P a g e | 1 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN
HISTOLOGY
(lecture)
LEVELS OF CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ system ->
Organism
HISTOLOGY – study of tissue, their functions
and their arrangement to constitute an organ.
TISSUE – group of cells specialized to carry on
an interrelation function and their associated
extracellular matrix.
- Made up of two (2) components:
CELLS & EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
TISSUE = CELLS + EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX – the ECM is
composed of many kinds of:
(1) GROUND SUBSTANCE and
(2) FIBERS
ECM – also provides support to the cells,
transport nutrients and eliminate wastes.
Note:
• Cells produce extracellular matrix
• But the contents of the ECM may affect
the function of the cells
• Orderly combination of tissue
PREPARATION OF TISSUES FOR STUDY
- To study tissue, one must prepare
thin and translucent histological
sections or tissue slices that can be
studied with the aid of a
microscope.
HISTOLOGY LABORATORY
FIXATION – since cellular decomposition
begins immediately after the death of a
human/patient.
(1) avoid tissue destruction by digestive
enzymes (Autolysis) or through bacterial
degradation.
(2) Terminate cell metabolism
(3) Preserve the structure and molecular
composition
(4) Kill pathogenic microorganisms such
as bacteria, fungi and viruses
(5) Hardens the tissue by cross-linking or
denaturing proteins
WHY DO WE NEED TO CUT TISSUES IN
SMALL PORTIONS?
- In order to penetrate the fixative to
the cellular level
- Commonly used fixative is 10%
FORMALIN.
DECALCIFICATION – only done in specimens
such as bone and calcified tissues.
- E.g. (NITRIC ACID)
DEHYDRATION – done by successively
bathing the specimen in mixture of ETHANOL
and WATER from 70% - 100% (95%).
Dehydration – increasing of alcohol
Rehydration – decreasing of alcohol
- Alcohol removes water out of
tissue.
CLEARING – removal of the dehydrating agent
by immersing the specimen in the solvent that
the alcohol and embedding medium is
MISCIBLE (homogenous to liquid).
- XYLENE (solvent)
INFILTRATION – tissue is placed in melted
paraffin in an oven at 52*C – 60*C
- Evaporation of the clearing agent.
EMBEDDING – the tissue and paraffin will
harden after removal from oven.
• PLASTIC RESIN
- Makes use of plastic solution which
hardens tissue by cross-linking
polymers.
- Eliminates the need to use oven and
paraffin; little tissue distortion.
CUTTING & SECTIONING – after the specimen
is hardened, it is trimmed into appropriately
sized blocks.
Cutting – is removal of excess paraffin
- The block is then mounted in
MICROTOME and cut with a steal
knife
P a g e | 2 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

Sectioning – is done with the aid of (2) PERIODIC ACID SCHIFF – for
microtome CARBOHYDRATE
- 3-10 um (micrometer) for light (3) SUDAN BLACK B – for LIPIDS
microscope
Microtome – machine embedded with steal
FROZEN SECTIONS – fixation is done by rapid
knife.
freezing.
- MAYER’S EGG ALBUMIN
✓ Compressed carbon dioxide
(adhesive)
✓ Liquid nitrogen (common freezing
STAINING – since paraffin is colorless, staining agent)
is a must.
- Sectioning is done thru
- Before staining, the following
CRYOSTAT (a refrigerated
should be done:
compartment containing
(1) Removal of paraffin by XYLOL
microtome)
or TOLUOL.
(2) Rehydration of tissue by Note: METHOD IS RAPID
descending concentration of
- Routinely done in hospital to
alcohol.
study specimens during surgery
STAINING – most dyes act acidic or basic - Lipids and enzymes are best
compounds. preserved in this method.
- Tissues with negative
charges(anions)/acids are readily
stained with basic dyes.
- BASOPHILIC (basic dye)
- Nucleic acids = Nucleus
- Tissues with positive charges
(cations) are stained with acidic
dyes
- ACIDOPHILIC (acidic dye)
✓ Mitochondria
✓ Collagen
✓ Cytoplasm
- HEMATOXYLIN & EOSIN

