Paper 16

European Journal of Applied Sciences – Vol. 11, No.
2
Publication Date: April 25, 2023
DOI:10.14738/aivp.112.14527.
Leiva, C. A., Borjas, J., Acuña, C., & Luukkanen, S. (2023). Applied Online Bubble Size Distribution Measurement in a Pilot Flotation
Cell Based on Image Analysis. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 645-662.
Applied Online Bubble Size Distribution Measurement in a Pilot

Flotation Cell Based on Image Analysis
C.A. Leiva
Oulu Mining School, University of Oulu, Oulu,
Finland and Departamento de Ingeniería Química,
Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
José Borjas
Departamento de Ingeniería Química,
Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
Claudio Acuña
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,
Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Valparaíso, Chile
Saija Luukkanen
Oulu Mining School, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
ABSTRACT
The distribution of bubble size in the pulp is a parameter directly related to the
flotation kinetics, but its measurement is complex to determine due to the presence
of particles and cluster of bubbles. The existing equipment for the measurement of
bubble size (McGill and UCT), which operate manually and batch, requires
specialized operators in image analysis. On the other hand, the McGill technique has
not been directly validated with bubble swarms and only 10% of the sampled
bubbles are analyzed. These aspects have limited the technology transfer and
sustainability in the measurement of bubble size. To solve the problems presented,
a device based on the McGill technique was designed and implemented.
Furthermore, algorithms were implemented to increase the statistical significance
of the measurement of bubbles per image. The validation consisted of a comparison
of the degree of detection using the software manually and automatically
(undetected remaining bubbles). As a result, it is possible to predict the bubble size
distributions with an error of less than 5% and derivations close to 0.1 [mm] in the
determination of D32, using an average of 100 images. In conclusion, the new device
and algorithms improve the accuracy of BSD measurements, helping to optimize the
process, predict, control flotation kinetics, and be used as a troubleshooting tool.
The new device and algorithms improve the accuracy of BSD measurements,
helping to optimize the process, predict, control flotation kinetics, and be used as a
troubleshooting tool.
Keywords: Bubbles, Flotation; Image Analysis
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
INTRODUCTION
The mineral concentration process is carried out, to a large extent, by froth flotation. Flotation
consists in the separation of the valuable mineral particles contained in solid-liquid dispersion
(pulp) by means of their selective adhesion to air bubbles, which float and concentrate in the
form of froth. The efficiency of this process depends on the physicochemical aspect in particle-
bubble adhesion [1], characteristics of the circuit [2] and the hydrodynamics of the equipment
in the collection area (dispersion of gas in the pulp) [3], which includes gas superficial velocity
(Jg), gas volume fraction (Eg), size distribution (BSD) and bubble stability, being the bubble size
distribution the parameter that directly affects the kinetics of the process [4]. Nevertheless,
only few techniques have been developed to determine this parameter, in which they can
operate both on a laboratory scale and in industrial plants. Furthermore, studies about the
validation of these techniques are scarce in the literature [5].
The measurement of bubble size is one of the most complex aspects to determine due to the
presence of heterogeneous mixtures in the cells (water, dark particles, single bubbles and
swarms of bubbles) [6] and it has been studied by various researchers [7, 8], reaching a great
level of sophistication in the development of non-invasive techniques [9-11] including:
ultrasound [12], radiography and tomography imaging, nuclear magnetic resonance imaging
(NMR) and velocimetric techniques (Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA), Particle Image
Velocimetry (PIV), [13]). However, these techniques are substantively complex to be
implemented at an industrial level, although there are some methods that use image analysis
[14, 15]. Only two methods have been used at this level and these are the following: an imaging
sample tracking technique [16] and a capillary technique [17]. The analysis of the bubble size
distribution has been extensively studied [18-26], being a basis for achieving the most accurate
data collection possible.
The current bubble size measurement is built on models based on one-way flow or “drift flux”
analysis. Likewise, the model has been extended to be adapted for bubble swarms, thus relating,
the distribution of bubble size (db) with the superficial gas velocity (Jg), superficial liquid
velocity (Ji) and hold-up gas (Eg), being contrasted with photographic measurements. Several
study mechanisms have been identified on the bubble size distribution, among which the McGill
Bubble Viewer device is the most widely used technique to determine the bubble size
distribution [27-37].
Because of these reasons, a compact continuous measurement device is designed and

