Summarized Geography Notes 3

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SUMMARISED ECZ GEOGRAPHY NOTES FOR EARTH’S
MOVEMENTS, ROCKS, VOLCANOES ETC. (2218) SENIOR
SECONDARY.
ECZ GEOGRAPHY NOTES WITH

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ESKULU ZM 6/12/18
EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES
CONTENTS
3. EARTH’S MOVEMENTS/ROCKS/ VOLCANOES ........................................................................................... 4
EARTH’S ROTATION................................................................................................................................... 4
Revolution of the Earth ............................................................................................................................. 4
Earth’s orbital plane .............................................................................................................................. 5
Overhead sun at the Tropic of Cancer on 21st June each year. ............................................................ 6
Overhead sun at the equator on 21st March and 23rd September. ...................................................... 7
Overhead sun at the Tropic of Capricorn on 22nd December ............................................................... 8
Types of Rocks........................................................................................................................................... 8
Forces Leading to Folding and Faulting..................................................................................................... 9
Plate Tectonics .......................................................................................................................................... 9
PLATE BOUNDARIES ................................................................................................................................ 10
Divergent Plate Boundary ................................................................................................................... 11
Transform Plate Boundary .................................................................................................................. 11
Landforms Resulting from Faulting ......................................................................................................... 12
Landforms Resulting From Faulting – Rift Valleys .................................................................................. 13
Formation by tension; ......................................................................................................................... 13
Formation by Compression ................................................................................................................. 14
Geological Folds ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Types of Folds ......................................................................................................................................... 15
Asymmetrical Fold: ............................................................................................................................. 16
Overfold or Overturned: ..................................................................................................................... 16
Recumbent Fold: ................................................................................................................................. 16
Nappe/Overthrust Fold: ...................................................................................................................... 17
EARTHQUAKES ........................................................................................................................................ 18
Effects of Earthquakes ............................................................................................................................ 18
VULCANICITY ........................................................................................................................................... 19
Extrusive Igneous Features ................................................................................................................. 19
Acid Cones ........................................................................................................................................... 20
Composite Cone .................................................................................................................................. 21
Cinder Cone Volcanoes ....................................................................................................................... 21
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Craters and Calderas ........................................................................................................................... 22

Development and Formation of a Caldera.......................................................................................... 22
Other Forms of Volcanic Activity ............................................................................................................ 23
Intrusive Igneous Features .................................................................................................................. 23
An escarpment formed by a sill .......................................................................................................... 25
Less resistant dyke .............................................................................................................................. 25
Resistant dykes ................................................................................................................................... 26
EFFECTS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES ON THE PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT ............................................. 26
Positive Effects .................................................................................................................................... 26
Negative Effects .................................................................................................................................. 27
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3. EARTH’S MOVEMENTS/ROCKS/ VOLCANOES

EARTH’S ROTATION
The planet Earth moves into two ways. The two movements are rotations and revolutions.
Turning of the Earth on its axis once every 24 hours is called rotation. The Earth rotates from
west to east or counter-clockwise.
The Earth turning around (spinning) causes;

i.) Day and night.
ii.) Differences in time.
iii.) Deflection of winds.
The deflection of wind due to rotation of the Earth is called Corellius force.
In the northern hemisphere, winds are deflected clockwise or to the right while winds in the
southern hemisphere deflect to the left or counter clockwise.
REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH

Revolution is the movement of the Earth on its orbit around the sun once every year. It takes
365 days 5 hours 48 minutes for the earth to complete one revolution. The orbit is the name
given to the circular path used by the earth as it revolves.
Revolution of the earth causes;
i.) Change in seasons.
ii.) Differences in lengths of day and night in different parts of the world.
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Earth’s orbital plane
1
The earth’s orbital plane is at an angle of 662 ° to the earth’s axis.
The earth’s axis always points in the same direction for six months. Both the North Pole and
South Pole are tilted towards the sun for six months at different periods of time in a year.
On 21st March, the sun is directly overhead at the equator. On this day, all places on earth
experience 12 hours of day time and 12 hours of night time. This day is called equinox meaning
equal length of day and night time.
After March, the northern hemisphere will experience overhead sun for six months. The sun
will be vertically overhead at the northern most limit, Tropic of Cancer, 23.5°N on 21st June.
This day is known as summer solstice. All areas in the north will have more hours of day and
fewer hours of night. In the southern hemisphere, hours of night-time will be longer than
daytime. Areas beyond the Arctic Circle, 66.5°N will have almost 24 hours of daylight while it
will be the opposite for areas beyond 66.5°S, Antarctic Circle.
During this period, the northern hemisphere will experience summer while the southern
hemisphere will experience winter.
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Overhead sun at the Tropic of Cancer on 21st June each year.
After June, the northern hemisphere will start tilting away from the overhead sun. By 23 rd
September, the sun will shine directly overhead at the Equator resulting in another equinox.
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Overhead sun at the equator on 21st March and 23rd September.
Night
After 23rd September, the southern hemisphere will now start tilting towards the sun with the
sun being overhead at the southernmost limit, Tropic of Capricorn, 23.5°S on 22nd December.
This day is called winter solstice. During this period, all areas in the south will have more hours
of daytime and shorter nights. The northern hemisphere will have longer nights than day time.
Areas beyond the Antarctic Circle will have almost 24 hours of daytime while areas beyond the
Arctic Circle will experience almost 24 hours of night time. During the same time, the southern
hemisphere will have summer, and winter for the northern hemisphere.
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Overhead sun at the Tropic of Capricorn on 22nd December
TYPES OF ROCKS
The Earth (crust) is composed of rocks both beneath and on the surface. There are three types
of rocks namely; metamorphic, sedimentary and igneous rocks.
Igneous rocks are formed from magma. They can either be intrusive or extrusive. Rocks which
from from cooled magma on the surface of the earth are called extrusive igneous rocks. When
magma forms rocks within the earth’s crust, rocks are called intrusive igneous rocks. Examples
of extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks are; basalt and granite.
Rocks which are formed from weathered or eroded materials and remains of plants and
animals are called sedimentary rocks. The rocks are formed in layers, hence they are also
known as stratified. Examples of sedimentary rocks are; loess, shale and sandstone.
Both igneous and sedimentary rocks can be subjected to heat and pressure changing their
appearance and structure. These types of rocks are called metamorphic rocks e.g shale turns
into slate, limestone into marble and sandstone into quartzite as well as granite into gneiss.
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FORCES LEADING TO FOLDING AND FAULTING
PLATE TECTONICS
Continental crust and oceanic crust float on a layer of semi-molten rock called mantle. Molten
rock in the mantle is also known as magma and can move within the crust or onto the earth’s
surface. Magma that reaches the surface of the earth is confined to zones of weakness in the
crust. These zones of weakness divide the earth into several small and large pieces called
plates. The pieces of plates can either move away from each other or diverge in a process
called drifting. In some other instances plates are pushed together or converge. Movements of
plates has constantly changed their position and size over millions of years in a process called
continental drift.
Fracturing of the crust into plates and their subsequent movements across the earth is referred
to as plate tectonics.
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PLATE BOUNDARIES
During the continental drift, plates move in all directions at different speeds in relation to each
other. During these movements, plates crash into each other, pull apart or sideswipe each
other. The place where two plates meet is called a plate boundary. Plate boundaries have
different names depending on their movement in relationship to each other.
Convergent or Destructive Plate Boundary

These are plates that crash into each other. The crash involves continental and oceanic plates
or oceanic plates collide into each other. Where continental plates collide into each other, the
plate boundary is also known as Collision Plate Boundary.
When continental and oceanic plates collide, the thinner and denser oceanic plate is overridden
by the thicker less dense continental plate. The oceanic plate is forced down into the mantle.
The place where one plate is forced beneath another is called subduction zone. As the oceanic
plate descends, it is forced into a higher temperature environment where materials begin to
melt.
This process of melting produces magma chambers above the subducting oceanic plate. If
magma rises to the surface without solidifying, it will break through in form of a volcanic
eruption.
The Andes Mountain Range of western South America is an example of the effects of a
convergent plate boundary between a continental and an oceanic plate. Here the Nazca Plate
which is oceanic is subducting the South American Plate which is continental. Mountains
formed in this way are known as Fold Mountains.
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Divergent Plate Boundary

This is a plate boundary where plates move in opposite directions; away from each other. This
plate boundary is also known as constructive or tensional. This type of movement mostly
happens under oceans.
As plates move apart, the blocks in between the faults crack and drop into the soft interior of
the upper mantle called athenosphere. The sinking of the blocks forms a central valley called
rift. The gaps or cracks created are filled by magma rising from the mantle below. The rising
magma creates volcanoes which if they become high enough form volcanic islands such as
Hawaii and Iceland.
The edges of the plates also buckle to form ridges like the Mid-Atlantic ridge. In this way, new
crust is formed along the faults hence the name Constructive Plate Boundary.
Transform Plate Boundary

