BIO

INVESTIGATION AND EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS IN BIOLOGY

RECORDING IN A TABLE
The table must;
1. be closed
2. have column headings
3. have appropriate units for the column headings
4. have complete data
5. data to the correct precision/accuracy
6. expected pattern of the results

RULES FOR BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS

1. Drawing lines; must be smooth, clean and clear ( NO SHADING in biological drawing)
2. Drawing size; must cover at least half of the drawing space
3. Labeling lines;
• should touch the part they are labeling
• should not cross each other
4. Biological Drawing should be realistic
5. Features shown in the Biological drawing should be proportional to those of the specimen
 Thick part, walls or covering (eg; testa, midrib, fruit wall) are drawn as double lines
6. A Biological Diagram/drawing always have magnification;

• Magnification always expressed as X ... (eg; X3, 2.5, etc...)

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 THE HIERACHY OF ORGANISATION AND FUNCTION IN LIVING THINGS
The cell theory

The theory states that

1. The cell is the basic unit of life

2. All living organisms are made of cells: they may be unicellular or multicellular

3. New cells arise from pre-existing cells

Similar cells make up tissues which work together to form organs. Organs working together form systems. Systems make up an
organism.

Unit Definition Examples in plants Examples in animals

cell __________ of living organisms

tissue _______ cells working together to perform
a ___________ function
organ A group of _______ working together to
perform a particular function
System A group of organs working towards a
common goal
organism An entity that is able to reproduce and live
independently of others

ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL

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PART FUNCTION
Cell membrane
cytoplasm 
nucleus 
Mitochondrion
ribosome
chloroplasts
Cell wall 
vacuole 

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 SPECIALISED CELLS

These types of cells perform specific functions only. They have,

 distinctive features which make them more adapted to performing their functions

 have peculiar chemical reactions taking place in their cytoplasm

SPECIALISED ANIMAL CELLS

Specialized cell Function Adaptation Advantages of the adaptation

- Contains haemoglobin Haemoglobin binds oxygen
Red blood cell Transports oxygen around forming oxyhaemoglobin
the body
- Biconcave shaped Increases surface area for
diffusion of oxygen

- Has no nucleus Increases volume for carrying

haemoglobin and oxygen

- Spongy cytoplasm Allows cell to change shape

and squeeze through narrow
capillaries

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Motor nerve cell Conducts electrical - Has myelin sheath Insulates the cell against loss
impulses from the spinal of electrical impulses
cord to effectors
- It is elongated To carry impulses rapidly
across the body

- Cytoplasm To pick impulses from a large

branches into number of neighboring cells
numerous
filaments called
dendrites

SPECIALISED PLANT CELLS

Root hair cell Absorbs water and - Has an elongation Increases surface area for
mineral salts from (root hair) absorption;
the soil  Water by osmosis
 Mineral salts by
active transport

Xylem cell - Transports - No cytoplasm Creates free passage of water

water and
mineral - No end walls Many cells join to form a
salts up the continuous tube
plant
- Has pits (narrow Allow water and ions to leave
areas of the cell wall) the xylem cell to other cells

- Lignified cell walls Water proofs the cells

Supports the plant
- Supports
the plant

Phloem cell  Transports  End plates are Allows passage of dissolved

dissolved perforated organic materials
organic
materials

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 up and To release energy for active
down the  Mitochondria in a transportation of dissolved
plant reduced cytoplasm organic substances

MODES OF PARTICLE TRANSPORT IN CELLS

1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT

This is a non-energy consuming processes in which substances are transferred down their concentration gradient. Osmosis and
diffusion are examples of passive transport.

a) DIFFUSION

This is movement of molecules from a region where they are at higher concentration to a region where they are at lower
concentration, down a concentration gradient.

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion.

i) Temperature

High temperature increase the average kinetic energy of molecules. Molecules collide with one another more often and the
distance between them increases, thereby increasing the rate of diffusion. The higher the temperature the faster the rate of
diffusion.

ii) Particle size

Heavy molecules diffuse much slowly than light ones. The heavier the particles the slower the rate of diffusion.

iii) Concentration gradient

Where molecules are at their high concentration they collide with each other more often, spaces between them increase very
quickly as they move into the area of their least concentration. The steeper the gradient the faster the rate of diffusion.

b) OSMOSIS

This is movement of water molecules from a region where they are at higher concentration to a region where they are at lower
concentration through a selectively permeable membrane. Osmosis is a special type of diffusion involving transfer of water
molecules.

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 2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT

This is an energy consuming process in which substances are transported against their concentration gradient. The particles are
transported across the membrane using energy by action of carrier proteins which are embedded in the cytoplasm.

Distinguishing between active transport, diffusion and osmosis

ACTIVE TRANSPORT PASSIVE TRANSPORT

DIFFUSION OSMOSIS

Does it use up energy yes no no

Are carrier proteins used yes no no

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 Are molecules moved down or against a against down down
concentration gradient

OSMOSIS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT IN ROOT HAIR CELLS

 Water is transported from a region higher water concentration in the soil into the root hair cell where it is at a lower
concentration by osmosis. The steeper the gradient the faster the rate of osmosis.
 Mineral ions (salts) are transported from a region of lower ion concentration in the soil to a region of higher ion
concentration inside the root hair cell by active transport.

THE EFFECT OF OSMOSIS IN PLANT CELLS

1. Turgid cells

 If a plant cell is placed in a solution of higher water concentration than its contents,
 Water moves into the cell (sap vacuole) by osmosis
 Pressure inside the cell increases and cell becomes firm
 Cell membrane pushes against the cell wall and cell becomes turgid

2. Flaccid cells

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  If a plant cell is placed in a solution of lower water potential than its contents,
 Water moves out of the cell (sap vacuole) by osmosis
 Pressure inside the cell decreases and cell becomes flaccid
 Cell membrane is pulled away from the cell wall and cell becomes plasmolysed

The concentrated solution would pass through the cell wall, which is freely permeable, to occupy space X but will be stopped by
the cell membrane which is partially permeable

Plasmolysis

This is when the cell surface membrane becomes detached (pulled away) from the cell wall as turgor pressure inside the cell
vacuole decreased due to osmosis out of the cell.

Wilting

When plant leaves lose water excessively due to transpiration the plant cells become flaccid and plasmolysed, and the whole
plant wilts.

EFFECT OF OSMOSIS IN ANIMAL CELLS

1. Bursting

 If an animal cell is placed in a solution of higher water potential than its contents,
 Water moves into the cell by osmosis
 Pressure inside the cell increases
 Cell bursts as it does not have a cell wall to give it mechanical support

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2. Shrinking cells

 If an animal cell is placed in a solution of lower water potential than its contents,
 Water moves out of the cell by osmosis
 Pressure inside the decreases
 Cell shrinks (becomes crenated)

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NUTRITION

Modes of nutrition

1) autotrophic nutrition

This is a mode of nutrition in which organisms (autotrophs) build up all organic molecules they need from simple inorganic
chemicals. Autotrophs may either be photo-autotrophs or chemo-autotophs.

 Photo-autotrophs (holozyphytic)
These are organisms which have chlorophyll which absorbs light energy from the sun and make it available for synthesis of their
organic molecules. e.g green plants, algae, and some bacteria carry out photosynthesis to make their own food.
 Chemo-autotrophs
These are bacteria which derive energy from chemical reactions involving simple, inorganic compounds. This energy is then used
to build up their organic substances.

2) heterotrophic nutrition
In this mode of nutrition, organisms use the complex organic molecules made by autotrophs as food. e.g. - herbivores eat
plants as food
- carnivores eat other animals as food
- omnivores eat both plants and animals as food
- parasites depend on their host for nutrition
- saprophytes use decaying matter as their source of nutrition

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NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Green plants make their own food in the chloroplasts of leaf cells during photosynthesis.
STRUCTURE OF A LEAF
TISSUE
Upper epidermis
Palisade mesophll
Spongy mesophyll
CELL ADAPTATION
 One cell thick
 Flattened,
transparent cells
 External walls covered
by a waxy cuticle
(cutin)
 Column shaped cells
 Numerous
chloroplasts
 a reduced cytoplasm
 Irregularly shaped
cells
 Few chloroplasts
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Advantages of the Function of tissue
adaptations
To maximize passage of Protective
light energy to the palisade
mesophyll
Waterproof and protects
cells from drying up
(dessication) and infection
Increases surface area for Main
absorption of light energy photosynthetic
Carry out maximized
photosynthesis
Increases space for
carrying chloroplasts
Leave air spaces for Allows gaseous
efficient gaseous exchange exchange
Carry out photosynthesis
(but lower than in palisade
mesophyll)
Vascular Xylem  No end walls To form a continuous tube Transports water
bundle Water proofs and prevents and mineral salts
 Lignified cell walls water loss along the tube

Allows movement of
dissolved organic Transports
Phloem  Perforated end plates substances between cells dissolved organic
substances

Lower epidermis  One cell thick To maximize passage of Protective

 Flattened, light energy to the palisade
transparent cells mesophyll

 External walls covered Waterproof and protects

by a waxy cuticle cells from drying up
(cutin) (dessication) and infection

Open and close the

 Guard cells present stomata

 few chloroplasts in Carry out photosynthesis

guard cells

Photosynthesis
This is a process by which plants make their own food using light energy from the sun.
Word equation

Carbon dioxide + water light energy

glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll

Chemical/symbol equation

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

During photosynthesis,

 sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll in the chloroplasts to provide energy for photosynthesis

 Carbon dioxide combines with water in a chemical reaction to form glucose
 Oxygen is released as a by-product of photosynthesis and it diffuses into the airspaces and out of the leaf
through the stomata.
 Glucose molecules join in a chemical reaction to form starch

Light energy from the sun changes to chemical energy stored in the starch.

Guard cells and Stomata

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Guard cells surround the stomata and the control opening and closure of the stomata to allow gaseous exchange and
transpiration. There are numerous stomata on the lower epidermis than the upper epidermis to reduce transpiration rates on
the upper surface which is exposed to direct heat from the sun..

Carbon dioxide diffuses into the intercellular airspaces through the stomata where it becomes concentrated before diffusing
into the cells to be used in photosynthesis. Oxygen produced during photosynthesis diffuses into the intercellular airspaces and
then out of the leaf into the atmosphere through the stomata.

Uses of starch produced during photosynthesis

 Broken down to glucose which is used in respiration to give energy for

o Protein synthesis
o Cell division
o Growth
o Active transport
 Synthesiis of cellulose which is used to build new cell walls ( or to thicken existing ones )
 Synthesis of proteins, fats, pigments, etc

Storage of starch

Starch produced in the leaves may be transported as sucrose in phloem vessels to storage organs such as

- Seeds
- Fruits
- Tubers
- Rhizomes
- Leaves ( to lower the water potential of the cells)

TESTING FOR PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Testing for starch

Title Investigating if a green leaf contains starch

Aim To test the leaf for starch
Equipment Beaker, dropper, test tube, white tile, Bunsen burner, alcohol, water, iodine solution, green
leaf (from a plant that was exposed to all factors needed for photosynthesis)
Method 1. Boil the leaf for 2 minutes to kill the cytoplasm, denature enzymes, break open the
cells, and make the leaf permeable to iodine solution

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 2. Place the leaf in 5 cm3 alcohol inside a test tube and boil the alcohol in a water bath
at 100 oC for 3 minutes to remove the chlorophyll and make the colour changes
clearly visible.
3. Remove the leaf from the boiling alcohol and place it in hot water for 2 minutes to,
- Rinse the leaf
- Soften the leaf
4. Spread the leaf on a white tile ( to set contrast) and add 2 cm3 of iodine solution to
the leaf
5. Observe the colour change

DIAGRAM

RESULTS A blue-black complex forms as iodine solution reacts with starch

Conclusion A green leaf contains starch

Factors affecting photosynthesis

 Water – it is a reactant in photosynthesis and low supplies will mean low photosynthetic rates

 Light energy from the sun – activates photosynthesis and as its intensity increase the rate of photosynthesis will go up

 Carbon dioxide – it is a reactant in photosynthesis and low supplies will mean low photosynthetic rates

 Temperature – affects enzyme activity. Enzymes work best at optimum temperatures . low temperature deactivate
them while denature them.

Limiting factors of photosynthesis

A limiting factor is an external condition that restricts the effect of others. Photosynthesis is limited by,

 Light intensity

 Carbon dioxide concentration

 Temperature

When a factor limits photosynthesis it prevents any further increase in the rate of the reaction.

EXAMPLE

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An increase in light intensity speeds up photosynthesis but only up to a certain point beyond which any further increase in light
intensity has only a small effect or none at all. This might be due to the fact that the chlorophyll is saturated with light energy
and can absorb the light no more. At this point light intensity is limiting the photosynthetic rate’

An increase in temperature will increase the rate of reaction limited by light intensity but also up to a certain point beyond
which the increase in temperature will not increase the rate any further. Up to this point the reaction would have been limited
by temperature.

To increase the rate of reaction limited by temperature, carbon dioxide concentration has to be increased. An increase in carbon
dioxide concentration will increase enzyme activity and therefore photosynthetic rate. Increased carbon dioxide concentration
will increase the rate also up to a certain point beyond which the increase in carbon dioxide concentration will not increase the
rate any further. At this point light intensity or temperature will start limiting the reaction rate.

