network.

Networking
Computer network is the connection of two or more computers through a
communication media for the purpose of sharing information and resources.
Components of a Network
1. Server: server is the computer that provides services to the other computers on
the network.
2. Node: each computer on the network is called a node
3. Client: client computer is the one that uses the services that a server provides
4. Media/communication channel: is the physical connection between the devices
on a network e.g. wi-fi, wires, Bluetooth etc.
5. Resources: are the services that are available to a client on the network e.g.
printers, modem, data etc.
6. User: is any person who uses a client to access resources on the network
7. Protocols: these are rules used for communications

Advantages of Computer Network

1. It allows data transmission among far areas
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2. It allows different users to share the processing characteristic of different

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computers
3. It allows users to share common hardware resources such as printers, modem
etc.
4. The cost of computing is reduced
5. It allows users to share common data files and software stored in a main system
Types of Network
1. Local Area Network (LAN): this type of network connect network over a
relatively short distance. E.g. a networked office building, home or school. A LAN
spans over a group of nearby building.
2. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): these types of computer networks
refers to LANs that are based on wireless network technology e.g. Wi-fi
3. Metropolitan Area network (MAN): is a network that spans over a physical
area like a city. MAN is smaller than WAN but larger than LAN. MANs are owned
and operated by single entities e.g. governmental bodies or large corporations.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN): this is a type of network that spans over a large
physical distance. It may be regarded as a collection of LANs dispersed over a
geographical area. It reaches across cities, states, and countries. Internet is a very
good example of WAN. Banks uses WAN to connect their branches.

Network Topology
Network Topology is the physical arrangement of computers and other network
devices on the network.
Types of Network Topology

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1. Bus Topology: bus topology consists of single cable with a terminator at each
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end. All the computers and devices in the network are connected to the single
cable called Backbone. Bus topology is the easiest to setup and it works best

with a limited number of computers.

2. Star Topology: in a star topology, all computers are connected through one
device known as a hub or switch, each node/workstation has a cable that goes
from the Network Card to the central device, the major advantage of star
topology is that a break in a cable causes only the workstation connected to the
cable to go down, not the entire network, as with a bus topology. Star topologies
are very common today.

3. Mesh Topology: in a mesh topology, every workstation has a connection to every

component of the network. If there is a break in a cable, data will be rerouted
through another pathway because there are multiple pathways to send data from
one system to another. The disadvantage is that it is very difficult to manage

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because of its numerous connections and the cost of setting it up is high (because
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of the additional cabling).
4. Ring Topology: all computers are connected via a cable that loops in a ring or
circle. A ring topology has no start, no end and no central connecting point. The

biggest problem with this topology is that if one computer or cable fails, the
entire network could go down, but in newer technology, the computer will be
disconnected (dropped out) and the entire network wouldn’t be affected.

5. Hybrid Topology: this type of topology is always provided when two different
basic network topologies are connected. Two common examples of hybrid
network are: star-ring topology and star-bus topology.

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Network Devices
Network devices are the components for connecting computers in order to share
resources on the network. These devices include:
1. Hub: this is a central connection point device used to connect multiple computers
together in a network. It has ports where network cables can be plugged into. The
number of ports determines the number of computers or devices it can
networked.

2. Modem: modem stands for modulator – demodulator. It’s a computer component

that translates information to be sent to and from the internet.
3. Router: this is a device that connects two or more networks together. It can also
connects LANs to the internet. A router can be wired or wireless.
4. Switch: A switch is also called an intelligent hub. It is a networking device that
connects network segments. The main difference between hub and switch is that
while the hub broadcasts messages to all computers in the network, switch
forwards individual messages directly to their respective destination.
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5. Network Interface Card (NIC): this is a circuit board in the computer that
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provides physical connection between the computers and the network. NIC
determines the speed and performance of a network.
6. Network Cables: this is a medium through which data or information passes from
one network device to another. E.g. twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and fiber
optic cable.
7. Network Connector: this is a part of network cable that allows two devices to be
connected to each other. E.g. RJ-11 connector, RJ-45 connector and BNC
connector.

INTERNET
This is a global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Standard
Internet Protocol (IP) Suite to serve several billion users worldwide. It’s a network of
networks.

INTERNET BROWSERS
These are software’s that allow a person to explore the internet in an easy to use way. A
browser is a Graphical User Interface (GUI) application program that retrieves and
displays documents from websites. Examples include Opera, Netscape Navigator,
firefox, etc.

COMPUTER SECURITY
Computer security is the protection of computer systems from the theft and damage to
their hardware, software or information, as well as from disruption or misdirection of
the services they provide.

COMPUTERSECURITY TERMS
(CIA)
1. Confidentiality: Ensuring that information is not accessed by unauthorized
persons.
2. Integrity: ensuring that information is not altered by unauthorized persons in a
way that is not detectable by authorized users

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3. Authentication: Ensuring that users are the person they claim to be

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Other terms are

4. Access control: ensuring that users access only those resources and services
they are entitled to access and that qualified users are not denied access to
services that they legitimately expect to receive.
5. Non Repudiation: ensuring that the originators of messages cannot deny that
they sent the messages
6. Availability: ensuring that a system is operational and functional at a given
moment. Loss of availability is called “denial of service”.
7. Privacy: ensuring that individual has the right to control what information is
collected about them, how it is used, who used it, who maintains it, and what
purpose it is used for.

Advantages of Internet
1. E-mail
2. information
3. online chat
4. Services e.g. E-banking, hotel reservation, job searching etc.
5. E-commerce
6. Downloads

Disadvantages of Internet
1. Theft of personal information
2. Negative effects on family communication
3. Internet addiction
4. Virus threat
5. Spamming

WEB DESIGN
A design is the art and process of combining individual elements of design (lines,
shapes, texture, colour) into a pleasing arrangement.

Examples of web designing software are Adobe Dreamweaver, Komodo Edit, iWeb,
WebPlus X4, Sandox, AllWebMenus PRO 5 etc.

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Graphic Software Packages

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Graphic package refers to any computer software that makes a computer capable of
drawing, displaying and manipulating pictures. The term graphic is used to refer to the
images.

Graphic Applications

MS Paint , Harvard graphic, Adobe Photoshop, CorelDraw, Instant Artist, Microsoft

Publisher, Picasa, Adobe Illustrator, AutoCAD etc

Uses of Graphic Software

1. Business
2. Advertising
3. Politics
4. Education
5. Movie and Animation

Graphic Software file Extensions

1. JPEG - Joint Photographic Experts Group

2. TIFF - Tagged Image File Format
3. PNG - Portable Network Graphics
4. GIF - Graphics Interchange Format
5. BMP – Bit Map
6. PSD - Adobe PhotoShop Document
7. SVG - Scalable Vector Graphics

Features of Graphic Packages

Most of the graphic packages posses the following features and tools.

1. Menu bar:
The menu bar can be used to activate commands of graphic packages and operations.
Depending on the graphic package you are using, some packages contain the following.
File, edit, view, text, tools, window, help, etc.

2. Toolbar:

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The tool bar is a bar that contains short cuts to menu and other command. For example
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you can use the “open” icon o open an existing document by clicking on it. Others are
save, print, cut, copy, paste, alignment, bold italics, underline etc

3. Toolbox:
A toolbox is a bar with tools for creating, filling and modifying objects in the drawing

4. Printable area:
Printable area can be referred to as the work space inside the drawing window, which
you can plan your work on.

5. Colour palette:
It is a bar that allows you to fill desired objects or texts with any colour you want.

Other features specific to CorelDraw: The rule, Drawing window, Status bar, Document
Navigator etc

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