Most commonly used stain in

histology

- HEMATOXYLIN is a basic dye (e.g.,

Alcian Blue); usually stains
nucleus and RNA containing
portion of cytoplasm.
- EOSIN is acidic dye; usually
cytoplasmic components and
collagen.
MOUNTING – placing cut sections in a slide
with adhesives such as pinene or acrylic resins.
- CANADA BALSAM (ABUS
BALSAMEA)
CHEMICAL STAINS
(1) FEULGEN REACTION – for DNA
P a g e | 3 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

THE CELL fluidity and movement of membrane

components.
(lecture) ~PLASMA MEMBRANE (PROTEINS)~
It composed of three (3) basic parts: • INTEGRAL (transmembrane proteins)
(1) CELL MEMBRANE - Directly incorporated within the
bilipid layer, can only be
(2) NUCLEUS extracted if membrane is
(3) CYTOPLASM disrupted with detergents.

CYTOSOL – Fluid component • PERIPHERAL PROTEINS

ORGANELLES – Solid component - Exhibit looser association with
one of the two membranes; can be
CELL MEMBRANE easily extracted with salt
solutions.
Plasma membrane
Outermost boundary of the cell Note:
Regulates passage of molecules in and
out of the cell INTEGRAL PROTEINS – via Detergents
BILIPID LAYER (saponification).

PLASMA MEMBRANE PERIPHERAL PROTEINS – via Salt

solution.
Composition:
(1) Phospholipid
~PLASMA MEMBRANE (CARBOHYDRATES)~
• GLYCOLIPIDS/GLYCOPROTEINS
- Bilipid layer, with phosphate (Glycocalyx)
head and hydrophobic tail - May act as receptors that
(2) Cholesterol participate in cell adhesion,
recognition and response to
(3) Proteins hormones and other extracellular
components.
(4) Oligosaccharides/Carbohydrates
~PLASMA MEMBRANE (PHOSPHOLIPIDS)~
MOVEMENTS OF SUBSTANCES
• Phospholipid (Bilipid layer)
✓ Passive diffusion
- Composed of non-
- Passive transport proceeds as
polar/hydrophobic/water-
diffusion from areas of high
repelling fatty acids and a
concentration to areas of low
polar/hydrophilic/water-
concentration.
attracting.
➢ Simple
Note: ➢ Facilitated
✓ Active transport
HEAD – Hydrophilic
- Active transport proceeds against
TAIL – Hydrophobic the concentration gradient, and
requires an input of energy.
P – Potassium
ENDOCYTOSIS
I – In
➢ Bulk uptake of materials across the cell
S – Sodium
membrane.
O – out
(1) Phagocytosis
~PLASMA MEMBRANE (CHOLESTEROL)~
- white blood cells (neutrophils and
• Inserted among closely packed macrophages) take up solid materials.
phospholipids restricting their
movements and thus modulating
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Engulfment of bacteria, 3) Sequester Calcium in the muscles

protozoa, dead cells and (Sarcoplasmic Reticulum)
unneeded extracellular
GOLGI APPARATUS
constituents.
The phagocytosed material is o Modifies, store and package proteins
then enclosed in a phagosome. synthesized from the R.E.R
o Cis face and Trans face
(2) Fluid-phase endocytosis (Pinocytosis)
LYSOSOMES
Small invaginations of the cell
membrane form and entrap o site for intracellular digestion and
Fluids which are then enclosed turnover of cellular components
in pinocytotic vesicles o contains different digestive enzymes
which are active at acidic pH
(3) Receptor-Mediated endocytosis
(cytoplasm pH is 7.2)
- involves receptors
PEROXISOMES
Binding of ligand/target
o contains catalase enzyme which
molecule to the receptor will
breaks down hydrogen peroxide which
cause widely dispersed
can be damaging to cells
receptors to aggregate which
o site of fatty acid beta oxidation which
results to the take up of the
yields acetyl coA
ligand
CENTRIOLES
MEMBRANE TRAFFICKING
o synthesize the mitotic spindle needed
• During ENDOCYTOSIS, part of the
during cell division
membrane becomes part of the vesicles.
During EXOCYTOSIS, the membrane is
returned to the cell surface.
MITOCHONDRIA
- Membrane-enclosed organelle
that functions for ATP production.
- Highest in number in cardiac
muscles and kidney tubules
- Inner membrane is folded into
CRISTAE which project into
matrix and greatly increase
membrane’s surface area
- The mitochondrial matrix also
contains a small circular
chromosome of DNA and sets of
mRNAs.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Two (2) types:
(1) ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
✓ With ribosomes
✓ Continuous with nuclear membrane
(2) SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
✓ Devoid of ribosomes
FUNCTIONS OF THE S.E.R.
1) Lipid synthesis
2) Drug metabolism
P a g e | 5 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