Investigating the conditions needed for photosynthesis

TITLE Investigating if chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis

Aim To Investigate if chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis
Equipment Beaker, dropper,test tube,white tile,Bunsen burner,alcohol,water,iodine
solution,variegated leaf
Method 1. Boil the leaf for 2 minutes
2. Place the leaf in 5 cm3 alcohol inside a test tube and boil the alcohol
in a water bath at 100 oC for 3 minutes

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 3. Remove the leaf from the boiling alcohol and place it in hot water for
2 minutes
4. Spread the leaf on a white tile and add 2 cm3 of iodine solution to the
leaf
5. Observe the colour change

Diagram

Results The green patches turn blue-black while the white patches remain white.
Conclusion Chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis

Title Investigating if carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis

Aim To Investigate if carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis
Equipment Two de-starched plants, two jars, sodium hydroxide solution (absorb CO2), sodium
hydrogen carbonate (produces CO2), starch testing equipment
Method 1. Take two de-starched plants and place one under a jar with a small dish of sodium
hydroxide (soda lime) and place the other plant under a jar with a small dish of sodium
hydrogen carbonate
2. Leave the jars in a well lit sunny place for a day.
3. Test the leaf from each plant for starch

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 Diagram

Results The leaf from the jar with sodium hydrogen carbonate turns brown with iodine solution
while the leaf from the jar with sodium hydroxide remains brown with iodine solution.

Title Investigate if light needed for photosynthesis

Aim To investigate if light needed for photosynthesis
Equipment Aluminum foil, green leaf still attached to a tree, starch testing equipment
Method 1. cover some part of the leaf with aluminum foil for a day
2. remove the leaf from the plant and test it for starch
Diagram

Results The part of the leaf covered with aluminum foil stained brown with iodine solution while the parts
that were not covered stained blue-black
Conclusion Light is needed for photosynthesis

Title Investigating if oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

Aim To Investigate if oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

equipment Two jars, two de-starched plants, two lit candles

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Method 1. place the two plants under separate jars for a day; one in the dark , another in a well lit place
2. Quickly place the lit candles under the jars
3. Observe what happens
4. Record the results

DIAGRAM
Results The candle placed under the jar in a lit place burns longer than the candle laced in the jar from the dark

Conclusion Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

Title Investigating if oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

Aim To investigate if oxygen is produced during photosynthesis
equipment Pond weed ( elodea ), funnel, a test tube, plasticine for support, glowing splint
Method 1. arrange the apparatus as in the diagram and leave them in a well lit place for a day
2. lower the glowing splint in the test tube containing the gas collected
DIAGRAM

Results The gas relights the glowing splint

Conclusion Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

Adaptations of leaves to carrying out photosynthesis

 Thin leaves – this reduces the diffusion distance for carbon dioxide from the airspaces to the palisade mesophyll for the
process of photosynthesis

 Presence of chlorophyll – chlorophyll is the pigment that absorbs light energy from the sun to activate the process of
photosynthesis

 Large intercellular air spaces – allow efficient exchange of gases ; carbon dioxide into the leaf for photosynthesis and
oxygen out to the atmosphere.

 Thin upper epidermis – it is one cell thick to maximize passage of light energy to the min photosynthetic cells, the
palisade mesophyll cells.

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  palisade mesophyll underlying the upper epidermis – to maximize absorption of light energy before it is absorbed by
other cells

 thick network of veins – veins are vascular bundles. The network of xylem vessels supply water needed for
photosynthesis to each and every cell.

Transport and circulation in plants

Vascular bundles

Transport functions in plans is carried out by two specialized tissues; xylem and phloem. These tissues form tubes that are
collected together in groups to form vascular bundles.

Table : vascular bundles in cross and vertical sections of stem and root.

Cross section
dicot monocot

stem

root

leaf

Xylem tissue

Xylem tissue transports water (and mineral ions) up the plant from the roots to the leaves.

Adaptation Advantage of the adaptation to water transport

Lignified cell walls  Waterproofs so that water always moves in an upward direction
 Strengthens to withstand outward forces of water moving in the vessels and
supports the plant

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Elongated tubes To transport water from roots to distant parts like leaves

Hollow tubes To create free passage for water

Highly branched at To supply water to each and every cell in the canopy
the canopy

Has pits To allow water to leave the vessel to neighbouring cells

Uses of water by plants

 Reacts with water to form carbohydrates in photosynthesis

 To cool the plant as a result of transpiration
 A medium for chemical reactions in cell
 Dissolving substances transported in vascular bundles
 Keeping cells firm and turgid giving plants shape

Uses of ions absorbed by root hair cells and transported in xylem tissue

Ions Importance Deficiency symptoms

nitrate  Protein synthesis  Stunted growth

 Chlorophyll synthesis  Leaf chlorosis

magnesium  Chlorophyll synthesis  Leaf chlorosis

TRANSPIRATION

This is loss of water vapour from stomata of leaves.

Environmental factors that affect the rate of transpiration

a) Temperature

High temperature increase the average kinetic energy of water molecules in a leaf. Diffusion of water vapour into the
intercellular air spaces and out of the stomata becomes faster and transpiration rates go up. The higher the temperature the
higher the rate of transpiration.

High temperatures also reduce the relative humidity in the air thus lowering the water concentration of the atmospheric air as
compared to the inside of the leaf. Water vapour then difusses from a region of its high concentration inside the leaf to a region
of its low concentration in the atmosphere through the stomata. The steeper the water potential gradient the higher the rate of
transpiration.

b) Humidity

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Low humidity in the air reduces the water concentration of the atmosphere and increases the water concentration gradient
between the leaf and the atmosphere thus increasing the rate at which water diffuses from inside the leaf to the atmosphere.
The higher the humidity the lower the rate of transpiration.

c) Wind

As wind blows it carries away moisture around the leaf thus lowering the water concentration of the atmospheric air as
compared to the inside of the leaf. Water vapour then diffuses from a region of its high concentration inside the leave to a
region of its low concentration in the atmosphere through the stomata. The stronger the wind the higher the rate of
transpiration.

d) Light intensity

Stomata open in response to light and allow transpiration to occur. In dim light they open a little and they become fully open in
bright light. The higher the intensity the larger the rates of transpiration. At night stomata close and transpiration stops.

Leaf factors that affect the rate of transpiration

a) Leaf surface area

A large surface area of the leaf means a large number stomata which increases the rates of transpiration.

The process of transpiration

Water vapour diffuses from stomata of leaves into the atmosphere down a water concentration gradient. The loss of water at
the leaves creates an upward pull on water in the xylem called transpiration pull. Water is pulled upwards along the xylem in a
continuous column and not as droplets as its molecules have high cohesive forces holding them together (or has high tensile
strength). This process of water movement through xylem is called transpiration stream. As the leaves lose water vapour ,
more water is absorbed from the soil though osmosis by root hair cells.

Adaptation of plants to reducing transpiration and water loss

1. Reduced leaf surface area – some plants have small surface areas with few stomata from which transpiration can
occur, eg pinus

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 2. Sunken stomata – some plants have stomata sunken in pits. Water vapour is trapped in the pits and this helps to lower
the water potential gradient between the intercellular airspaces and the atmosphere thus reducing transpiration. E.g.
oleander.

3. Hairs around the stomata – these help to trap moist air, lowering the water potential gradient between the
intercellular airspaces and the atmosphere thus reducing transpiration. Marram grass

4. Rolling of leaves - Rolled leaves trap moist air, lowering the water potential gradient between the intercellular
airspaces and the atmosphere thus reducing transpiration.

5. Closure of stomata during the day – as stomata open in response to light some plants open their stomata at night and
keep them closed during the day to reduce transpiration.

6. Thick waxy cuticles – these prevent evaporation from leaf surfaces thus reducing water loss

7. Leaf fall – leaves fall in severely dry periods so no transpiration can occur

Transpiration and wilting

When plants excessively lose water due to transpiration the plant cells become flaccid and plasmolysed, and the whole plant
wilts.

Importance of transpiration to plants

 Cools plants – as water lost through transpiration evaporates from the leaf surface it carries away with it thus cooling
the plant

 Supplies water for photosynthesis – as water is lost through transpiration, a transpiration pull is created which pulls
water up to the leaves to be used in photosynthesis

Measuring rates of transpiration

The potometer are apparatus used to measure how much water has been lost by a plant shoot during transpiration.

How to set up a bubble potometer and use it to measure the rate of water loss

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 1. Attach a shoot to a capillary tube/potometer

2. Ensure the capillary tube is full of water with no air locks

3. Introduce a bubble and note its position leave the apparatus in a well lit, air conditioned room at 15oC for 30
minutes

4. Calculate the rate of bubble movement

5. Repeat the steps 1-5 at a temperature of 35oC

Prediction: more water is lost from the shoot at 35oC than 15oC.

How to set up a weight potometer and use it to measure the rate of water loss

1. Set up a shoot to a container of water

2. Seal the surface of the container with oil to ensure that all water lost from the apparatus would be due to
transpiration

3. Weigh and record the weight of the potometer

4. Leave the apparatus in a well lit, air conditioned room at 15oC for 30 minutes

5. Reweigh the potometer and note the new weight

6. Calculate the rate of water loss in g/min

7. Repeat the steps 1-6 at a temperature of 35oC

Prediction: more water is lost from the shoot at 35oC than 15oC.

The potometer measures how much water has been lost due to transpiration but some of the water may be used,

 in photosynthesis

 to keep cells turgid

 provide medium for chemical reactions in cells

Phloem tissue

Adaptation Advantage of the adaptation to water transport

Has numerous chloroplasts For production of energy during respiration used in active transport of
dissolved organic substances

Has companion cells For production of energy used in active transport of dissolved organic
substances

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Elongated tubes To transport dissolved organic substances from roots to distant parts like
leaves

Highly branched at the canopy To supply dissolved organic substances to each and every cell in the
canopy

Translocation

This is transport of water, mineral salts, and dissolved organic substances through the vascular tissues. Water and dissolved ions
move through xylem vessels while a mass of organic substances dissolved in water flows up and down the plant, from the leaves
to the roots and from storage organs such as roots to the leaves, in phloem. The main substance translocated in phloem is
sucrose. Other substances translocated in phloem include amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol.

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

Balanced diet

This is a meal containing all food nutrients needed by the body in the right proportions.

It contains the right amount of ;

- Carbohydrates
- Fats
- proteins
- Minerals
- Vitamins

The diet must also have cellulose/roughage and water.

Carbohydrates ( 17Kj)

They include starch and sugars and are the chief energy sources. They are organic compounds containing the elements;

- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Oxygen

Their basic formula is (CH2O). “n” – indicates the number of carbons, hydrogen and oxygen. There are three main groups of
carbohydrates;

- Monosaccharides
- Disaccharides
- Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

Are basic building units of complex carbohydrates. Carbohydrates which contain 6 or fewer carbons are monosaccharides. E.g.
glucose ( C6H1206), fructose, galactose.

Characteristics

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- water soluble

-sweet to taste

-white crystals in solid state.

Dissaccharides

Built up from 2 simple sugar molecules e.g. sucrose, maltose and lactose.

Glucose + glucose maltose

Glucose + fructose sucrose

Glucose + galactose lactose

Characteristics

- water soluble

- sweet(er) to taste

- white crystals in solid state

- diffuse more slowly than monosaccharides

POLYSACCHARIDES

Are made of many joined glucose molecules. General formula : C6H2O5)n where n is usually a large number between 200 and
500. each link formed between two monosaccharides results in loss of one molecule of water. Common examples include:

- Starch
- Cellulose
- Glycogen

Characteristics

- Water soluble

STARCH

It is the storage form of glucose in plants.

CELLULOSE

Found in plant cell walls. It is permeable to water, salts and other solutes.

In mans diet cellulose provides roughage which

- Makes food bulky and activates peristalsis in the gut enabling movement of food
- Prevents constipation

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 - absorbs water and makes faeces watery

LIPIDS [(fats and oils), 39 kJ/g ]

These organic compounds made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen but the amount of oxygen is low.

Each fat molecule made up of two parts;

- glycerol
- fatty acids

A fat molecule is made of 1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules.

Different fats contain different fatty acids. Glycerol and fatty acids are linked together by condensation. Fats are split by
hydrolysis that is addition of water.

Fats are made of two types;

- Saturated fats
- Unsaturated fats

A saturated fat cannot take in any more hydrogen atoms whereas an unsaturated fat can take up more hydrogen atoms. Animal
fats are mostly saturated.

Sources : butter, meat, cooking oil, nuts

Dietary importance

- Energy store for the body

- Insulates the body
- Can be used in respiration
- Building up of cell membrane (lipo-proteins)
- Lubricates movable joints
- Source of fat soluble vitamins A,D,E and K.

PROTEINS ( 20 kJ/g )

Are made of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Some proteins may also contain sulphur. A protein molecule
is made up many smaller molecules called amino acids linked together in chains.

Amino acids are first linked together to form small chains called polypeptides. Several polypeptides are joined together to form
a protein molecule. The linking takes place by condensation.

Above 40 OC protein molecules change shape and are said to be denatured. Proteins are body building nutrients found in meat,
beans, fish, eggs.

Dietary importance

- Growth
- Repair of worn-out tissues

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 - Making of enzymes

Vitamin Source Deficiency

A (retinol) Liver, cheese, butter, milk, eggs, carrots  Poor night vision (night blindness)
C ( ascorbic acid) Citrus fruits, ,fresh vegetables  Scurvy ( bleeding under the skin)
 Swollen and bleeding gums
 Poor healing wounds
D Butter, cheese, eggs yolk, liver  rickets

Mineral Sources Functions Deficiency

Iron Liver, eggs Formation of haemoglobin aneamia

Iodine Iodated salt Forms thyroxine, a hormone produced goitre
in the glands of the neck
Calcium Eggs, milk, cheese Formation of strong bones rickets
phosphorus Potatoes, fresh Formation of strong bones rickets
vegetables

WATER

Water is a universal solvent in all living systems. It is used in,

 cellular chemical reactions of cells

 a medium for dissolving substances
 transporting dissolved substances around the body

SPECIAL DIETARY NEEDS

Pregnancy

A developing embryo needs protein for development of its tissues, calcium and vitamins for bone development and iron for
formation of haemoglobin. A pregnant woman therefore needs to increase intake of food ( diet) rich in the nutrients to meet
the body’s needs.