This plate boundary is also known as passive or conservative plate boundary. At this plate
boundary plates grind or sideswipe or slide past each other.
As this happens, pressure builds up along the fault until one plate jerks past the other causing
an earthquake.
The movement also results inland becoming ridged and crumpled e.g the San Andreas Fault in
California, U.S.A. This fault is about 1300km long in places ten kilometres wide. It forms a
tectonic plate boundary between the Pacific and North American Plate.
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LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM FAULTING

Faulting is the cracking or fracturing of rocks in the earth crust along lines or areas of weakness.
It is caused by forces of tension, compression and shear resulting in vertical and horizontal
earth movements.
Tension forces cause the movement of land masses away from one another resulting into
faults. Compression forces cause movement of land masses towards one another. Shear forces
cause movement of landmasses alongside one another, in opposite directions usually along a
crack or line of weakness.
Landforms resulting from faulting include, fault scarps, block or Horst Mountains and rift
valleys.
A fault scarp is a steep slope formed by vertical movement of the earth along a fault. A fault
scarp usually forms escarpments (although not all fault scarps are escarpments.)
Another landform resulting from faulting is a block mountain. A block mountain is bordered by
fault scarps on both sides. It can be formed either by:
i.) A block of land between two faults being uplifted due to compressional forces or
ii.) Land on either side of a central block sinking as a result of tensional forces.
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LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM FAULTING – RIFT VALLEYS
Formation by tension;
Lines of weakness form when layers of rocks are subjected to tensional forces which leads to
development of a normal fault. Eventually, the central block sinks as the side blocks are pulled
apart.
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Formation by Compression
GEOLOGICAL FOLDS
A geological fold occurs when land surfaces or rocks deform in such a way that they curve
instead of breaking. Folds come from pressure on rocks that occur over a long period of time.
The bends or curves (folds) that form are of different shapes and sizes which are determined by
amount of pressure applied.
Types of Folds: Folds are created in rocks when they experience compressional stress. This is
when the rock is being pushed inward from both sides. There are different types of folds
created by compressional stress depending on which way they bend, curve and/or dip.
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The layers of rock which bend upwards (as both sides of the rock are pushed inward) form an
upfold or anticline.
Rocks that sink down on both sides are pushed inwards form downfold or syncline.
The line of the highest point along the anticline from the crest of the anticline.
The sides of a fold are called limbs.
TYPES OF FOLDS
Simple Fold: It has two limbs which are uniform or identical in steepness. They are formed
when compressional forces of equal strength work from either side of the rocks.
A simple fold is also known as symmetric fold.
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Asymmetrical Fold:
This type of a fold has a steep slope on one side and a gentle slope on the other.
Overfold or Overturned:
This is also an asymmetric fold but in this type of fold, one limb is completely pushed over or
overturned by compressional forces (one limb lies over the other).
Recumbent Fold:
This is a type of an overfold which has been forced into a near horizontal position after strong
compressional forces are exerted on one side while the other side experiences weak
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compressional forces. This pushes the overfold forcing the axis to be in a near horizontal
position.
Nappe/Overthrust Fold:
It is formed when intense pressure exerted by compressional forces exceeds the rock’s elastic
limit resulting in the formation of a fault line or thrust plane. The upper limb fractures and is
pushed over the lower limb along the fault line resulting into a horizontal displacement.
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EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are ground movements caused by shaking or trembling of rocks of the surface of
the earth which result in sudden shocks. There are various causes of earthquakes; some are
natural causes while others are human causes.
Examples of natural causes are;
i.) Tectonic plate movements when plates slide past each other at fault lines.
ii.) Vulcanicity due to magma movement and accompanying violent volcanic eruptions. These
explosions shake and shutter rocks.
iii.) Isostatic adjustments of the earth crust due to changing problems.
iv.) Gravitative pressure.
v.) Energy release from the core.
Examples of human causes of earthquakes include;

i.) Undersea nuclear testing trigger off immense vibrations.
ii.) Movements of trains generate vibrations.
iii.) Use of explosions during quarrying or mining.
iv.) Construction of large storage reservoirs e.g Lake Kariba.
The point of origin of an earthquake in the crust is called seismic waves or focus. The point
directly above the focus of the earth’s surface where shock waves are first experienced is the
epicentre.
Occurrence of earthquakes in the crust is detected by an instrument known as seismograph.