evaluated, which allows the detection of bubble size distribution in cells at the laboratory level.
The device continuously measures through a regulated vacuum system, allowing incoming air
to be removed and the liquid level maintained.
The bubble detection has been enhanced with algorithms that allow discriminating the bubbles
from swarms, differentiate irregular bubbles, and isolate bubbles in areas of irregular lighting.
As detection algorithms, it was proposed to use the quotient between the convex area and the
projected area of the isolated segment and a variable threshold to separate bubbles into
swarms and illumination zones. To validate the algorithms and the continuous measurement
system, the device was implemented in a pilot cell with a controlled bubble size distribution
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 646

Leiva, C. A., Borjas, J., Acuña, C., & Luukkanen, S. (2023). Applied Online Bubble Size Distribution Measurement in a Pilot Flotation Cell Based on
Image Analysis. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 645-662.
generation system. Furthermore, to control the bubble size distribution, a porous injector with
controlled axial liquid flow and froth concentration was used.
For the Bubble Viewer case, the volume of the device is designed to capture 100 images per fill.
This number of images allows a representative distribution in terms of bubble population. The
software discriminates irregular bubbles and swarms of bubbles under the criterion of form
factor, which is based on the sphericity of the bubble to classify it as a single bubble.
Additionally, the BBV is inclined to allow bubbles to rise towards the front section of the
viewing chamber. Studies [27] have as a result that an inclination of 45° causes a deformation
in the bubbles affecting their spherical geometry, while an angle of 5° is sufficient to allow the
bubbles to be near the front of the device and thus, can be studied without major effects on its
geometry. Lastly, a 15° tilt is recommended, which enables to fulfill the main objective of
bringing the bubbles closer to the front section of the device and thus, reducing bubble swarms
within the viewing chamber.
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

Design of the Device
The design of the equipment was based on the technique of McGill University and the
improvements in the design seek to optimize the operation of the device, allowing later
adaptation for an online operation. This sensor was patented in Chile and Perú [38] and
licensed to startup.
The device has a Canon EOS 500D camera (sensor 15.1 million effective pixels, image sizes 4752
× 3168, image processor DIGIC 4, Sensitivity ISO 200, Shutter speed 1/2000 [s] and focal
distance 5 [cm]).
Viewing Chamber Design:

The minimum volume of the viewing chamber will be given by the maximum amount of
incoming air, the speed with which it enters and the required time to obtain the photographs
for data analysis.
• Surface gas velocity in flotation machines: Jg = 2 [cm/s]
• Sampling tube diameter: 2.54 [cm]
• Sampling tube: A = π * (2.54/2) 2 = 5.07 [cm2]
• Maximum incoming air flow: Jg * A = 10.14 [cm3/s]
• Number of photographs = 100, → 1 photo x [s]
Necessary volume, over the focal area, to obtain at least 100 photographs = 10.14 [cm3/s] * 100
[s] = 1014 [cm3]
Additionally, a volume correction factor was considered due to the expansion of the incoming
air, approximately 20%. According to this, the volume over the focal area is = 1014 x 1.2 [cm3]
= 1217 [cm3].
In relation to the above and considering a 6 × 5 [cm] image, the following interior
measurements were chosen to complete the necessary volume: Height = 20 [cm], Width = 12
[cm] and depth = 11 [cm], as seen in Figure 1.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14527. 647