Lactating mothers

Lactating mothers need a diet adequate in proteins, vitamins, minerals to produce enough quality milk to meet the baby’s
needs.

Growing children

Children need an extra intake of calcium for growing bones, iron for red blood cells, vitamins for resistance against disease and
protein for developing muscles. They require more energy because they are still growing and more active than adults.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

Energy requirements depend on

 activity ( occupation or exercise ) – a tailor needs less energy than a person who works manually digging trenches.

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  age – a fourteen year old needs more energy than a sixty-five year old as he/she more active and uses the energy for
cell division and growth.
 Sex – males need more energy than females as they do much heavier chores than females

Uses of energy in the body

 muscle contraction
 cell division
 protein synthesis
 active transporttransmission of nerve impulses
 maintanancce of a constant body tenperature

Basal metabolism

This is the amount of metabolism required to keep a person alive e.g. maintaining heart beat, brain functions, breathing and
producing body heat. Metabolism is driven by energy from respiration. These energy requirements differ from males to females
and reduce as one gets older.

FOOD TESTS

TEST METHOD RESULTS

IODINE TEST 1. Crush 1g of food sample in 2cm3 of water Positive test results: blue-black colour
(Test for starch) 2. Add 1cm3 iodine solution to the sample
3. Observe and record the results Negative test results: brown colour
BENNEDICTS TEST 1. Crush 1g of food sample in 2cm3 water Positive test results: green, yellow, orange, red
(Test for reducing 2. Add 1cm3 of Benedicts solution to the brown colours
sugars) extract in a test tube
3. Heat the mixture by placing the test tube in Negative test results: blue colour
a beaker of boiling water
BUIRET 1. Crush 1g of food sample in water Positive test results : purple colour
(Test for protein) 2. Add 5cm3 of sodium hydroxide to the Negative test results : blue
extract in a test tube
3. Add 5cm3 of dilute copper sulphate to the
test tube
4. Observe and record the results
EMULSION / 1. Crush the food sample in ethanol Positive test results : white suspension
ETHANOL TEST 2. Filter and pour filtrate in water Negative test results : colourless mixture
(Test for fats) 3. Observe and record the results

ENZYMES

Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body. They are biological catalysts that are made in the in the
cells.

Enzymes are involved in two types of reactions :

1. Anabolic reactions

In these types of reaction enzymes build up large complex molecules from simple ones, the process called anabolism. e.g.

- two glucose molecules can be joined form maltose

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 - amino acids can be joined to form peptides.

2. Catabolic reactions

Large molecules can be broken down into small, simple ones. The process is called catabolism. e.g.

- amylase can break down starch to maltose molecules

- lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol
- pepsin breaks down proteins to peptides

The molecule on which the enzyme acts is called the substrate and the molecules formed during the reaction are called
products. During a reaction the enzyme binds to the substrate at its binding site to form an enzyme-substrate complex.

Properties of enzymes

Enzymes are,

1. all proteins
2. sensitive to temperature
3. pH specific
4. Substrate specific
5. Are catalysts

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1. Enzymes are proteins made of molecules with a very precise three dimensional shape, containing a cleft called the
active site

2. sensitive to temperature

- Enzymes work best at their optimum temperatures, the temperatures at which activity is highest.
Optimum temperature for most enzymes is 40 0c.
- temperatures above 40 0c cause the three dimensional shape of the enzymes to change and they are
then said to be denatured. They can no longer catalyse reactions as the substrate cannot fit in the
active site which has changed shape. The change is irreversible.
- Very low temperatures deactivate enzymes making then incapable of catalyzing reactions but once
the temperatures are increased activity is then restored.

3. pH specific
Most enzymes have an optimum pH close to pH 7, which is the normal intracellular pH. Extracellular enzymes have
different pH requirements, e.g. pepsin works best in highly acidic conditions in the range of pH 1-2.
At extreme values of pH, away from optimum, the enzyme molecule can change shape as the forces holding the
molecule together become weakened and it becomes denatured.

4. Substrate specific
Enzymes work only on one kind of a substrate. The enzyme will only catalise the substrate whose binding site is
specific to its active site e.g. amylase digest starch only but not substrates like fat or protein.

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 5. Are catalysts
Enzymes only speed up metabolic reactions but are not used up or altered during the reactions.

ENZYMES AND THE LOCK AND KEY HYPOTHESIS

The lock and key hypothesis helps to explain the way enzymes function. The lock is the ENZYME while the key is the
SUBSTRATE. Enzymes are the substrate specific just like the LOCK fits a specific KEY. During catalysis, the binding site
of the substrate fits with the active site of the enzyme to form an enzyme –substrate complex just as a key and the
lock fit to make the lock and key combination.

Human digestive system

Digestion in humans takes place in the alimentary canal or the gut. Digestion is the process of beraking down food into
simple soluble substances that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. There are two forms of digestion in the gut,

1. Physical digestion

This is the process of breaking food down into smaller pieces to increase their surface area for easier digestion by
enzymes. E.g.
o Chewing by action of teeth
o Emulsion of fats by bile
o Peristalsis by stomach walls as they churn food into chyme

2. Chemical digestion

This is the breakdown of food by action of enzymes. E.g. starch digestion by salivary amylase.

The human alimentary canal

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In the mouth

This is where digestion begins. The process of taking food into the mouth is called ingestion.

 Food is broken down into smaller pieces by teeth, to increase their surface area for easier digestion by
enzymes. This process is called chewing or mastication.
 Food is mixed with saliva secreted by the salivary glands and rolled into a bolus by the tongue. Saliva contains,
 Mucus which lubricates food for easy swallowing
 Lysozyme , an enzyme that digests bacteria
 Salivary amylase which digests starch into maltose

The bolus is then swallowed. The bolus then moves down the oesophagus/ gullet

In the oesophagus

Food moves down the oesophagas by peristalsis. Peristalsis is rhythmatic contraction and relaxation of muscles of the
esophagus.

33
When the circular muscles above the bolus contract, the radial muscles relax making that region of the oesophagas
narrow thus pushing the bolus down. Contraction of the radial muscles and relaxation of the circular muscles just
below the bolus make that region wide thus allowing the bolus to move downwards.

Contraction in one region of the esophagus is followed by another contraction just below it so that a wave of
contraction passes along the oesophagus pushing food in front of it.

Food then enters the stomach.

In the stomach

The stomach is acidic, at pH 2. This pH is due to hydrochloric acid that is present in gastric juice secreted by the walls of
the stomach. The acid kills bacteria and provides an optimum environment for action of proteases, enzymes that digest
proteins.

 pepsin digests proteins into peptides

Because of the acid, digestion of starch stops as it denatures the salivary amylase coming from the mouth.

To prevent self digestion by proteases and corrosion by the hydrochloric acidic,

 pepsin is secreted in an inactive form called pepsinogen and only becomes active in hydrochloric acid in the
stomach
 walls of the stomach are covered by mucus which is not digested by the proteases

While in the stomach the food is churned into a creamy mass called chyme. The pyloric sphincter muscle opens at
intervals to allow small quantities of chime to pass into the duodenum.

At the duodenum

Bile from the gall bladder is secreted into the duodenum to,

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  Neutralize acidic chime for optimum action of lipase, pancreatic amylase, maltase and trypsin

 Emulsify fats and increase their surface area for easier digestion by lipase.
The pancreas also secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum. Pancreatic juice contains,

 pancreatic amylase which digests starch into maltose

 trypsin which digests peptides into peptides
 peptidases digest peptides into amino acids
 lipase which digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol

Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol are the end products of digestion and are absorbed at the ileum.

At the ileum

This is where digestion ends. The walls of the Ileum secrete intestinal juice which contains maltase which digest
maltose into glucose, sucrose which digests sucrose into glucose and fructose which digests fructose into glucose.

 Glucose and amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream

 Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lymphatic system ( but are later poured back into the
bloodstream)

Adaptations of the ileum for absorption

 long to present a large surface area for absorption

 Has millions of villi to increase surface area for absorption
 Has a network of capillaries for efficient absorption and transportation
Structure of villi

Adaptations of villus for absorption

Has,

 microvilli to increase surface area for absorption

 a network of capillaries for efficient absorption and transportation

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  a one cell thick epithelium creating a short diffusion distance for absorbed substances

 numerous villi increase the surface area for efficient absorption

The undigested remains pass into the colon.

In the colon

 water is absorbed from undigested food remains most of which is cellulose

The food remains are now called faeces. The faeces move into the colon.

In the rectum

 it is a temporary storage of faeces

Faeces are then expelled from the body through the anus in a process called egestion or defication.

Role played by the liver in digestion

Amino acids and glucose from the ileum are transported to the liver by the hepatic portal vein. The liver

 Regulates blood sugar

 converts excess glucose to glycogen with the help of insulin secreted by the pancreas when blood
glucose levels are high
 stores glycogen
 converts stored glycogen to glucose with the help of glucagon secreted by the pancreas when
glucose levels in blood fall below normal
 deaminates excess amino acids into UREA and glycogen. Urea is later excreted by the kidneys

Apart from acting on the products of digestion, the liver also

 breaks down dead red blood cells to produce pigments bilirubin and bile. Bile is then stored in the
gall bladder
 Stores iron from the break down of red blood cells

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  breaks down used hormones
 stores fat soluble vitamins e.g. vitamin A and D
 manufacture of blood proteins e.g. fibrinogen
 detoxification of harmful substances
o drugs are converted to harmless substances before being excreted
o hormones are converted to inactive compounds so limiting their activity in the body
o catalase breaks down harmful hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water

Assimilation

This is the process of utilising the end products of digestion.

 Some products are oxidized to release energy

o Glucose is oxidized to release energy
o Fatty acids and glycerol can be oxidized to release energy

 small molecules are used to synthesise large ones

o Amino acids are used in protein synthesis
o Fatty acids and glycerol are used in synthesis cell membranes and cytoplasm

The circulatory system

It is needed in multi-cellular organisms as blood needs to be pressurised and transported inside tubes to reach all cells
of the body. Unicellular organisms do not need a circulatory system as they have small volume to surface area ratio and
substances can be transported across their bodies by simple diffusion.

The circulatory system is made of

 The heart
 Blood vessels
 Valves
 Blood

The heart

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Function

To pump blood around the body.

Circulation

Blood passes twice through the heart in one complete circulation. This is called double/dual circulation. Dual circulation
is made of,

 Pulmonary circuit
 Systemic circuit

Pulmonary circuit

The right ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary circuit.

The right atrium receives blood from the vena cava. From the right atrium, the blood flows into the right ventricle.
Most of the ventricular filling is passive and the atrium contracts (diastole) to add a little more blood to the ventricular
volume just at the end of the period of filling. The right ventricle contracts (systole) and pumps blood into the
pulmonary artery, which transports blood to the lungs. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to
the left atrium.

Summary

Heart lungs heart

38
Systemic circuit

The left ventricle pumps blood through the systemic circuit.

The right atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein. From the left atrium blood enters the left
ventricle. Just like in the right hand side of the heart, most of the ventricular filling is passive and the atrium contracts
to add a little more blood to the ventricular volume just at the end of the period of filling. The left ventricle is more
muscular than the right ventricle and it contracts with a large force to pump oxygenated blood at a high pressure into
the aorta to start circulation throughout the body and eventually back to the right atrium.

Summary

Heart body heart

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 Differences between pulmonary and systemic circuit

Pulmonary Systemic

pressure low high

Direction of blood flow Heart to lungs to heart Heart to body cells to heart

Blood quality Low ( contains carbon dioxide and High ( contains digested food in high
digested food in low concentrations. concentrations and oxygen)

Advantages of the double circulatory system

1. Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood do not mix

2. pressure on blood is maintained to keep ciculating

Pulse

Pulse is a result of contraction and relaxation of the elastic walls of arteries due to high pressure generated when ventricles
contract. There is no pulse in veins as blood moves at low pressure.

Pulse rate

This is the number of heart beats per minute.

Effect of exercise on pulse rate

 increases pulse rate

This happens because,

 the heart beats faster
 more blood is pumped to the muscles
 more glucose and oxygen are transported to the muscles
 respiration increases
 more energy is released for the exercise

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Plan of the main blood vessels in the human body

Blood vessels

These are tubes within which blood flows round the body. they are of three types

 Arteries
 Veins
 Capillaries

Arteries

Function

 carry oxygenated blood from the heart to body parts ( except the pulmonary artery that carries deoxygenated
blood from the heart to the lungs)

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Structure

 Thick muscular walls with thick elastic fibres to withstand the high pressure of blood from the heart

 Narrow lumen

Veins

Function

 carry deoxygenated blood from body parts to the heart ( except the pulmonary vein that carries oxygenated blood
from lungs to the heart)

Structure

 thin muscular walls with thin elastic fibres

 wide lumen
 have valves

Capillaries

Function

 allow exchange between blood and tissue fluid. They distribute useful substances to body cells and remove waste
material from cells

Structure

 walls are one cell thick

 walls are partially permeable

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Coronary heart disease

This is disease caused by blockage/occlusion of the coronary artery which supplies the heart muscle with oxygen and glucose. If
the coronary artery is blocked the cardiac muscle suffocates and the heart may stop beating and one suffers from heart attack.