THE CELL NUCLEUS NUCLEAR PORE COMPLEX

o Transport of substances in and out of
(lecture) the cell
Nucleus contain DNA o Composed of nucleoporins

✓ Blueprint for all cell structures and NOTE:

functions ➢ The DNA of a human being can reach
✓ Controls center of the cell the moon
✓ Site of DNA replication ➢ The DNA is wound around positively
✓ Site of RNA synthesis charged proteins called HISTONES.
COMPONENTS OF NUCLEUS
(1) NUCLEAR ENVELOPE CHROMATIN VS. CHROMOSOME
(2) CHROMATIN – DNA & ASSOCIATED Differentiation:
PROTEINS
CHROMATIN – coiled DNA strands to basic
(3) NUCLEOLUS proteins called histone.
WHAT MAKES US UNIQUE? CHROMOSOME – chromatin that has
undergone further condensation.
- Because of our different physical
traits that are affected by proteins.
Physical traits = affected by proteins CHROMATIN
Skin Color – Melanin TWO (2) TYPES OF CHROMATINS:
Height – Growth Hormone 1) Heterochromatin
- Dense clumps under light
Note: - Proteins NEED to be synthesized
microscope.
everyday
2) Euchromatin
- Proteins are composed of specific - Less coiled portion of the
sequence of AMINO ACIDS chromosomes, finely granular
(Change one amino acid; the material electron microscope
protein becomes altered). and lightly stained basophilic
- There must be a “draft” in forming areas.
proteins.
SEX CHROMATIN
- In females (XX), one X
CENTRAL DOGMA OF LIFE
chromosome remains tightly
coiled and visible while the
(transcription) (translation) other one is uncoiled
DNA RNA AMINO
- In males, the X chromosome is
ACID CHAIN PROTEINS
(folding) uncoiled.
NUCLEOLUS
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
o Spherical, highly basophilic structure
o Paired membranes with perinuclear present in the nuclei of cells active in
space protein synthesis
o Ribosomes are attached in the outer o Composed of concentrated rRNA
membrane complexed with proteins
o Associated with the inner membrane o Produces rRNA necessary for
are proteins called nuclear lamina formation for ribosomes

NUCLEAR LAMINA NUCLEAR DIVISION

o Binds the nuclear membrane proteins MITOSIS

and associate with chromatin - Cell division in somatic cells
- Muscle, white blood cells
P a g e | 6 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

MEIOSIS
- Cell division in developing germ
INTERPHASE
cell in the ovary and the testis.
NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES IN CELLS
• In somatic cells of humans, the number
is 46, which is referred to as the diploid
number.
• 2 chromosome number 1
• The germ cells have 23, the haploid
number
HAPLOID (n)
✓ One copy of genetic material
subdivided into chromosomes
✓ E.g. GAMETES (sperm and eggs)
DIPLOID (2n)
• Before a cell can enter cell division, it
needs to take in nutrients.
• All of the preparation are done during
interphase
• Interphase is a series of changes that
takes place in a newly formed cell and
its nucleus, before it becomes capable
of division again.
• Interphase proceeds in three (3)
stages, G1, S, and G2…
➢ G1 – the biosynthetic activities
of the cell; metabolic roles
➢ S – starts when DNA replication
commences
➢ G2 – accumulation of energy for
mitosis