The power or strength of an earthquake is measured by a Richter scale which ranges from 0 to
9.
The strength or power released by an earthquake is referred to as magnitude.
Intensity of an earthquake refers to its effects after it has occurred. Intensity varies from place
to place.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
1. An earthquake can cause injury and loss of life as well as property damage to buildings,
roads and bridges.
2. Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, and coastal wave attack can
produce slope instability leading to landslides.
3. Earthquakes can cause fires when electrical power lines are damaged.
4. Soil can be liquefied by earthquakes. Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the ground
shaking, water saturated granular material (sand) temporary loses strength and transform
from solid to liquid.
5. Earthquakes give rise to giant waves known as tsunamis. These waves are insignificant in
the deep sea but are extremely dangerous to coastal towns and settlements.
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6. Earthquakes can either raise or lower the sea level. If the former happens, it can lead to
flooding. Equally, earthquakes can cause landslips to dams which collapse and cause floods.
7. Development of towns in seismic zones should be restricted especially tall buildings.
8. Earthquakes result in permanent displacement of people.
9. The after-shocks which are small tremors that follow a major tend to further weaken
structure already weakened by major earthquakes.
VULCANICITY
Vulcanicity refers to all processes by which solids, liquids, molten rock, smoke, pumice and
gaseous materials are forced into the earth crust or ejected onto the surface.
Magma is molten rock originating from the interior of the earth while lava is molten rock which
has been ejected onto the earth’s surface. Lava has similar characteristics as magma apart from
texture.
The upwelling of magma can result in formation of various features both in the crust and on the
earth’s surface. Features that form when magma cools and solidifies within the crust are called
intrusive igneous features.
Extrusive igneous features form when magma is ejected onto the earth’s surface. Magma
reaches the surface of the earth through vents, pipes, fissures and faults.
Volcanoes are among features which form when molten rock reaches the surface of the earth.
A volcano is a cone shaped hill that forms as a result of piling up of lava and other molten
materials (pyroclastic flow).
Volcanoes are classified into;

i.) Active volcanoes which show recent volcanic activity and could have erupted in the recent
past.
ii.) Dormant volcanoes which are not active but show signs of volcanic activity e.g Mount
Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.
iii.) Extinct volcanoes which have not shown any signs of volcanic activity in historic times e.g
Mount Elgon and Mount Kenya.
Extrusive Igneous Features
Volcanic cones are the most typical of the extrusive features. Volcanoes are found along two
plate boundaries namely destructive and constructive plate boundaries. The basic shape of a
volcano is similar, however there are many factors which influence how a volcano is built. By
large, the composition of lava determines the shape of the final volcano. Volcanoes can either
be basic or acid lavas.
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Basic lavas are highly fluid lava of about 1000℃. They are dark coloured like basalt, rich in iron
and magnesium but poor in silica. Basic lava eruptions are non-violent. The lava is thin and
runny which means that it can travel a long way before cooling and solidifying. The volcanic
cone that is built is wide based with gentle slopes. It is called a shield cone.
Acid Cones
Acid cones are common along destructive plate boundaries. The volcano is thick (viscous), light
coloured with a high content of silica. Acid lava flows slowly and does not cover extensive areas
before solidifying. This type of a volcano forms a volcanic cone which is steep-sided. The cone
formed is called acid lava or stratovolcano.
The rapid cooling of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of lava resulting into loud explosions
throwing out many bombs or pyroclasts (a mixture of hot steam, ash, rock and dust). The high
content of silica also contributes to acid lavas being explosive.
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Composite Cone
This type of a volcanic cone is made up of layers of alternating lava flow, ash and blocks of
unmelted stone. The cone is high with a narrow base, it is also steep-sided.
Lava may cool inside the vent blocking the passage. The lava that cools forms a spin or plug.
This makes the next eruption to be explosive to remove the plug. Subsidiary cones and vents
may form as well on the sides.
Cinder Cone Volcanoes

These are symmetrical cone shaped volcanoes. They may occur as single volcanoes or
secondary volcanoes on the sides of shield or strato-volcanoes. Airborne fragments called
tephra are ejected from a single vent. Cinder cones are fairly small with a conical shape with
steeply sided angles.
Fragments from cinder cone eruptions seem to sparkle and glow, they make beautiful and
dramatic displays during eruptions.
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Craters and Calderas

A volcanic crater is a circular depression in the ground caused by volcanic activity. It represents
the upper end of a vent.
A crater may develop in two ways;

a) When a volcano collapses into a void left when its magma chamber is emptied.
b) When volcanic explosions occur at the top of the vent blowing it.
A caldera is an enlarged crater and can form in different ways including;

a) When subsequent eruptions in the crater blow off its top or head resulting in an enlarged
basin or depression.
b) The collapse or subsidence of the volcanic summit can cause a large basin-shaped hollow
surrounded by steep cliffs.
c) By outward collapsing. This occurs when a volcano built of ash and other pyroclasts grow
very high such that the top starts to exert pressure on the bottom which eventually gives in,
thus the upper parts sink.
A caldera may be filled with water to form a caldera lake. Water can come from rains,
underground water and/or melting ice.
Development and Formation of a Caldera
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OTHER FORMS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