Coronary artery may be blocked by,

 a fatty substance called artheroma that gets deposited in the arteries

 a blood clot called thrombus which forms when the surface of the artheroma becomes
rough causing platelets to initiate blood clotting

Factors contributing to heart disease

1. Fatty diet – cause risk of fat and cholesterol deposit in arteries

2. smoking – nicotine in tobacco smoke roughness the lining of arteries and promotes fat and fibrin deposition
3. lack of exercise – exercise helps to burn fats and reduce the risk of heart attack
4. Stress – high stress levels lead to high blood pressure. High bllod pressure increases the risk of heart attack
5. Heredity – one can be born with the tendency of heart attack

Preventing the risk of coronary heart disease

 Avoid smoking
 Avoid fatty diet
 Exercise regularly
 Avoid or deal with stress

BLOOD

Blood is made of

 Plasma

 Red blood cells( erythrocytes)

 White blood cells

 Platelets

BLOOD PLASMA

This is a pale yellow liquid made up of water (90%) and different substances dissolved in it; eg;

- Dissolved food substances;

 Glucose
 Amino acids

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  Mineral salts
 vitamins
- Blood proteins;
 Fibrinogen
 Enzymes
 Antibodies
 Hormones
 Albumin

- Excretory products;
 Urea
 Carbon dioxide

FUNCTIONS

 Transports dissolved and floating substances around the body

 Distributes heat around the body
BLOOD CELLS

1. Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

Characteristics

 minute, disc-like and biconcave shaped cells

 does not have a nucleus.

 Contain a red pigment called haemoglobin.

Function;

 transport oxygen around the body. Haemoglobin binds with oxygen as blood passes through the lungs to form oxy-
haemoglobin.

2. White Blood Cells

Function

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  to fight against diseases- causing micro-organisms.

There are two type of white blood cells;

 Phagocytes
 Lymphocytes

Phagocytes

Characteristics

 have irregularly shaped nucleus to enable them to change shape to be able to squeeze through capillary walls

Function

These cells defend the body against infection by pathogens, a process called phagocytosis;

Phagocytosis

1) phagocyte recognizes pathogen through chemotaxis and migrates towards a pathogen by developing pseudopodia
( and pathogen attaches to the phagocyte)
2) phagocyte engulfs (surrounds)the pathogen
3) pathogen is trapped in a food vacuole
4) phagocyte releases digestive enzymes into the food vacuole that digests pathogen
5) useful materials from digestion of pathogen are absorbed into the phagocytes’ cytoplasm and waste is excreted

45
 Lymphocytes

Characteristics

 These have a large nucleus covering more than ¾ of the cell area.

Function;

 Produce antibodies that

o Destroy pathogens

o Clump pathogens for easy phagocytosis

o Neutralize toxins produced by pathogens

Tissue rejection

This happens if a living tissue is transplanted from an individual to another, and the recipient recognizes the foreign antigens in
the transplanted tissue and reject (destroys) it. Transplanted organs such as kidneys & hearts are usually rejected unless the two
individuals share exactly similar antigens, i.e. when they are genetically identical. White blood cells lead to tissue rejection
during organ transplants when the donors’ tissues are not compatible with the recipients’ tissues.

3. Platelets

Characteristics

 small pieces or fragments of cells produced by the red bone marrow.

 Made of cytoplasm surrounded by cell membrane

 No nucleus

 Irregularly shaped

Function

 Help in blood clotting.

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 Blood clotting

When a blood vessel is cut or damaged,

o the platelets produce some substance (enzyme) that converts the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into
fibrin which is insoluble in blood plasma;

o Fibrin fibres form a mesh which trap red blood cells which becomes a blood clot.
o The blood clot
 stops the bleeding.
 Prevents entry of pathogens

The blood clot eventually dries and hardens to form a scab which also prevents entry of pathogens.

BLOOD GROUPS

TRANSFER OF MATERIALS BETWEEN CAPILLARY AND TISSUE FLUID

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Arterial blood pressure in the capillaries forces part of blood plasma through the capillary walls. This fluid is not blood nor
plasma, but tissue fluid. It lacks proteins and red blood cells. Tissue fluid surrounds and bathes every living cell. It contains
glucose, oxygen, amino acids, glycerol, vitamins and minerals which diffuse into the cells

It also contains waste chemicals such as carbon dioxide, water, ammonia and used hormones which diffuse from cells at the
venous end where pressure is low. Most of the tissue fluid then passes back into the capillary while some enter the blind ending
thin walled vessels called lymphatics.

Respiration

This is the release energy from food substances in all living cells..

Respiration is of two types

o Aerobic respiration
o Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration

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/This is release of a relatively large amount of energy by break down of food substances in the presence of oxygen.. It takes
place in the mitochondria.

Word equation

Glucose + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + energy

Chemical/symbol equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Anaerobic respiration

This is release of a relatively small amount of energy by break down of food substances in the absence of oxygen.. It takes place
in the cytoplasm.

During anaerobic respiration glucose is not completely broken down to carbon dioxide and water but converted to alcohol
(ethanol) or lactic acid. Anaerobic respiration resulting in production of ethanol is called fermentation. Anaerobic respiration
resulting in production of lactic acid takes place in muscles during vigorous exercise.

Fermentation (also called alcoholic fermentation)

Fermentation is anaerobic respiration which occurs mainly in yeast and bacterial cells and is used in beer brewing and bread
baking.

Word equation

Glucose alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy

Chemical equation

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energy

Anaerobic respiration in muscles/ lactate fermentation

During exercise glucose is broken down to lactic acid (lactate) which builds up in the muscles to give fatigue (tiredness). This
build up results in an oxygen debt created in the muscles.

Word equation

Glucose lactic acid + energy

Symbol equation

C6H12O6 C3H6O3 + energy

Immediately after exercise one has to continue breathing in deeply to supply oxygen used in the liver to oxidise the lactic acid to
carbon dioxide and water or uses it to form glucose and pay the oxygen debt.
Uses of energy released from respiration

1. It is used to maintain a constant body temperature

2. It is used during active transport, in the selective re-absorption of vital minerals
3. It is used in the synthesis of proteins from amino acids
4. It is used during mitotic cell division which results in the growth of an organism

49
 5. It is used during transmission of nerve impulses

Comparing aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

__________ is needed ________ is not needed

Glucose is completely Glucose is incompletely
broken down broken down
A relatively ______ amount A relatively ______ amount
of energy is released of energy is released
Takes place in __________ Takes place in __________
Producesw only Lactic acid and ethanol are
carbondioxide and water produced in muscles and
plants respectively

 Carbon monoxide combines with

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.

REPRODUCTION

This is the production of new individuals by one or two parents.

It is of two types:

 Asexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

This is a process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent.

- Offspring are genetically identical one another and to the parent

- No sex cells are involved
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Binary Fission Budding Vegetative propagation

1. Binary Fission

This is a method common in unicellular organisms and it involves splitting of a parent cell to form two identical (daughter) cells.
Examples of organisms reproducing by this method;

- Bacteria
- Amoeba
- Yeast
Eg; binary fission in bateria

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2. Budding;

In this type, a new individual organism forms as an outgrowth/bud on the body of an adult (parent) organism. The bud breaks
off and develops as an independent individual. Budding occurs in Hydra(animal) and Yeast

Eg; budding in Hydra

daughter parent hydra

budding in yeast

3. Asexual Reproduction in Plants (Vegetative Propagation)

Plants using this method use vegetative parts (stems, leaves and roots) to reproduce.

a) Stolons; These are horizontal stems that form roots at intervals where a new plant
will form. These stems grow horizontally above the ground.

Eg; in strawberries and some grass species

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b) Rhizomes;
These are horizontal underground stems that may give rise to new plants.

c) Stem Tubers As a plant grows, some of its stems grow down into the ground and are used to store food (from leaves)
which make them swollen (hence potato tubers). When the parent dies, it leaves these tubers in the ground to develop
into independent plants.

d) Bulbs; These are short, vertical underground stems with many fleshy modified
leaves. These stems are large buds that store food and can later on give rise to new plants.

Eg. in Onions and lilies

COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS;

1. Grafting
2. Stem cuttings
3. Layering
4. Budding
5. Cloning

Grafting: It involves;

a) cutting a branch/twig (scion) from one plant with good, desirable characteristics
b) Inserting the branch into a cut made on the stem/branch of a rooted plant (root stock)

53
 c) Taping the cut surfaces together

For grafting to be successful;

i) Scion and root stock must be from related plant species

ii) Both scion and root stock must have same diameter

iii) their vascular bundles must match so that there is continuous flow of water and organic substances between the stock
and the scion..

iv) Grease or wax must be applied around the union to prevent water loss and entry of pathogens

This is an appropriate method to propagate rose, fruit trees(eg; grapes) and rubber trees.

Stem cuttings; Involves;

i) Cutting shoots/branches from desirable plants

ii) Cut ends treated with a rooting hormone to promote root development

iii) Place the shoot in the moist soil where roots will develop within two weeks

This is appropriate to propagate sugar cane and some vegetables

ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Only one parent plant is needed to produce the offs pring.

2 Desirable characteristics are retained as the offspring are identical to the parent plant.

3 Offspring mature more rapidly than plants which grow from seeds, and are less susceptible to adverse weather conditions.

4. ‘ Young plants from cuttings do not generally need as much care as seedlings. Plants such as pineapple and banana, which no
longer bear seeds, can only be propagated vegetatively. 5. Growth in the young plant is rapid because, unlike seeds, there is no
resting period.

54
5 The young plant uses the food resources of the parent plant as it becomes established

DISAVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1 No new varieties are produced as there is no mixing of characters.

2 Offspring and the parent plant compete for light and nutrients, as many individuals occupy a limited area of land.

3 Many individuals may be destroyed by disasters such as fire and flood, whereas dormant seeds may survive such conditions.

4 Lack of variety leads to reduced resistance to disease and changes in climate.

5 Colonisation of new localities is unlikely as offspring are always produced close to the parent plant

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 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

This process involving fusion of nuclei from two games from two different parents to form a zygote. It results in the production
of genetically dissimilar offspring from the parents.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Flower is a sexual Reproductive Structure in plants, It may contain both the male and female structure (A plant having such
flower
said to be hermaphrodite)

Insect pollinated flower

Wind pollinated flower

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 Functions of floral parts

PART
1. Sepals
2. Petals
3. Stamens (male parts)
anther and filament
4. Carpels (female parts)
stigma, style and ovary
Function
Enclose and protect a flower will at bud stage
Coloured and scented to attract insects for pollination
May have nectar guides to direct insects to nectar
Anther: have 4 sacs in which pollen is made
Filament: holds the anther in the best position to release pollen
Stigma: receives pollen during pollination
Style: holds the stigma in the best position to receive pollen.
Ovary: produce ovules

Comparison between Insect-pollinated flowers and wind-Pollinated flower

INSECT-POLLINATED FLOWER WIND-POLLINATED FLOWER

1. Large and brightly coloured petals Petals reduced into bracts and dull coloured
2. Scented petals Petals have no scent
3. Contains nectaries (produce nectar) No nectarines
- have nectar guides - no nectar guides
4. Anthers and stigmas enclosed in the flower Anthers and stigmas hanging outside the flower (to catch wind with pollen)
5. Small anthers and stigmas Large anthers and stigmas
6. lobed stigma Feathery stigma
7. small amount of sticky/rough pollen made Large amounts of smooth, light pollen
8. Ovary may contain one or more ovules Ovary contains only one ovule

Pollination

This is a process involving transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma.

There are two types of pollination;

Self-pollination

Transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower OR to the stigma of another flower in the same plant.

57
Cross-pollination

Transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower in one plant to the stigma of a flower of another plant (of the same species).

Agents of Pollination

These a ways in which pollen is transferred. Pollen can be transferred by insects, small animals (which feed on pollen and
nectar) and wind

FERTILISATION

After pollination,

1. the pollen grain absorbs water and nutrients from the sigma
2. germinates into a pollen tube, the tip of which contains the male sex nucleus
3. pollen tube grows down the style,
4. pollen tube enters the ovary
5. pollen tube grows towards one of the ovules
6. pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle
7. tip of pollen tube breaks to release male sex nucleus
8. Male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus to form a zygote.

After fertilisation;

- A zygote will then develop into an embryo plant.

- sepals, petals, stamens and stigmas fall off
- ovary develops into a fruit
. ovary wall hardens and dries up, eg in nuts
. Or it may become fleshy and soft as in apples
- ovules develop into seeds
- food from leaves is stored in cotyledons
- outer layer of ovule grows thick and hard (testa)

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SEEDS

Mature seeds can either be endospermic or non-endospermic

Endospermic seed

In this seed, the endosperm is retained.

Non-endospermic seed

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 In this seed, the endosperm has disappeared and it isreplaced with two cotyledons which store all the foods substances in the
seed, and also produce digestive enzymes.

Functions of parts of non-endospermic seed

1. Hilum
A scar that was left where seed was attached to the fruit. It transported food (from leaves), water and mineral salts(from the
roots) when fruit was attached to main plant.

2. Micropyle
A small opening thru which;
- pollen tube entered the ovule to deliver male nucleus
- Water and oxygen enters the sees during germination
- Carbon dioxide leaves the seed during germination

3. Testa (seed coat)

Outer covering of the seed that protects the seed against;

- fungal infection
- bacterial infection
- excessive loss of water
- physical agents like fire and chemicals in animal guts ( enzymes )

4. Cotyledons
- These are food stores in the seed that also produce and store enzymes.
- Respiration takes place in the cotyledons to release energy for germination

5. Embryo
This was formed from a zygote and is made up of plumule (which will grow above ground into a shoot system) and radicle
(grows into the ground and forms a root system)
The embryo germinates into a seedling when conditions are suitable.