✓ Two copies of genetic material

subdivided into chromosomes
✓ SOMATIC CELLS

NORMAL CHROMOSOME NUMBER

MALE: 44 (autosomes), XY (sex
chromosome)
FEMALE: 44 (autosomes), XX (sex
chromosome)
MITOSIS – mitotic division results in 2
daughter cells possessing identical copies of
the genome of the parent cell
CHROMOSOME NOMENCLATURE
- Occurs in somatic cells (ALL
➢ Chromosome consists of 2 parallel CELLS except gametes)
strands called chromatids - The sequence of events in
➢ Joined together at the centromere, a mitosis is divided into 4 stages:
constricted segment called as primary (1) PROPHASE
constriction or kinetochore. (2) METAPHASE
(3) ANAPHASE
(4) TELOPHASE
CELL CYCLE
(1) PROPHASE
o Chromosomes continue to condense
becoming shorter and thicker
o Replicated centrioles/centrosomes
migrate to the opposite poles of the cell
o Mitotic spindles are formed
o Followed by the breakdown of the
nuclear membrane which marks the
end of prophase
o Nucleolus disappears
P a g e | 7 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

(2) METAPHASE
o Alignment of chromosomes in the same EPITHELIAL TISSUES
plane in the middle of the cell to form
the equatorial plate (metaphase plate) (lecture)
(3) ANAPHASE There are four (4) basic types of tissue:
o There is separation of the single 1) EPITHELIAL
kinetochore of each pair of chromatids 2) CONNECTIVE
into 2 3) MUSCLE
o The sister chromatids are free to move 4) NERVOUS
to opposite poles of the spindle
Group of tissues make up an ORGAN.
(4) TELOPHASE
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
o Chromosomes are clustered at the
spindle poles and segments of nuclear • It functions as COVERING, LINING,
envelope are formed around them PROTECTION, ABSORPTION, and
SECRETION.
•
o Chromosomes uncoil; nucleoli are •
reformed •
o Constriction of the cytoplasm midway, • Epithelium covers, lines and facilitates
cleavage furrow deepens until it absorption or secretion
encounters the spindle, the • Connective tissue supports the
microtubule of the spindle epithelium and binds it to underlying
depolymerizes tissues
o Retract until separation into 2 • Muscles facilitates movements
daughter cells • Nervous tissue facilitates response to
o New nuclear envelope forms. stimuli
CELLS BASED ON THEIR PROLIFERATIVE
ACTIVITY

STATIC CELL
POPULATION/PERMANENT
- Cells are no longer dividing
(nerve and skeletal muscle cells);
or rarely dividing (smooth and
cardiac muscle cells)
- Stays in GO
STABLE CELL
POPULATION/QUIESCENT EPITHELIAL TISSUES CHARACTERISTICS
- Little mitotic activity but are
• Cover body surfaces and Line internal
able to divide during repair
organs
(fibroblasts, osteoblasts, liver
cells) • Cells are tightly packed together with
no space for blood vessels =
CONTINUOUSLY DIVIDING AVASCULAR
CELLS/LABILE • BASEMENT MEMBRANE anchors
- Regular mitotic activity (blood epithelium to underlying connective
cells. Epithelial cells of skin and tissue
mucous membrane)
• Readily divide (ex. Skin healing)
• Cells are shed then replaced by new
ones
• Exhibits polarity (APICAL & BASAL
SURFACE)
✓ APICAL
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➢ Closes to the lumen or

cavity
✓ BASAL
➢ Near the basement
membrane
• Structures present in the apex may not
be present in the base and vice versa
BASEMENT MEMBRANE
• Thin, fibrous, non-cellular region of
tissue that separates the epithelium
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
from the underlying connective tissue
• Serves as mechanical barrier o Site where there is diffusion or
filtration
Blood and lymph vessels
Lungs (alveoli)
Glomerulus of the kidney
Lining of cavities
o One layer of flattened cells

SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

o Single layer of cells that are longer than
they are wide
o Absorption, secretion, protection.
o Gastrointestinal tract (stomach, small
& large intestines, gallbladder, uterus,
fallopian tube)
EPITHELIAL CLASSIFICATIONS
Classified based on shape and number of cell
layers:
• SHAPE
- SQUAMOUS = thin, flat cells
- CUBOIDAL = cube-shaped cells
- COLUMNAR = tail, elongated
cells
• NUMBER OF LAYERS
- SIMPLE = single layer
- STRATIFIED = 2 or more layers SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
o Single layer of cube-shaped cells (as
tall as they are wide)
o Secretion &absorption
o
o Linings of kidney tubules, linings of
ducts of certain glands, thyroid, ovary
surface
P a g e | 9 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

o Linings of respiratory system

o Epididymis, vas deferens

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
o Many layers of flattened cells
o o 2 or 3 layers of cuboidal cells
o Named based on appearance of top o Secretion
layer of cells o Linings of larger ducts of mammary
o Protection especially against glands, sweat glands, salivary glands,
FRICTION and pancreas
o Outer layers of skin, linings of oral
cavity, throat, vagina, and anal canal

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
o Can stretch
o Distensibility (stretching), protection
o Inner lining of urinary bladder and
linings of the uterus and part of urethra
o Also known as UROTHELIUM

CELL JUNCTIONS
(1) TIGHT JUNCTIONS/ZONULA
OCCLUDENS
- Serve as barriers to solute diffusions in
between cells
-
- Separates cells into apical and basal
compartments
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR - CLAUDIN & OCCLUDIN are a
EPITHELIUM transmembrane protein that forms
into tight junctions
o appear stratified because nuclei are at
2 or more levels (2) ADHERENS JUNCTIONS/ZONULA
o NOT stratified because all cells touch ADHERENS
basement membrane
- Encircle the cells below tight junction
o Protection, secretion, movement of
and provides firm adhesion to
mucus
neighboring cells
abnormal
P a g e | 10 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

(3) DESMOSOMES/MACULA ADHERENS STEREOCILIA

o Longer than cilia
- Also provides adhesion and does not
o Seen in epididymis and vas
form a belt around the cells
deferens
- Disc shaped
o Reabsorbs the fluid needed
- DESMOGLEIN & DESMOCOLLINS are a
for sperm movement
type of cadherins that is present in
providing a firm adhesion
(4) GAP JUNCTIONS/COMMUNICATING
JUNCTIONS
- Serve as intercellular channels for flow
of molecules
- CONNEXINS

GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM

• Cells that are specialized to produce

and secrete substances into ducts or
into body fluids
• They can be:
(1) UNICELLULAR (GOBLET) /
MULTICELLULAR
(2) EXOCRINE VS. ENDOCRINE

ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES WITH (3) MEROCRINE, APOCRINE,

EPITHELIUM HOLOCRINE
• EXOCRINE VS. ENDOCRINE
• Associated with respiratory
epithelium which is used to expel ENDOCRINE – secretes substance into tissue
mucus with trapped microorganisms fluid or bloods; ductless; hormones
EXOCRINE – secretes substances into ducts
GOBLET CELLS that open onto surfaces
➢ Produced mucus
➢ ~TYPES OF EXOCRINE GLANDS~
➢ Associated with 1) MEROCRINE
respiratory epithelium
» Release watery, protein-rich
and gastrointestinal
fluid by exocytosis
tract epithelium
» Salivary glands, sweat glands

2) APOCRINE
MICROVILLI » Lose small portions of their cell
o Increases surface area for body during secretion
absorption of substances » Mammary glands, ear wax
P a g e | 11 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

3) HOLOCRINE OPTICAL SYSTEM

» Entire cell lysis (breaks apart)
• Magnification system
during secretion
- Objectives
» Sebaceous glands of the skin - Eyepiece
- Prism
- Condenser
• Illumination system
- Substance condenser
- Filter holder and filter
- Light intensity adjustment knob