Figure 1. Viewing Chamber Design. Note: The angle used in the viewing chamber is given by the
research carried out.
The system is completed with a metal support, with an inclination of 15° that supports the
viewing Chamber, the rear lighting system and the image capturing camera, allowing the device
to be moved and handled in a simple way in flotation cells. The Figure 2 shown, the installation
of device in flotation cell and the conventional injector bubbler type.
Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of Installation the Device in Flotation Cell.
Device Protections:
The exterior changes were made to preserve the device against any environmental conditions
that could undermine the device:

• To protect the viewing chamber from the heat emitted by light, a heat diffusing glass is
placed between the lighting system and the viewing chamber.
• To protect the viewing chamber from external light, the side windows of the chamber
are covered with PVC sheets.
• To protect the viewing chamber from possible scratches, cork sheets are inserted
between the support and the chamber.
• Since the chamber is sealed, a viewing window cleaning system composed of magnets
has been implemented.
Image Capture Improvements:

A digital camera was chosen due to the low resolution of the frames obtained by a video camera.
This allows obtaining images with intervals of 1 [s] and a resolution greater than 3.2 megapixels
to obtain an approximate pixel size of 0.03 [mm]. This is a relevant aspect to consider when
improving the device because the sampling area (6 × 5 [cm]) and the resolution of the camera
(2048 × 1536) allows identifying larger bubbles (20 [mm]) and small bubbles (0.2). This makes
possible the characterization of bimodal distributions if the size range of the bubbles is very
wide. The spatial resolution 29,3 [µm/px] in horizontal and 32,6 [µm/px] in vertical direction
was used.
Operating Procedure
To keep the chamber sealed, the bottom valve of the sampling tube must be closed, allowing
the tube to be immersed in the flotation cell. The viewing chamber must be filled with clear
liquid by opening the top fill and vacuum valves. Once it is full, it must be completely sealed by
closing the top valves.
Additionally, the device must be located on the flotation machine so that the sampling tube is
approximately 50 cm below the surface.
Once the device is disposed, the digital camera settings must be as follows:
• Shutter speed between 1/1000 [s] and 1/2000 [s]
• Continuous shooting
• Focus to obtain a sharp image of a maximum of 6x5 [cm2].
To determine the magnification factor of the image, a first image must be obtained with a
transparent ruler located in the focal plane. Then, remove the ruler and open the valve of the
sampling tube to allow the entry of the bubbles, obtaining images once the entry of the bubbles
into the chamber is stable.
To avoid coalescence in the device, it is possible to add froth agent in the viewing chamber,
maintaining the concentration of the solution.
Description of the Implemented Software for Bubble Size Distribution Measurement

The obtained images are digitized and analyzed using computational routines implemented in
Matlab (Image Analysis Toolbox). The analysis consists of a sequence of matrix operations (an
image is a matrix containing an intensity level for each pixel) in which isolated regions can be

characterized by geometric parameters. Triple selection criteria (bubble size range, bubble
curvature or shape factor range and background level intensity) was used. For example,
selecting isolated circular objects from an image as shown in Figure 3 (b); local threshold +
isolated bubbles in Figure 3 (c) and watershed local threshold + isolated bubbles in Figure 3
(d).
Figure 3. Segmentation of an Image Containing Bubbles (accepted bubbles).
The accepted bubbles are shown in Figure 4 (a), where an equivalent diameter is calculated for
each bubble. The results of these diameters are classified in size ranges and their frequency of
distribution is plotted in a histogram, Figure 4 (b).
Figure 4. Size Distribution Histogram for Accepted Bubbles.
The image analysis system is based on a triple selection criterion (bubble size range, bubble
curvature or shape factor range and background level intensity) adjusted by the specialist. This
allows the identification of individual and spherical bubbles from the image, while excluding
the remaining objects.
The exposed problems show that image analysis can be a difficult technique to implement in
bubble size measurement. To address some of these difficulties, an improvement in the image
analysis technique has been developed, which incorporates an algorithm to compensate for the