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Germination

The development if the embryo which is contained in the seed into a seedling

Environmental Conditions For Germination

The following conditions must be present in order for seeds to germinate

 Water
 Oxygen
 Suitable Temperature

Water

Water is needed for

 activating enzymes for the biochemical reactions associated with germination

 dissolve and transport food nutrients in the food stores

 soften the seed coat for emergence of radicle

Oxygen

It is required for aerobic respiration. The energy released is used to drive chemical reactions within the cells of the embryo
during its period of growth.

Suitable Temperature

Gives optimum temperature for maximum enzyme activity.

The Role of Enzymes in Seed germination

Enzymes,

 catalyse the oxidation of glucose to release energy for the growing embryo

 catalyses break down of insoluble food into soluble food nutrients

o starch is broken down by amylase to maltose and then maltose to glucose by maltase

o proteins are broken by proteases to amino acids

Seed Dispersal

This is the scattering of seeds from the parent plant to new sites. After seed development either the entire fruit or the seed(s)
contained within are dispersed from the parent plant.

Advantages of Seed dispersal

I. It reduces chances of competition for nutrients, water, light & space

II. There is also more chance of finding a fresh area to colonize, thus increasing the overall species population in time. (it
promotes plants diversity in different localities)

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Disadvantages

I. There is a possibility of not finding a suitable place for germination

Mechanisms of Seed Dispersal.

There are three main external agents (mechanisms) of dispersal, namely;

 Animal
 Wind
 Water
 self dispersal

1. Animal Dispersed Seeds

Example

They have hooks or spines with which they attach themselves to the skin, fur or wool of passing animals and
thus carried over some distance before dropping off or being scratched off. E.g. goose grass, buttercup etc.
Contained in succulent fruits which have edible fleshly parts. E.g. tomatoes, strawberry, mulberry, wild berries,
grapes etc. The fruit is eaten & digested but the seeds are resistant to digestive enzymes & pass unharmed
through the gut of the animal to be deposited with faeces often on fertile soils.

2. Wind Dispersed Seeds

Example

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 Parachute- like fruits & seed – seeds of willow herb & the fruit of dandelion have projecting feathery hairs
(parachute-like strutures) which increase their surface area. As a result, the seeds have increased air
resistance and float over long distances before sinking to the ground. It is therefore likely to be carried a long
way from the parent plant by slight air current.
Winged fruits – Fruits of sycamore & ash trees have wing-like outgrowths from the ovary walls or leaf-like
structures on the flower stalk. These wings cause the fruit to spin as it falls from the tree & slow down its fall.
This delay increases the chances of the fruit being carried away in air currents.

Pepper pot effect – e.g. poppy has along flower on which hangs a dry hollow capsule (formed from the ovary)
with one / more openings. The wind shakes the flower stalk and seeds are scattered on all sides through the
openings in the capsule

3. Water Dispersed Seeds

Some plants e.g. Coconut have a fibrous ovary wall which enables the fruit to float on water so that the seed is
water dispersed.

4. Self Dispersed Seed

Example;

Explosive fruits – the pods of flowers in the pea family (peas, beans, lupin) dry up in the sun and shrivel. The tough
fibres in the fruit wall shrinks & set up a tension forcing the fruit to split in half down the lines of dehiscence
(weakness), the two halves curl back suddenly & flick out the seed explosively releasing of seeds from the fruit.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

MALE SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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Scrotum

 This is a sac of skin that contains the two testes.

 It hangs outside the abdomen (between hind legs), to keep the testes at a temperature lower than the main body
temperature.
 Sperm production (spermatogenesis) taking place in the testes, requires a temperature lower (2 – 3 ºC) than main body
temperature.

Testes have two functions;

1. Production of sperm cells;

 Each testis is made of tiny tubes called the seminiferous tubules which produce sperm cells;
 Seminiferous tubules unite to form a 6m coiled tube (epididymis) where sperm cells are stored.
 About 1 million sperm cells produced per day

2. Production of male sex hormone Testosterone

 Testosterone is produced by some cells (leydig cells) in the testis
 Its functions include;
 Development of secondary sexual characteristics in males
 Controls production of sperm cells

Sperm ducts These are narrow, muscular tubes ( about 40cm long) forming from the epididymis to the urethra;

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 o Sperm cells a transported along these tubes during ejaculation
o Fluid not enough in the sperm ducts for sperm cells to swim
o Sperm cells moved by peristaltic contraction of muscles around the sperm ducts

Seminal Vesicles and Prostate Gland

 Add seminal fluid to sperm cells to make SEMEN

 Seminal fluid contains;
1. mucus; - lubricates penis during sexual intercourse,
- sperm cells swim in the mucus (swimming medium)

2. Sugar (Fructose) – Source of energy for the highly mobile sperm cells

3. Alkaline substances – used to neutralise vaginal acids during sexual intercourse.

Urethra

 Conducts urine and semen at different times thru the penis to the outside
 Has sphincter muscles (valves) that closes;
 the bladder-urethra route to prevent urine flow during ejaculation
 the sperm duct-urethra route to prevent flow of semen during urination

Penis
 This is an organ made of spongi, erectile tissue
 Has some blood spaces which fill with blood to cause erection
- In an erect position, the penis deposits sperm cells as high up the female reproductive tract as possible.

 Its tip (glans penis), when stimulated sends nerve impulses to;

1. Sphincter muscle to close the bladder

2. epididymis and sperm ducts causing them to contract
3. seminal vesicle and prostate gland to release seminal fluid

FEMALE SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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Ovaries

1. Production of ova, egg cells;

- Over 500 egg cells already produced at birth
- One egg cell matures and is released by one of the two ovaries every month starting at purbety.

2. Production of Female sex hormones,

- Oestrogen which ;
 controls development of female secondary sexual characteristics
 High amounts of oestrogen stimulate ovulation
 Works together with Progesterone to thicken and maintain inner linning of uterus
- Progesterone;
- produced in the ovaries by a substance called corpus luteum
- maintains inner linning of uterus especially during pregnancy
Oviducts
- An oviduct is a muscular tube about 12cm long that conveys an ovum from ovary to uterus.
- Inner linning of oviducts has small hairy structures (cilia) which sweep the ovum along the oviducts
- Oviducts also move the ovum by peristalsis
- Fertilization usually takes place in the oviducts

Uterus is a thick-walled organ, 7.5cm long and 5cm wide ( expands 500times during pregnancy), made of;
 Inner layer; soft and spongi layer with some blood vessels
 Outer layer; made of muscles which contract during birth (causing labour pains)

SEX CELLS COMPARED

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 Ovum
cytoplasm

Cell membrane
Sperm cell

Size Relatively small (0.01mm) Relatively large (0.1mm)

Number Over 1 million per day Over 500 already produced at

produced (after puberty) birth

Mobility Highly mobile (uses tail to swim) Immobile but is moved by cilia
and peristalsis in the oviducts
Life span 72 hours 24hrs

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

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The cycle starts with menstruation (days 1-5). Menstruation is the discharge of blood, uterus lining and a dead ovum through
the vagina. Menstruation occurs every 28 days.

A day or two before menstruation stops, the pituitary gland of the brain releases Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) which
triggers follicle development in one of the ovaries.

The developing follicle starts producing oestrogen which repairs the lining of the uterus. It also triggers the pituitary gland to
produce Leutenising Hormone (LH) which stops further development of follicles but leaves only one to continue developing.

A day before ovulation, oestrogen and LH levels increase rapidly causing the mature follicle ( now called the Graffian follicle ) to
break and release an ovum, a process called ovulation. Ovulation occurs on day 15.

What remains of the follicle after ovulation turns into the Corpus Luteum. The Corpus Luteum starts producing progesterone
which thickens the uterus lining making it ready for implantation.

At day 26 the Corpus Luteum breaks down and the levels of progesterone fall causing the lining of the uterus to shrink and
break down. Menstruation starts again.

Effect of Diet on Menstrual Cycle

Females are advised to eat food rich in iron as they loose a lot of blood during menstruation. Females lacking iron miss periods
during certain months & some may eventually become anaemic. These kind of people are normally given iron supplements in
the form of tablets & normally advised to eat lots of green vegetables to gain iron.

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Effect of Emotional State on Menstrual Cycle

Anxiety, stress & excitement may result in a female having her menstrual periods earlier than normal.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (Infections)

These are diseases caused by bacteria (Gonorrhoea, syphilis) or viruses (HIV/AIDS, herpes, genital warts) which is transmitted
from one person to another thru unprotected sexual intercourse (with the infected person).

Gonorrhoea

Cause; It is caused by bacteria (Neisseria gonorrhoeae) which lives and breeds in the linings of urethra in males and cervix
and vagina in females.

Effects; if left untreated, it can cause damages to urinary system, and reproductive systems (leading to sterility), arthritis,
newly born baby may get eye infection during birth.

Symptoms/signs;

In male; In females; 1. yellowish discharge from vagina

1. yellowish discharge/pus from penis
2. inflammation of ovaries, oviducts & uterus
3. pain when urinating
4. inflammation of testicles

Syphilis
Cause; It is caused by bacteria (Treponema pallidum)

Three stages; (after a 3wks window period)

Stage1 (Primary Syphilis) symptoms

- Painless sore (Chancre) appears on vagina/cervix or penis/urethra.

- Sore may also appear on other places like lips, tongue, hands and rectum.
- Very infectious as liquid from sore contains the bacteria
- Sore disappears after 3wks but bacteria(in blood and lymph) continue to move deeper into the body.

Stage2 (Secondary Syphilis) may take up to 5years

- Bacteria moves to other parts of the body and cause the following symptoms
 Sore may reappear
 Body rash
 Patches of hair fall off
 Fever & head ache
 Sore throat
 Red and sore eyes
 Anaemia
 Weight loss
Stage3 (Tertiary/terminal Syphilis)
- May show after 5-10 years
- Bacteria have spread to important organs and caused irreparable damages including;
 Damage to liver,

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  Damages to brain cells leading to meningitis, blindness, paralysis, lack of coordination, slurred
speech, insanity…
 Damage to heart valves, blood vessels
 May lead to blindness AND DEATH!!!!!!!

Gonorrhoea and syphilis can be treated by antibiotics (eg; penicillin)

4. HIV/AIDS

AIDS stands for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

Cause; HIV which stands for Human Immune Virus

EFFECTS; When the virus enters the body, it attacks and destroys T-lymphocytes (CD4-T-cells) which are part of the body’s
natural immune system.
- The virus enters the T-cell
- Virus uses T-cell’s DNA to make energy & reproduce
- T-cell burst open to release thousands of viruses into blood
- Each virus enters a new T-cell, reproduces…
- Number of T-lymphocytes reduces (low CD4 count)
- Number of virus increases (High viral load)
- Less lymphocytes means weak immune system
- Any disease may affect the body and the body may suffer from a collection of many diseases (syndrome) due to
weakened immune system (hence AIDS )

SYMPTOMS/SIGNS

Phase1 (Window Period)

- Point of infection
- Exposure to HIV infection source
- No symptoms
- Virus multiplying but antibodies not yet enough to be detected by HIV test
- Transmission to other people possible

Phase2 (Acute HIV Syndrome)

- 4-8 years after infection

- Symptoms/signs include;

 headache
 fever
 rash
 vomiting
 Whitish fungal patches on mouth/tongue
 Cervical cancer
 diarrhoea

- Enough antibodies produced and can be detected by an HIV test

- Symptoms disappear after few weeks

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 Phase3 (Latent stage)

- No symptoms
- CD4-T cells decrease in number
(to about 200 CD4 – T cells)

- Viral load increases

Phase4 (Full Blown AIDS)

- Symptoms include;

 Swollen glands in neck, armpits, groin, etc…

 Persistent night sweating
 Persistent tiredness
 Persistent cough
 White fungal coat on the tongue or mouth
 Persistent diarrhoea
 Sudden weight loss
 Pneumonia
 Skin cancer (Kaposi’s sarcoma)
 Meningitis
 Stiffness of the neck
 Mood swing
 Loss of awareness to self and environment
 Etc…

TRANSMISSION

1. Unprotected sexual intercourse with HIV positive person

2. Transfusions of infected blood
3. Through unsterilised sharp objects (syringed and needles) which illegal drug users share when administering drugs. Also
those used at hospitals.
4. Infected mother to child transmission through the placenta, as well as through breast feeding.

TREATMENT.

HIV/AIDS has no cure, but a patient can be given a programme of drugs (Anti Retroviral Drugs) to help him to live longer.
Examples of ARVs; AZT, Zidovudine, Dextra Sulphate, etc…

ARVs do not cure HIV/AIDS! but reduce the rate of infection of HIV by;

- Inhibiting protein synthesis in Hiv cells

- Reducing budding of virus from host cell
- Blocking HIV cells from binding with the CD4 receptors

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CONTROL OF STDs

 Use of condoms
 Abstinence

Other preventative measures of STD transmission can include,

 Being faithful to one life partner

 Early treatment and testing
 Sex education

METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL

These are methods used to prevent unwanted pregnancy;

- used for family planning

- limit number of births (babies)
- used for child spacing
- Used for population control

Methods of birth control may be put into groups;

1. Natural methods

withdrawal

Abstinence Calendar /Rhythm

a) Rhythm method (safe period)

This depends on the woman (and possibly her partner) understanding how her menstrual cycle works. She should be able
to calculate the times at which pregnancy is possible. In addition, the woman may also observe a slight increase in body
temperature when ovulation sets in. (the temperature rise at ovulation is 0.5 0C) unfortunately the menstrual cycle is
always unpredictable especially in teenagers.

b) Withdrawal method

This depends on the men, who should pull out his penis from the woman’s vagina before ejaculation. This is however an
unreliable method because some semen would have long passed into the vagina even before complete ejaculation.