Hot springs, geysers and fumaroles are generally found in areas of young volcanic activity.
Hot springs occur in many thermal areas were the surface of the earth intersects the water
table.
Hot springs discharge hot water which comes in contact with heat supplied at a depth.
A geyser is a feature on the Earth’s surface where ground water beneath the shallow surface is
heated up until it explodes into boiling water and steam.
Fumaroles are subsidiary vents which emit mixtures of steam and other gases. They are fed by
conduits that pass through the water table before reaching the surface.
Hydrogen sulphide ensuing from fumaroles oxidizes to sulphuric acid and native sulphur. This
explains the reason why there are many brightly coloured rocks in thermal areas.
Lava Plateaus form when there are successive volcanic eruptions. The spilling volcanoes form
high successive layers of lava.
Intrusive Igneous Features
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A large scale intrusion of magma deep underground, usually at the root or core of major
volcanic mountains is known as batholith.
A large scale saucer shaped intrusion of igneous rock lying concordant with strata forming a
shallow basin is called a lopolith.
A dyke is a mass of igneous intrusion rocks which cut across the bedding plane.
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The intrusion of magma between rock strata along bedding planes is called sill. A sill may form a
ridge when exposed to the surface through erosion. A waterfall may develop where a river
crosses a sill.
An intrusive mass of magma which has been forced up to form a dome shape closer to the
earth’s surface is called a lacccolith.
A less resistant dyke forms a depression.
An escarpment formed by a sill
Less resistant dyke
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Resistant dykes
EFFECTS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES ON THE PEOPLE AND

ENVIRONMENT
Positive Effects
1. Some ash and lava breakdown to become soils that are rich in nutrients and become good
areas for crop growing.
2. Different types of volcanic eruptions provide extra ordinary scenery, so beautiful and
natural that they attract tourists to the area bringing in some economic value.
3. Places close to volcanic activities tend to have potential for the production of geothermal
power.
4. Intrusive igneous landforms are important sites for precious minerals and rocks such as
copper, diamonds and gold.
5. Volcanic rocks such as in inselbergs are important sources of construction materials such as
stones, gravel and ballast.
6. Volcanic mountains are catchment areas (sources of rivers and springs).
7. Volcanic mountains have dense forests and form habitats from various forms of life.
8. Hot springs and geysers are important tourist attractions.
9. Hot underground volcanic materials can be used to provide hot water systems in human
settlements especially in cold areas e.g Iceland.
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10. Hot springs are used by some people as spas (a place with natural supply of mineral water
where people go because water is considered to improve health).
11. Crater lakes provide water for domestic use.
12. Fishing is carried out in crater lakes.
13. Carbon (iv) oxide which is produced from magma is used in the bottling industries and is
also a cooling agent in solid form as ice.
Negative Effects
1. Volcanic eruptions maybe violent that they can cause great damage to property and loss of
life.
2. Some volcanic eruptions produce harmful gases such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen. These gases can pose greatest hazard close to the vent, (can be dangerous to
people with respiratory problems but dissipate with distance.
3. Leewards of volcanic mountains are rain shadow areas hence they are dry.
4. Steep slopes produced by vulcanicity discourage settlements and are barriers to
construction of transport and communication infrastructure.
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ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

ECZ GEOGRAPHY NOTES WITH

Craters and Calderas ........................................................................................................................... 22

3. EARTH’S MOVEMENTS/ROCKS/ VOLCANOES

The Earth turning around (spinning) causes;

REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH

Earth’s orbital plane

Overhead sun at the Tropic of Cancer on 21st June each year.

Overhead sun at the equator on 21st March and 23rd September.

Overhead sun at the Tropic of Capricorn on 22nd December

FORCES LEADING TO FOLDING AND FAULTING

Convergent or Destructive Plate Boundary

Divergent Plate Boundary

Transform Plate Boundary

LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM FAULTING

LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM FAULTING – RIFT VALLEYS

Examples of human causes of earthquakes include;

Occurrence of earthquakes in the crust is detected by an instrument known as seismograph.

The strength or power released by an earthquake is referred to as magnitude.

Volcanoes are classified into;

Extrusive Igneous Features

Cinder Cone Volcanoes

Craters and Calderas

A crater may develop in two ways;

A caldera is an enlarged crater and can form in different ways including;

Development and Formation of a Caldera

OTHER FORMS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

Intrusive Igneous Features

A less resistant dyke forms a depression.

An escarpment formed by a sill

Less resistant dyke

EFFECTS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES ON THE PEOPLE AND

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