unevenness in the backlight (bubble contour boundary detection) and an algorithm to separate
and analyze cluster bubbles (Watershed).
The new criteria include de convex area over object area, which allows better discrimination of
cluster and single irregular shape bubbles than shape factor (this is the most important
contribution). For example, the shape factor cannot discriminate between cluster and single
irregular bubbles in the next real bubbles and constructed objects, Figure 5. However, if the
convex area-over-area criterion is applied, single irregular bubbles are identified, and the
remaining objects are discriminated.
Figure 5. The shape factor (SF).
The shape factor (SF) is a parameter commonly used to discriminate a single ellipsoidal object
from a cluster. This parameter, which is a measure of the circularity of an object, is defined as
P2
SF = Ec.1
4 A
Where A and P are the segment's area and perimeter (bubble), a shape factor of one indicates
a circle. As the value approaches zero, it indicates an increasingly elongated polygon.
Operation Data for Experimental Evaluation

The analyzed images were obtained by conducting tests on a flotation cell (1 [m3] volume)
combining the different operating conditions for three micropore sizes (5, 10 and 100 [µm] of
a conventional injector bubbler type, three speeds of gas flow (Jg = 0.5, 0.75 and 1 [cm/s]) and
three different concentrations of the same froth agent (5, 10 and 15 [ppm]). Additionally, tests
were carried out for a BAHR injector (nominal micropore size = 10 [µm]), where only the gas
flow rate was varied, keeping the froth concentration constant (10 [ppm]). A total of 3073
images were analyzed.

Photo frame data (an average of 100 images per test, 11750 bubbles)
• Image size: 1131×1491 [pixels].
• Frame height = 50 [mm].
• Approximate ratio: 30 [pixels/mm]
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Comparisons of Distributions with Variation of Air Flow and Froth Concentration
The data processed by the software® generate graphs such as those presented in Figures 6 to
8, obtained from the spreadsheets created with statistical results. These were selected to show
the variation in the bubble size distribution given by the micropore size used:
Figure 6. Bubble Size Distribution, Micropore Size 100 [µm].
Figure 6 shows the behavior of the bubble size distribution as a function of superficial gas
velocity for a micropore of 100 [µm] and a frother concentration of 10 [ppm]. D32 and D10
increase with higher Jg.

increase with higher Jg. A higher frequency of smaller bubbles can be seen than in Figure
8.

increase with higher Jg. A higher frequency of smaller bubbles can be seen than in Figure 8
and Figure 9.
Comparisons of D32 for Same Froth Concentration and Different Micropore Sizes
Figure 9 allows establishing a relationship between the size of the bubbles and the variation in
the superficial gas velocity in tests with different micropore sizes.

Figure 9. Relationship between D32 and Jg, in the Variation of Micropore Size.
1
The Sauter mean diameter varies like D32 ⁄4 as a function of Jg [4] if the whole surface is
saturated with bubbles, but in the case, on larger spargers, there is little effect (reduced
coalescence).
Comparisons of D32 and D10 for the Same Froth Concentration and Different Gas Surface
Velocity
Figure 10 allows relating the variation in the size of the bubbles with the variation in the
micropore size for tests with different superficial gas velocity.
Figure 10. Relationship between D32 and Micropore, Jg Variation.
Figure 11 shows how D32 increases when a larger micropore size is used and also increases
when the superficial gas flow is greater.
Comparisons of D32 for Different Froth Concentrations

Figures 11 and 12 allow establishing a relationship of the size of the bubbles (D32) as a function
of the concentration of froth agent used. Varying superficial gas velocity and micropore size.