2. Mechanical methods

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 Condom
diaphram IUD

 Condoms
a) Male Condom is a thin sheath which is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse to prevent the sperms from
entering the vagina. The penis must be removed cautiously from the vagina immediately after ejaculation to avoid spillage
of sperms.

b) Female Condom is also a thin sheath inserted inside the vagina before intercourse to collect the sperms from the penis.

 Diaphragm (the cap)

A dome shaped device which fits over the cervix to prevent entry of sperms. They come in different sizes & a woman must
be trained how to insert it by a doctor or at a family welfare clinic. Diaphragms offer more protection when used together
with a spermicidal cream. It must remain in place for sometime after intercourse (about 8 hours), then it can be removed,
washed, dried powdered & kept in a container.

 Intra-Uterine Device (IUDs)

IUDs are fitted inside the uterus by a doctor. The IUD touches the wall of the uterus & prevents implantation of the embryo.
The IUD is removed by a doctor by pulling the strings attached to it which pass though the cervix. IUDs are usually used by
women who have already had a child and they remain effective fro 8 - 10 years.

3. Chemical/hormonal methods

‘Morning after’ Pill

Spermicide depo provera injection

Contraceptive Pill

a) Spermicidal creams

A woman uses an applicant to put spermicides insides her vagina just before intercourse kill sperms. Spermicides are not
very effective on their own & so are often coupled with diaphragms for back up.

b) The Pill

The contraceptive pill contains one / both hormones oestrogen & progesterone. The contraception of hormones stops the
ovaries from producing eggs. The woman takes the pill everyday for 21 days of her menstrual cycle. When she stops taking
this pill menstruation occurs. The woman can then begin taking the pill again on day one of her next menstrual cycle. If she
forgets to take the pill for a day then the protection is incomplete & so another contraception must used until the woman’s
menstrual cycle.

c) Norplant

It consists of six capsules which are inserted under the skin in the woman’ arm. It contains progesterone which prevents
ovulation. It is effective 24 hours after insertion and remains effective for five years. The norplant also thickens the cervical

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 mucus making it difficult fro the sperm to enter the uterus. It also makes the inner lining o the uterus unsuitable for the
fertilized egg to get implanted.

d) The injection

this contains the hormone progesterone. Once injected into the arm of the woman the hormone is slowly released into the
body for the next 2 – 3 months. The progesterone stops the production of eggs. Injected contraceptives are useful for
women who have difficulties taking the pill or experience problems with other methods of contraception.

4. Surgical Method (Sterilisation)

It involves a minor operation

 in men it is called Vasectomy; In males the spermducts are tied & cut by a surgeon. The man can still ejaculate as
the ducts are only cut below the seminal vesicles but the fluid ejaculated will contain no sperms. This prevents the
sperms from the reaching the egg.

in females it is called Tubal ligation). In females the oviducts are tied & cut to prevent the passage of eggs from the ovaries.

Fertilization

This is the fusion of the nuclei of the male and female gametes to form a zygote. During fertilization only one sperm fertilizes the
ovum.

Identical & Non-identical Twins (Fraternal twins)

Identical twins

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are twins resulting from the separation of one fertilized egg to form two complete individuals. These individuals may share the
placenta & amnion. They also have the same sex & closely resemble each other in every respect.

Fraternal Twins (non-identical twins)

Results from two different ova fertilized by two different sperms. Each embryo will have its own placenta & amnion. It
is possible that they may be of the same or different sexes & may not resemble each other.

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EMRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

The placenta

It made of tissues of the mother and the embryo and it provides a medium of exchange between the mother and the embryo. It

 Contains a network of capillaries which provide a large surface area for diffusion and exchange of substances.

 Is supplied with a lot of blood to supply and carry away substances from the foetus.

Amnion & Amniotic Fluid

The amnion (also called amniotic sac) is a thin membrane covering the embryo & has a protective function. The sac is filled with
a fluid known as amniotic fluid which supports the embryo & protect it from mechanical shock. As the embryo increases in size
the amniotic sac also expands to accommodate it.

UMBLICAL CORD

It has two blood vessels:

 Umbilical vein – carries oxygenated blood and nutrient to the embryo from the mother

 Umbilical artery - carries deoxygenated blood and metabolic waste from the embryo to the mother

SPECIAL DIETARY NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

A woman needs adequate supply of food

She must eat plenty of nourishing foods, especially proteins for the growing baby
She needs an increased intake of calcium & vitamin D (i.e. in milk) for the formation of strong bones if the baby
She must have an increased intake of carbohydrates for the energy needed to carry the growing baby.
She should avoid taking any drug unless seriously necessary & prescribed by a medical practitioner.

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 She must also avoid alcohol & smoking as these interfere with the growth of the baby leading to miscarriage still born
or children born underweight.

Advantages of Breast Feeding over Bottle Feeding

Breast milk is ready made & cheap

It is always at right temperature required by the baby
It almost all the required nutrients e.g. proteins, fats, sugar, vitamins & salts in correct quantities
It contains anti-bodies to any disease from which the mother has recovered
It also carries white blood cells which produce ant-bodies or ingest bacteria
Its free from bacteria
It helps to establish an emotional bond between mother & child.

A comparison of sexual and asexual reproduction

BIOTECHNOLOGY

It is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing & service industries. Microbes, plant &
animal cells are used to make substances that are useful to human beings.

Why Micro-organisms are used in Biotechnology

1. They reproduce quickly

2. They are easy to culture
3. Savings on fuel because they carry out reactions at moderate temperatures.
4. They are very efficient because they produce purer products & less waste.
5. They can be genetically engineered to produce compounds needed for humans.

The Role of Micro-organisms in Food Production

Making Bread.
The enzymes in yeast cells act on the sugar added to the flour & ferment it to alcohol & carbon dioxide which makes the
dough to rise.

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 Sour Milk (madila)
The milk is put into a large container & bacteria (lacto bacillus) are added to ferment the milk. The bacteria converts the
milk sugar (lactose) to lactic acid. The lactic acid will coagulate (solidify) the milk protein. Water will then remain at the
bottom of the container & coagulated protein floats on top. The mixture is sieved to remove the waste water from the curd
or sour milk. At this stage the milk is sometimes stirred to obtain evenly thick & smooth sour milk. Then the sour milk will
be ready for packaging & distribution.

Chibuku ( traditional brew)

Mealie meal, water & malt are mixed & left to ferment & this mixture is called wort. This is the first fermentation process,
the enzymes found in the malt brake down starch (mealie meal) to maltose & glucose & then ferment these sugars to
alcohol. After this fermentation, the mixture is cooked at 970C for about one hour. Yeast & lactic acid are added. Lactic acid
gives chibuku its sour taste. The second fermentation process will then occur. The yeast cells will then ferment maltose &

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glucose. (sugars from the first fermentation) to produce alcohol. After the second fermentation process, the mixture is then
served. Chibuku is pasteurized, before packaging to kill both yeast cells & any other micro-organisms

Single Cell Protein

The aim here is to produce food in bulk using micro-organisms or the organism being the food itself. It can be used to feed
humans & animals. Filamentous fungus which is very rich in proteins can be produced in large amounts & be used as a
meat substitute. It contains a lot of dietary fibre & very little amount of fat. Unicellular algae, fungi & bacteria have been
used.

Wine
It is made from grapes & these are crushed to release sugar. The yeast found on the grape skin ferments the sugar to make
wine.

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 Yoghurt & cheese
Bacteria are used to ferment milk to form yoghurt & cheese. The bacteria act on the milk sugar (lactose) & convert it to
lactic acid, which in turn coagulates the milk protein, casein to produce a thick creamy substance (yoghurt). The lactic acid
gives the yoghurt its slightly sour taste. In cheese making, the mould can also be involved e.g. adding spores of penicillium
at the fermentation stage to give varieties of cheese.

The Role of Micro-organisms in Fuels & Other Chemicals

 Fuel
In some countries e.g. Brazil, yeast is used to ferment sugar from sugar cane to alcohol (ethanol). The ethanol is
distilled & then concentrated to about 96% alcohol. Pure alcohol will burn in the same way as petrol. It is used in car
engines that are specially adapted. Unlike petrol, it does not pollute the atmosphere.

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 Micro-organism can be used for production of bio-gas, e.g. methane gas. This gas can be produced from decomposing
cow dung using bacteria. This gas can be used as a substitute fro the gas used fro cooking, which is fossil fuel.

 Biological Enzyme Washing Powders

When washing powders are prepared, some biological enzymes are added to help in removing stains from clothes, e.g.
- The enzyme lipase will act on fat stains & make easy to wash the clothes.

- The proteases would act on protein stains & remove the much faster & easier, e.t.c

The Role of Micro-organism in the Production of Medicine (Antibiotics & Vaccines)

Vaccines

They are prepared from dead or inactivated (harmless) micro-organisms {germs} and given to people to immunize them against
diseases, e.g. measles, polio, small pox etc. these germs still have antigens which will provoke the human body to produce
antibodies just like active germs do. These antibodies will be ready to fight germs the moment they invade the body.

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Antibiotics

These are chemicals that are used to kill germs. E.g. penicillin which is produced by a mould fungus, Penicillium. Penicillin is used
to cure bacterial diseases e.g. syphilis & gonorrhea.

This was discovered by a scientist named Alexander Fleming, who was growing bacteria on agar plates, but he left one of the
plates open by accident & a mould started to grow on the surface. He noticed that the mould was stopping the bacteria from
spreading; it seemed to be making a substance that killed the bacteria. Eventually the substance was extracted & used to cure
bacterial diseases. The antibiotic, streptomycin is produced by bacteria called streptomyces.

ECOLOGY

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Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with each other & their environment.

TERMS USED IN ECOLOGY

Community – all organisms of all species living in the same habitat

Habitat – the area where an organism lives
Population – a group of organisms of the same species
Species – a group of organisms of the same kind which mate & produce a fertile offspring
Environment – the surroundings where an organisms lives
Ecosystem – consists of a community & its environment
Food chain – a linear feeding relationship between organisms
Food web – a set of linked food chains showing a more complex but realistic feeding relationship
Producer – an organism which makes its own food e.g. plants. (also known as autotrophs)
Primary consumer – an organism that feeds directly on producers; a.k.a. herbivores
Secondary consumers – an animal that feeds on primary consumers a.k.a. meat eaters/ carnivores
Omnivores – an animal that feeds on both meat & plants e.g. man
Tertiary consumers – organisms that normally feed secondary consumers
Decomposers – organisms that normally feed on dead animal or plant matter
Scavengers – animals that feed on the remains of dead animals e.g. vultures & hyenas
Trophic / feeding level – stage in a food chain or food web
Pyramid of numbers – a diagram showing the number of organisms at each trophic level, the length of the bar is
proportional to the number of organisms.

Ecosystems

An Ecosystem is made of two factors;

- biotic factors ( living factors) which include plants and animals

- abiotic factors ( non-living factors) which include the habitat (a place where an organism lives) and the physical factors
that influence it e.g. temperature, soil type, rainfall; (or a community of organisms interacting with their environment)

Energy flow in ecosystems

Energy flow refers to the movement of energy from one trophic level to another.

All energy for an ecosystem which flows through an ecosystem comes from the sun, i.e. the sun the principal source of energy.

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Energy is transferred through an ecosystem by feeding, when one organism eats another organism some energy is passed on.

The Sun (principal source of energy)

Green Plants (photosynthesis)

Herbivores (starch eaters)

Carnivores (meat eaters)

Decomposers (carcass eaters)

The feeding relationships are shown using food chains, food webs &. Food pyramids.

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Food chains

Should always begin with a producer

Should have arrows to indicate the direction of energy flow

A food chain is a linear representation of how energy is passed between organisms, & has one type of organism at each feeding
(trophic) level. There are usually 4 to 5 feeding levels in a food chain, and these levels are called trophic/feeding levels.

The first trophic level is Producers. These are always green plants / green algae which are photosynthetic. Producers produce
food for the next trophic level, which are primary consumers. These are always plant eaters so they are called Herbivores. The
primary consumers are eaten by secondary consumers, also referred to as carnivores because they eat other animals. The
tertiary consumers feed largely on secondary consumers.

Producers Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary Consumers

e.g.

1. grass zebra lion vulture

2. algae tadpole water scorpion perch

Food webs

A food web is a complex but more realistic way of presenting energy flow – made of several food chains interlinked. Producers
& all the consumers stated above are fed on by Decomposers.

Producers Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary Consumers

Decomposers

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e.g.

Owl Flea Tick

Shrew Fox Weasel Badger

Caterpillars Rabbit Grasshopper

Oak tree Grass

The arrows show the direction of flow of energy. Energy is not cyclical meaning that it does not return to its source & it can be
used over & over.

Energy is either lost or used up along the food chain.

Most energy is passed on between producers & tertiary consumers, but also most of it is lost i.e. only 10% of the energy is
passed on from one trophic level to the next. A very small amount of energy reaches the tertiary level. After that there is not
enough energy to support life at fourth consumer level. More energy is found at the beginning of the food chain & it decreases
up the trophic levels. Some of the energy is lost through,

- Respiration to provide body heat

- Ineffective digestion and absorption in the guts of consumers as faeces

This means that there are more producers & a few consumers. This can be illustrated using a pyramid of numbers as shown
below

Food pyramids

These are of two types;

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 - Pyramid of numbers
- Pyramid of biomass

Pyramid of numbers

They can look like true pyramids

.
Tertiary consumers

. Secondary consumers

. Primary consumers

Producers
.

They can also be inverted as in the case of parasitic feeding relationships where there are a large number of parasites feeding on
a host.

Pyramids of Biomass

These are diagrams that show the mass of organisms at each trophic level. The length of the bar is proportional to the mass of
organisms

Perch

Water scorpion
Tadpole

Algae

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Non – Cyclical flow of Energy

Energy cannot be recycled in an ecosystem but nutrients can be recycled, carbon & nitrogen for example, can be used again &
again in different forms in an ecosystem.