Figure 11. Relationship between D32 and Froth Concentration, Variation of Jg.
Figure 12. Relationship between D32 and Froth Concentration, Micropore Size Variation.
Figure 11 and Figure 12 shows how D32 decreases when a higher frother concentration is
used at different superficial gas velocity and micropore size.
Technique Validation
Selection of Tests for Validation:
The ratio of the minor over the major axis obtained by the software, allows to determine the
relation or aspect ratio in the size of the bubbles. This allows obtaining a criterion to choose
tests for validation. According to this criterion, two types of sample were studied: (A) small and
spherical bubbles (1 mm) and another sample (B) of large and irregular shaped bubbles (3
mm).
A – 10 [µm] – 1.0 [cm/s] – 10 [ppm].
B – 100 [µm] – 1.0 [cm/s] – 10 [ppm].
In both tests, about 90% of the objects or bubbles detected have an Aspect Ratio greater than
0.8 and less than 1.

Software Validation:
The validation of the technique was carried out by processing the images by the same software
in which, manually, known color values were highlighted and assigned to the uncounted
bubbles during the automatic processing.
The bubbles not automatically recognized were highlighted with numbered colors according to
the RGB color model in Microsoft Power Point, differentiating those that were not counted due
to being in a swarm or if they were not recognized by the software when isolated. It is shown
that the images in the left column correspond to the ones automatically analyzed by the
software, while the images in the right column are presented with bubbles not detected
automatically marked with the respective color, according to the proposed criteria and
highlighted with a red circle.
The results obtained for the validation by processing the modified images according to the
explained criteria, are reflected in accumulated distributions in Figures 13 and 14:
Figure 13. Accumulated Distribution, Test 10 [µm] – 1 [cm] – 10 [ppm].
Total bubbles detected automatically: 3373.

Bubbles detected manually (swarms): 1363.
Total bubbles detected manually: 1557.
Figure 14. Accumulated Distribution, Test 100 [µm] – 1 [cm] – 10 [ppm].

Total bubbles detected automatically: 1699.

Bubbles detected manually (swarms): 674.
Total bubbles detected manually: 832.
Discussion of the Results Obtained

Experimental Evidence:
The graphs shown in Figure 5 to 6 allow to evaluate the influence of the different conditions on
the bubble size distribution. For example, in Figure 4, it is visualized that bimodal distributions
occur in a micropore size of 100 [µm]. This means that the size range of the bubbles is wide,
while for smaller micropore sizes (Figure 5 and 6) the range is smaller, showing uniformity in
the size of the bubbles. Furthermore, Figures 7 to 10 allow us to compare and relate the
influence of the different variables with the size of the bubbles, allowing the possibility to
establish the correlation between each of the conditions imposed on the operation and the size
of the bubbles.
Regarding the Shape Distribution for Validation:

The populations of bubbles analyzed show uniform sizes in both tests. Nevertheless, the aspect
ratio in test A shows a greater number of spherical bubbles, with a ratio between minor and
major axis (aspect ratio) close to 1 and, in test B, a greater number of ellipsoidal bubbles with
an aspect ratio less than 1.
Accumulated Bubble Size Distribution in Validation:

For the 10 [µm] – 1 [cm] – 10 [ppm] test:
The results obtained from accumulated frequency reveal that the exclusion of bubbles produces
a bias or deviation of 0.12 [mm].
The data obtained show a variation, in the D10 and D32 statistics, of 5.5% and 4.4%
respectively.
For the 100 [µm] – 1 [cm] – 10 [ppm] test:

It is observed, in the accumulated frequency, that the exclusion of bubbles produces a bias of
0.10 [mm].
The data obtained show a variation, in the D10 and D32 statistics, of 3.6% and 1.3%
respectively.
In this way, the error obtained in the accumulated frequency, between the automatic analysis
and the manual analysis performed for the validation, is not very significant (close to 0.1 mm)
considering that of the total of the analyzed bubbles, the 70% was detected automatically in
both operating conditions the remaining 30% is not significant for the analysis. This can help
reduce the number of images captured. Likewise, the error obtained for the statistics reached
is negligible due to the uniformity in bubble sizes and aspect ratio, for which about 90% of the
counted bubbles show a value close to 1.
The total of bubbles counted manually, for both tests, reveals that more than 80% correspond
to bubbles in swarms and about 20% correspond to unrecognized isolated bubbles.