Energy does not flow backwards & return to the sun therefore we say that the energy flow through the ecosystem is non-
cyclical

producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary consumer

The Carbon Cycle

 Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is used by plants to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis. Therefore
green plants remove carbon from the atmosphere.
 Plants are eaten by animals, so the process of feeding passes carbon from plants to animals.
 Plants and animals respire all the time when there are alive, and respiration releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
 When plants & animals die, they are decomposed by bacteria & this causes decay. This process also releases CO2 to
the atmosphere. Through these processes the carbon cycle is balanced
Photosynthesis is balanced naturally by Respiration & Decay

 However, human beings have upset the cycle by adding more CO2 to the air. This is caused by combustion of fossil fuels
like; natural gas, crude oil, coal.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Plants use the
atmospheric CO2 to make
carbohydrates
RESPIRATION FEEDING
CO2 in the
atmosphere
DECAY Animal tissue formed
from eating plant tissue
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 FOSSILISATION

COMBUSTION

Fossil fuels; e.g.

natural gas, Coal,
Crude oil

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

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Processes which add nitrates to the soil

1. Nitrogen fixation

In this process nitrogen gas from the atmosphere is incorporated into nitrogen compounds such as nitrites, nitrates or
ammonia.

a) Nitrogen fixing bacteria,

Some group of these bacteria lives in root nodules of leguminous plants like peas and beans and can absorb nitrogen in the air
and convert it to compounds of ammonia in the soil. The compounds of ammonia can then be converted to nitrates by other
nitrifying bacteria, e.g rhizhobium

Other nitrogen fixing bacteria live freely in the soil, e.g. azotobacter and chlostridium.

2) Nitrification

This process involves oxidation of nitrogen compounds to produce nitrates in the soil

a) Nitrifying bacteria

These bacteria living in the soil use ammonia from excretory products of animals urea and uric acid and decaying organisms as
energy source and in the process they produce nitrates. Nitrates are readily absorbed by plants as they are water soluble
compared to nitrites which are water insoluble and not readily absorbed by plants.

3. Adding nitrogenous fertilizers to the soil

Processes which remove nitrates from the soil

1. Denitrification

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In this process nitrogen in nitrates is lost to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas. Denitrifying bacteria break down nitrates and
return nitrogen contained in nitrates to the atmosphere, eg Thiobacillus denitrificans, Micrococcus denitrificans, Paracoccus
denitrificans.

2. Uptake by plants

Plants absorb nitrates from the soil and use nitrogen in the nitrates to make plant protein. This protein can be consumed by
animals and converted to animal protein..

3. Leaching

When the plants and animals die and decay as a result of action of saprophytic bacteria , ammonia is produced and is washed
into the soil. Nitrates can also be washed deep into the soil.

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON THE ENVIRONMENT

There is a natural balance between plants & animals, as shown by food webs & food chains. However human activities upset the
balance, harming the environment & posing many problems to human beings themselves. Examples are given below

How Poor Agricultural Practices Result in the Destruction of Ecosystems

1) Monoculture

This means growing one type of crop on the same piece of land year after year. The crop uses up nutrients in the soil making it
unable to support other plant life and this leads to desertification. Such crops cannot support a mixed population of organisms.
It also leads to the displacement of the natural plants & animals, as the land will be cleared for growing that particular crop.
Monoculture can also results on the use of pesticides to control pests affecting that crop, but this often kills not only the pests
but also other beneficial organisms.

2) Overstocking

This means keeping a large number of livestock with a small area. This leads to overgrazing which might lead to soil erosion and
eventually desertification. Overgrazing also leads to the destruction of habitats for small organisms.

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 3) Deforestation

This refers to the cutting down of too many trees (for the purposes of building industries, residential houses, construction of
roads & other things) without replacing them. This may lead to soil erosion as it leaves the soil exposed, may result in
desertification. The cutting down of trees reduces te number of plants to use up carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. As a result
carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere leading to the Green House Effect and global warming.

Most habitats are also destroyed & also certain plant species are destroyed. The noise caused during the construction drive
away some animals & hence disturbing the ecosystem.

4) Pesticides

Some insecticides such as DDT are non-biodegradable, i.e. cannot be decomposed by biological organisms. Therefore they enter
the smaller organisms in the food chain. The concentration of this insecticide increases up the trophic levels hence the tertiary
consumer may die due to higher concentrations of the insecticides. This is called Bioaccumulation.

Vulture

Cat Consumes many organisms which had consumed more organisms with high
concentrations of the pesticides

Lizard
Mosquito Treated with pesticides & therefore more small organisms will be affected by the
pesticide

5) The use of Fertilizers

Fertilizers rich in nitrates are normally used to enrich the soil for better crop yields. If these nitrates are washed into rivers due
to running water, they promote rapid and excess growth of aquatic plants or algae . These plants will flourish and become
overpopulated. This process is called EUTROPHICATION.

Eutrophication – the process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of nutrients, especially nitrates. These
promote excessive growth of algae. As the algae decompose, dissolved oxygen is used up causing suffocation and death of other
organisms such as fish.

PROBLEMS LEADING TO FAMINE

 Unequal Distribution of Food

The country may have enough food but not equally distributed among the whole population. There are certain areas where
people are extremely poor due to lack of food while in other areas in the same country people have more than enough.

 Natural Disasters

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Certain areas may experience heavy rainfall resulting in floods, which may destroy many houses & vegetation. People will
remain poor without shelter & food. In certain areas it may be very hot & dry without any rain which will make farming
impossible. Since many people rely on farming, they will starve because livestock will be destroyed & no crops will be grown.

 Increase in Population
If there are too many people in a given area & less resources, there will be a serious problem because there will be acute
shortage of food supply.

POLLUTION

It is the presence of harmful substances in an environment

OR

It refers to bringing about changes that are destructive to both living & non-living things in an environment.

These harmful substances are called POLLUTANTS

Types of Pollution

Air Pollution

The presence of pollutants in the atmosphere causes air pollution. E.g. poisonous gases from industries results in the pollution
of air. One of the most common gases released from industries is Sulphur dioxide. When this gas combines with the moisture in
the atmosphere, it fall down as acid, which corrodes buildings & destroys vegetation.

Excess CO2 in the atmosphere can also bring about some problems. An increase in CO2 may be due to burning fuels; e.g. fire
wood, fossil fuels etc. at a higher rate & also due to the cutting down of trees which could otherwise help in reducing the CO2
concentration in the atmosphere when they use the CO2 for photosynthesis.

CO2 from combustion accumulates in the atmosphere to form a layer. This layer prevents heat reflected from the earth’s
surface from escaping out of the atmosphere, a condition referred to as the green house effect. If the concentration of CO2 is
very high it means more heat will be trapped leading to a rise in the earth’s temperature. This is known as Global Warming.

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Effects of global warming

- Melting of polar ice

- Rise in sea levels
- Change in weather patterns
- Rapid spread of pests and diseases

Some oxides such as lead oxide released from car exhausts may also pollute the air & are harmful to people when inhaled.

Water Pollution

 Sewage Disposal
Some waste materials from toilets and kitchens when drained into rivers will cause water pollution. This waste contains
disease causing micro-organisms which may result in people catching diseases if they use this untreated water, e.g.
cholera, bilharzia etc.

 Inorganic wastes
These are usually the waste materials from industries which when discharged into rivers, pollute the water. This waste may
contain poisonous chemical substances such as mercury, lead etc. If they enter the food chain e.g. e.g. from small fish up to
human beings, they may cause serious health problems such as cancers or even death.

Land Pollution

The land may be polluted by litter e.g. tins, papers, glasses etc, which may end up acting as breeding places for disease causing
micro-organisms. The land may also be polluted by disposed chemicals, which may destroy beneficial organisms.

CONSERVATION

This involves preserving habitats & protecting individual species of plants & animals.

Advantages

1. it ensures biodiversity
2. it ensures the protection & keeping of species with survival value

Reasons for Conserving Organisms

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 1. they are a source of food e.g. Mowana & Mosukujane
2. For medicinal purposes e.g. sengaparile (devil’s claw) & monepenepe
3. For tourist attraction e.g. rhinos, cheetahs, lions etc.

Material Recycling

This is one way of conserving materials & it involves the use & reuse of materials (i.e. reprocessing of used materials to be used
again).

Reasons For Recycling

1. Reduces pollution
2. reduces pressure on natural resources
3. saves land that could have been used to build dumping sites and dams for sewage for some other purposes
4. Saves money because there is no need to new materials

Examples of Recycling

 Sewage water can be recycled by watering gardens and road construction

 Organic waste can be fermented to produce methane gas, which is used in cooking and other things.
 Empty bottles can be cleansed and reused in the packaging of drinks, like at kgalagadi breweries
 Scrap metals, plastic & tins can be heated up & molded to make new items.

HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis means to keeping the internal environment constant.

In mammals a variety of organs play specific roles in homeostasis.

Organs Concerned Factors controlled

Kidneys Water (osmo-regulation), pH &

urea

Lungs CO2 & O2

Skin Temperature

Liver Glucose levels in blood

Pancreas (islets of Langerhans) glucose

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 TEMPERATURE REGULATION / HEAT BALANCE

1. For mammals to maintain a constant body temperature, there must be a balance between heat gain and
heat loss.
2.
3. Some activities in the body may cause body to gain some heat (and hence cause a rise in body temperature);
these include;
 Contraction of body muscles – high rate of respiration which produce more heat
 Respiration in cells release heat energy
 Direct sunlight/fire
 hot food/drinks

Environmental temperature may drop to sub-zero degrees resulting in heat loss.

Failure to adjust to these temperature changes may lead to excessive heal loss (hypothermia) or overheating of the body
(hyperthermia), both of which may lead to death.

The Skin

Functions of the skin

a) Protection – the outermost layer of the dead cells of the epidermis helps to reduce water loss & provides a barrier. The
melanin pigment produced by the mulphigian layer protects the skin from damage by ultra-violet light rays.

b) Sensitivity – scattered throughout the skin are a large number of tiny receptors which give rise to sensations of pain, pressure,
heat & cold. These make us aware of changes in our surroundings & enable us to avoid danger.

c) Temperature Regulation - Keeping the human body temperature constant is an example of a homeostatic mechanism. The
skin plays an important role in maintaining a constant body temperature by adjusting blood flow near the skin surface & by
sweating.

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  Hair Follicle – This gives rise to hair found on the surface
 Sebaceous gland – Secretes an oily substance called sebum. This goes onto the skin surface to keep it soft & supple
 Sweat glands – Absorb excess water and salts to make sweat
 Blood vessels – These supply the skin with useful substances such as food & take away excess heat and waste such as
CO2 from the skin.
 Nerve endings – These are receptors to touch, pressure, heat etc; they pick up stimuli in the skin & also bring motor
impulses to the skin.
 Adipose tissue – (sub – cutaneous fats found below the skin), it is food store and also insulates the internal organs &
prevents excessive heat loss.

THE SKIN AND TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans;

Overcooling;

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 If the temperature of blood falls below normal ( hypothermia) , the thermoreceptors of the hypothalamus in the brain detects
this, impulses are sent to the skin for the blood’s temperature to be increased. The skin will respond by;

i. Hair erector muscles contract

ii. Hair on the skin surface stands erect. This helps to
a. trap pockets air that insulates the body
b. Less heat is lost from the skin by conduction

iii. Vaso-Constriction – this is the reduction on diameter of the blood vessels running near the skin surface.

This
a. reduces blood flow near the skin surface & thus
b. heat loss by conduction is greatly reduced.

The blood vessels also sink deep into the skin.

iv. Sweat production stops – heat is conserved when there is no evaporation of sweat from the skin.
.

v. Shivering – shivering is an involuntary muscular contraction in response to a drop in body temperature. During these
muscular contractions a lot of heat energy is released.

vi. Sweat production is highly reduced

a. Less heat is lost during evaporation

Overheating

If the blood’s temperature rises above normal ( hyperthermia), the thermoregulatory centre of the hypothalamus detects this,
impulses are sent to the skin to cool the blood. The skin responds by;

i. Erector muscles relax

ii. Hair on the skin lies flat on the skin surface – these makes

a. Air currents to easily flow close to the skin surface, collecting sweat & heat energy away from the body.
b. Layer of air trapped by hair reduces therefore insulation reduces
c. More heat is lost through radiation from the skin

iii. Vaso-dilation – blood vessels in the skin increase in diameter. As a result

a. more blood flows near the skin surface.
b. More heat is lost by radiation

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 iv. Producing sweat – Sweat glands absorb water, excess salts & urea from the blood to make sweat. This is transported to
the skin surface through the sweat duct to the sweat pore. As the sweat evaporates, it draws excess heat from the
blood capillaries and one feels cooler.

All these actions increase heat loss thus bringing body temperature back to normal.

The role of the brain in temperature regulation

The hypothalamus located in the brain, detects the temperature of the blood. The thermoregulatory centre (in the
hypothalamus) receives sensory impulses from the skin. If the blood is too hot, the hypothalamus sends an impulse to skin. The
effect of this motor impulse will cause the skin to respond through the activities that cool the blood as outlined above. This
mechanism of coordination is known as “Negative Feedback Mechanism”.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

This is a pattern of regulation in which a change in a sensed variable results in a correction that opposes the change, e.g.

When the blood sugar level rises above normal, the hypothalamus will detect this increase and engage processes which
decrease the blood sugar level, i.e. release of insulin resulting in conversion of glucose to glycogen. This process will continue
until glucose level goes below normal, then the hypothalamus engages another process, insulin production stop and glucagon is
released to counteract this decrease.

Osmo-regulation (water balance)

Water balance in the body is achieved by regulating the amount of water in the urine. This is made possible by the action of
ADH – Anti-Diuretic Hormone produced in the pituitary gland.

Importance of water balance

Water is gained by the body from drinks & food and also produced within through respiration.

It is lost through urine, sweat, faeces & as vapour in the exhaled air. It is imperative that there is balance between water gained
& lost. If this balance breaks down then the body cells will either gain or loss water through osmosis resulting in malfunctioning.

Generally kidneys regulate the amount of water present in the body by variation of the urine produced as depicted in the flow
diagram below.

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Regulation of glucose level

The recommended sugar level must be around 160mg/100cm3. When the concentration of blood sugar increases, insulin is
released by the islets of Langerhans cells in the pancreas into the blood stream. Upon reaching the liver, it stimulates the liver
cells to take up excess glucose & convert it to glycogen for storage. When the glucose levels in the blood drop another hormone
called glucagon is released to stimulate the liver cells to convert glycogen back to glucose.

Pancreas stimulated to release insulin

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 Brain detects high levels Liver converts excess
of blood sugar glucose to glycogen

NORMAL BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL

Low levels of blood Liver converts stored

sugar detected glycogen to glucose

Pancreas stimulated to
release glucagon

EXCRETION

This refers to the removal of toxic metabolic waste from the body. There are several organs which play an important role in this
process.

EXCRETORY ORGAN EXCRETORY PRODUCT

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 Lungs Carbon dioxide

Kidneys Nitrogenous waste, water, toxins, used

drugs, hormones & excess salts.

Liver Bile pigments

THE URINARY SYSTEM

Functions of parts

i) Blood vessels

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  Renal artery; brings oxygenated blood to the kidneys from the aorta. This blood is rich in food materials, oxygen &
waste substances such as urea.

 Renal vein; carries deoxygenated blood from the kidneys to the vena cava.

ii) Kidneys

These are bean shaped organs found in the abdomen towards the back. They filter the blood and remove any waste to form a
substance called urine.

iii) Ureter

This is a tube that emerges from of the two kidneys and serves to transport urine from kidneys to the bladder.

iv) Bladder

It is a muscular organ that stores urine. It is kept closed by a ring of muscles called sphincter muscles, which relax at certain
times to let urine out of the bladder. An adult’s bladder can hold between 450-500ml of urine.

v) Urethra

It is a tube that carries urine to the outside of the body. In females it carries urine only, whilst in males it transports both urine &
semen but at different times.

Structure of Kidney

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The functions of the kidneys are to

 remove urea & excess salts from the blood.

 Remove excess water from blood

The kidney has two regions; the cortex & the medulla. The cortex appears dark red since the glomerulus is located in this region.
The medulla is lighter than cortex this is where the rest of renal tubule lies, towards the ureter.

KIDNEY FAILURE

Kidneys may not perform their function if they have been affected by diseases or as a result of sudden drop in blood pressure,
maybe due to road accidents. If the kidney fails one can have a kidney transplant or use an “artificial” kidney or dialysis
machine. During a kidney transplant a close relative is usually the best candidate. Sometimes the patient’s immune system can
resist the transplanted kidney, therefore immunosuppressant drugs are used to minimize rejection.

Dialysis machine

Dialysis in kidney machines is diffusion of waste products and salts through a partially permeable membrane.

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Blood from a patient suffering from kidney failure is led from the patient’s vein into the dialysis tubing which is made of
cellulose material. The tubing is partially permeable allowing small molecules such as those of salts, glucose & urea to diffuse
out into the dialysis fluid from their high concentration in blood to their low concentration in dialysis fluid. Larger substances
such as proteins are not allowed into or out of the dialysis tubing.

The continuous coiling of the tubing enables a large surface area for a lot of diffusion to take place. The dialysis fluid is
constantly changed to maintain the diffusion gradient from blood to the dialysis fluid.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

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Nervous system is made up of the Central Nervous System (Brain and Spinal cord) and the Peripheral Nervous System (Nerves
around the rest of the body).

This system enables organisms to;

i) detect changes in the environment and

ii) responds to these changes.

A Stimulus is a change in the environment (inside or outside the body) that must be detected. Egs; sound, smell, touch, light etc.

A receptor is a tissue or organ made up of sensory cells that can detect a stimulus. Eg;

 receptor cells in skin to detect change in temperature (thermoreceptors)

 receptor cells on the retina (rod and cone cells) to detect light (--photoreceptors)

An effector is a tissue/ organ which responds to stimulus. Egs; a) muscles, b) glands (especially endocrine glands)

After receiving the stimulus, the receptor cell initiates an electric impulse which travels through the sensory neuron to the CNS.
The CNS which is made up of relay or multi-polar neurons then interprets the impulses and sends feedback through the motor
neurons. The feedback is received by effector organs which are mainly muscles and glands, which carry out a response action.
The time taken from reception of the stimulus to carrying out a response is called reaction time.

Sense, sense organs and their stimuli

Sense Stimulus Sensory organ

Sight light eye

Smell chemical molecules nose

Taste chemical molecules tongue

Hearing sound ear

Touch /feel pressure skin

Components of Nervous system

1. Peripheral nervous system

2. Central nervous system

The Peripheral nervous system

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It is made of nerves connecting the body to the CNS.

Nerves are made of bundles of nerve cells called neurones. There are three types of neurones

1.Sensory Neurone; Transmits nerve impulses from receptor organs to the CNS.

2. Motor Neurone; Transmits nerve impulses from CNS to the effectors. Cell bodies of these neurones are located in the CNS.
The axons are long.

3. Relay (Multi-polar) Neurone

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 Transmits electrical impulse;

 within Central Nervous System

 from sensory neurone to relay neurone

Synapse

A junction between the end plate of one neurone the dendrone of the next.

An impulse arrives at the synapse

1. at the end plate are the sacs containing a chemical called neurotransmitter

2. the chemical is released into the gap

3. the chemical diffuses into the gap and the impulse restarts at the other side

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 An electrical impulse change into a chemical called neurotransmitter which travels through the synapse to generate a
nerve impulse in the next neurone.

Voluntary and Involuntary actions

All the actions that we perform during responses may be classified under two groups; voluntary and involuntary actions.

Voluntary actions are those that involve the thinking action of the brain. A person is fully aware that he is doing something, e.g.
eating, playing soccer, etc. These impulses are interpreted by the brain which then sends feedback to the effector organs.

Involuntary actions on the other hand do not involve thinking and they happen subconsciously, i.e. a person does not have full
control of such actions. Some of these involuntary actions take place as basic operation of our body processes, e.g. excretion,
heartbeat, sweating, shivering, etc. Others occur automatically in order to adjust to an environmental change which might
endanger the body. These are known as reflex actions. Some reflex actions are relayed in the spinal cord. This means that the
motor impulses are sent by the spinal cord the moment it receives the sensory impulse. They are known as spinal reflex actions.
Examples include the Hand withdrawal reflex and knee jerk reflex. The pathway carried by impulses during a reflex action is
called a reflex arc.

REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC

A reflex action is a quick, rapid and automatic response to a stimulus.A reflex arc is the path taken by an impulse in a reflex
action.

Other reflexes may be relayed by the brain, but still these do not involve thinking. Pupil reflex is an example of brain reflexes. As
light entering the eye increases, the pupil reduces to reduce light entering the eye.

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 HORMONAL COORDINATION

The Hormonal or Endocrine system is the other of the two systems involved with coordination of body activities. The endocrine
glands secrete hormones which are then transported in the circulatory system.

A hormone is a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by blood, which alters activity of one or more target organs.
or
A hormone is a chemical substance secreted by endocrine gland, transported in blood to the target organ where it effects a
change.

The endocrine glands are also known as ductless glands, e.g. ovary. This implies that they do not release or transport their
products through ducts. Exocrine glands have ducts and they form a sac where the product accumulates before being released,
e.g. salivary gland. However, some glands have both the endocrine and exocrine functions, i.e. they release some products
through ducts and at the same time they can secrete hormones into the blood, e.g. pancreas

Location of endocrine glands in the body.

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Endocrine System Vs Nervous System
Message sent in the form of chemicals sent as electrical impulse

Transported in blood transported in nerve fibres

Response is slow quick response

Wide spread (dispersed throughout the body) localized (confined to the targeted part)

Long term effects e.g. growth short term effects

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 PLANT GROWTH SUBSTANCES

Plants also produce substances which are equivalent to hormones in animals. However these are not produced by glands as in
animals, but by certain cells and they may not be necessarily transported from their site of synthesis. These substances are
known to regulate plant growth, control reproduction, induce flowering, leaf shedding, fruit formation, response to stimuli, etc.

Five major types of growth substances have been recognized: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethylene.

THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS

Drug; Any substance taken in from an external source to affect or modify chemical reactions in the body.

Drugs can be classified as medicinal and non-medicinal

MEDICINAL DRUGS;

These drugs are used in medicine because of their healing properties. All medicines contain drugs.

Medicinal drugs can be used as;

a) Painkillers (Analgesics) which relief pain but do not cure the disease.
Eg; aspirin, panado, paracetamol, morphine ect.

b) Antibotics Cure disease by killing the organism causing the disease. (treat bacterial infections) Eg; penicillin,
streptomycin (TB drug)

c) Antacids are used to neutralise excessive acids in the body esp stomach acids
Eg; indigestion remedies like Sodium Bicarbonate

d) Anti-retroviral drugs are used to halt multiplication of viruses

ALLERGY
This is the hypersensitivity or the over-reaction of the body (‘s immune system) to some specific substances which are generally
harmless.

Allergens {antigens detected by the body’s lymphocytes (?)} may come from (as) the following;

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 1. Pollen grains
2. animal fur
3. hair
4. dust
5. penicillin and other drugs
6. Named food substances, eg; sea food,

In response to these substances the body releases chemical substances called histamines which produce the following
symptoms (allergic reactions);

1. rash
2. breathlessness (asthma)
3. swollen eyes
4. sweating
5. excessive production of mucus
6. cramps
7. sneezing
8. itching
9. vomiting/nausea

Antihistamine creams can be used to relieve symptoms of an allergy.

NON-MEDICINAL DRUGS (also called ABUSIVE DRUGS)

These drugs may not be used as medicines (may not be prescribed by doctors) due to their adverse effects on the body; some
may damage body tissues like liver and brain, most of these drugs cause tolerance, addiction and dependence.

Tolerance

This is when the body needs an increasing dose to give the same effects as before i.e the body requires a larger dose to give the
same effects as time goes on.

Addiction/ Dependence (emotional and physical)

This is the state of reliance on a drug for normal functioning of the body.

Emotional dependence

The abuser believes he feels normal or can operate better under the influence of the drug

Physical dependence

The body of the abuser works normally only under the influence of the drug

Non-medicinal drugs are classified due to their effect on the Central Nervous System (CNS) which are;

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 a) Depressants (sedatives). These slow down the action of the CNS, making the user to feel relaxed, sleepy, less anxious,
less shy etc. eg; alcohol, heroin, anaesthetics.

b) Stimulants speed up action of CNS making user to feel more confident, alert, exited. Eg; caffeine (in tea and coffee),
cocaine, nicotine (in tobacco).

c) Hallucinogens alter the passage of nerve impulses thru the brain causing the user to experience hallucinations(false
perceptions of the real world affecting senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch and taste), eg. Dagga, Heroin, glue,
solvents, LSD etc.

DRUG ABUSE
This means using drug beyond its original purpose which may result in personal, psychological, social and physical problems.

Reasons for abusing drugs

1. Most people abuse drugs which make the user to feel; relaxed, calm, pleasure.
2. Relief stress (forget problems)
3. Peer pressure
4. Curiosity, to experiment
5. Escape from boredom
6. Rebel against authority

Dangers of abusing drugs

1. Tolerance; Development of a resistance to the effects of a drug, where the user takes increasingly larger doses of the
drug in order to experience the same effect.

2. Addiction; User develops a dependence on the drug. He can not do without it.

Types of dependence

EXAMPLES OF ABUSED DRUGS

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1. Heroin

2. Dagga/ marijuana

3. Glue/solvents

4. Spirits

HEROIN

It is inhaled, injected or smoked

Effects;

a) Hallucinating
b) Stupor
c) Nausea
d) Vomiting
e) Temporary Sterility and impotence
f) Unconscious
g) Addiction

Reasons for abusing Heroin

a) Euphoria seeking
b) Avoid withdrawal symptoms

Withdrawal Symptoms of Heroin

If an addict stops to take Heroin, he will become sick and develop the following withdrawal Symptoms;

a) Nervousness
b) Chills
c) Sweating
d) Hot and cold flushes
e) Nausea
f) Diarrhoea
g) Stomach cramps

DANGERS OF CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL

(Alcoholism -excessive alcohol consumption)

Alcohol does not need to be digested so it gets absorbed straight into the blood immediately.

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Effects of alcohol

-alcohol is a depressant so;

1. It increases reaction time of the user and this is a main cause of road accidents
2. It leads to slurred speech, loss of muscle control, double vision (may cause road accidents too)
3. Memory loss and lowered judgement
4. Damages the liver ( Causes Liver cirrhosis)
5. Damages the Brain (damages brain cells)
6. Drinking mothers may pass it to foetus thru placenta resulting in babies born smaller, less intelligent, disfigured. Or
even miscarriages.
7. Social Effects include; reduced self-control (Always in debts), reduced sense of responsibility (some pple end up losing
jobs), unreliable, aggressive behaviour (even to family). Increased HIV/AIDS exposure due to careless behaviour.
Increased crime (Burglary, prostitution etc to get money to buy drug).

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