Nevertheless, due to the large number of items counted automatically (about to 70% in both
cases), it does not have a great impact on the determination of the bubble size distribution.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE REMARKS

A device for sampling bubbles in flotation machines was built and validated, which is suitable
for industrial level work. The manufacture of the device with lightweight materials such as
plexiglass and PVC allows a simple transfer and makes the equipment safe, robust, and modular.
However, it was not possible to validate the online operation of the device due to the lack of
instrumentation for automation. If automation is achieved, the device shows a high potential to
be incorporated into any control system in flotation processes.
The image processing software was validated, considering that the results obtained through
the exposed criteria present little significant deviations when determining the Bubble Size
Distribution. Therefore, the incorporation of the software to the device solves the problems
exposed regarding the analysis of the images by granting automatic data processing.
The importance in the diagnosis and control of the Bubble Size Distribution parameter, to
improve the recovery of concentrated material in flotation systems, shows a great potential for
the market and for the device.
It is suggested to perform some work at an industrial level with the device. This would affirm
that its main characteristics make it suitable for this type of work. In addition, this would allow
the development of a sampling procedure for the determination of bubble size distribution in
industrial flotation machines.
It is proposed for future work to fully automate the device through the implementation of
automatic valves, corrections in the rear lighting system and improvements in the capture and
quality images. This would allow to have an online sensor that allows taking adequate criteria
to optimize performance in industrial flotation machines.
Author Contributions:
All authors. conceived, designed, and performed the experiments; all the authors analyzed the
data; C.A.L. wrote the paper.
Funding:
This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments:
The authors wish to acknowledge the support provided by Universidad Católica del Norte and
to the student José Borjas and David Díaz his contributions.
Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Data Availability:
All raw data remains the property of the University that allowed this study. The input data used
to support the endings of this study could be available from the correspondent author’s email
with appropriate justification.
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European Journal of Applied Sciences – Vol. 11, No.

Applied Online Bubble Size Distribution Measurement in a Pilot

Keywords: Bubbles, Flotation; Image Analysis

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Because of these reasons, a compact continuous measurement device is designed and

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 646

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

Viewing Chamber Design:

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14527. 647

Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of Installation the Device in Flotation Cell.

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 648

Image Capture Improvements:

Description of the Implemented Software for Bubble Size Distribution Measurement

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14527. 649

Figure 3. Segmentation of an Image Containing Bubbles (accepted bubbles).

Figure 4. Size Distribution Histogram for Accepted Bubbles.

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 650

Figure 5. The shape factor (SF).

Operation Data for Experimental Evaluation

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14527. 651

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figure 6. Bubble Size Distribution, Micropore Size 100 [µm].

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 652

Figure 7. Bubble Size Distribution, Micropore Size 10 [µm].

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14527. 653

Figure 8. Bubble Size Distribution, Micropore Size 5 [µm].

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 654

Figure 10. Relationship between D32 and Micropore, Jg Variation.

Comparisons of D32 for Different Froth Concentrations

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14527. 655

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 656

Figure 13. Accumulated Distribution, Test 10 [µm] – 1 [cm] – 10 [ppm].

Total bubbles detected automatically: 3373.

Figure 14. Accumulated Distribution, Test 100 [µm] – 1 [cm] – 10 [ppm].

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14527. 657

Total bubbles detected automatically: 1699.

Discussion of the Results Obtained

Regarding the Shape Distribution for Validation:

Accumulated Bubble Size Distribution in Validation:

For the 100 [µm] – 1 [cm] – 10 [ppm] test:

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 658

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE REMARKS

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14527. 659

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 660

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14527. 661

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 662

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