SEROUS VS. MUCOUS (1) MECHANICAL SYSTEM

SEROUS A. Support system

o Body
- Typically, with watery secretions and ✓ Base – must rest on a
lots of enzymes firm, flat bench or table.
- Digestion of nutrients ✓
✓ Arm – supports the main
tube and the mechanical
MUCOUS stage
- Mucus ✓ Revolving nosepiece
- Digestive and respiratory systems (e.g. (turret) – holds the
GOBLET) objective lenses
- Protection B. Mechanical Stage
- Holds the slide secure and
allows the specimen moved
smoothly backwards, forwards
and sideways
o Stage clips
o Vernier scale
➢ Can be used to trace part
of the blood film you
need to re-examine
o Feedknob
➢ X and Y axis
C. Observation tube/head
- Composed of main tube and
body tube which houses the
prism
COMPOENENTS OF THE o Diopter
MICROSCOPE ➢ Used to compensate the
difference in eyesight
(LAB) between the left and the
right eye
MECHANICAL SYSTEM o Interpupillary distance
➢ Used to adjust the
• Support system
eyepieces in relation to
B - Body
the distance between
M - Mechanical Stage
left and right eye
O - Observation Tube
• Adjustment system (2) ADJUSTMENT SYSTEM
- Coarse adjustment knob
- Fine adjustment knob A. Tension ring
B. Fine adjustment knob
P a g e | 12 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)
C. Coarse adjustment knob
- Control the upward movement
of the stage preventing the
collision of the objective
(3) OPTICAL SYSTEM
A. Magnification system
o Objectives
✓ x4, x10, x40, x100
P
o Eyepiece
O microscopy
E ✓ x10
o Prism
✓ Refracts rays, splitting
the image directing them
towards the two
eyepieces
B. Illumination system
o Condenser
✓ Made up of number of
lenses
✓ Centers the light from
the mirror or electric
light source to central
spot on the microscope
field.
✓ Can be raised or lowered
to give
maximum/minimum
illumination
o Iris diaphragm
o Height adjustment knob
o Security knob
C. Filter holder & filter
D. Mirror/ Light source
E. Light intensity adjustment knob
METHODS OF STUDY
1) LIGHT MICROSCOPY
✓ Bright field microscope
✓ Fluorescence microscope
✓ Phase-contrast microscope
✓ Confocal microscope
✓ Polarizing microscope
2) ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
✓ Transmission electron
✓ Scanning electron microscopy
3) AUTORADIOGRAPHY
4) CELL TISSUE & CULTURE
5) ENZYME HISTOCHEMISTRY
6) VISUALIZING SPECIFIC MOLECULES
✓ Immunohistochemistry
✓ Hybridization technique
BRIGHT FIELD MICROSCOPE
- Stained specimens are
examined by means of ordinary
light that passes through the
specimens
FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY
- The sample can either be
fluorescing in its natural form
or treated with fluorescing
chemicals
- Tissue sections are irradiated
with the UV Light
- Fluorescent substances appear
brilliant on a dark background
PHASE-CONTRAST MICROSCOPY
- Lens system that produces visible
images from transparent objects
- Used for observing unstained, living
cells and tissue cultures
- Uses 2 characteristics of light
diffraction & interference)
CONFOCAL MICROSCOPY
- Scanning the specimen at successive
focal planes with focus light beam
- Employ a pair of pinhole apertures to
limit the specimen focal plane to a
confined volume
POLARIZING MICROSCOPY
- Uses polarized light producing images
appearing as bright structures against
a dark background
DARK-FIELD MICROSCOPY
P a g e | 13 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)
- It has a dark background wherein
small particles in the specimen that
reflects some light appear bright.
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
- High resolution images magnified as
much as 400,000 times to be viewed in
detail
- A beam of electrons focused using
electromagnetic lenses producing an
image with black, white, and gray
regions
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
- High resolution view of cells, tissues,
and organs
- Does not pass through the specimen
- Specimen is spray-coated with a very
thin layer of heavy metal which reflects
electrons in a beam scanning the
specimen
CELL CYCLE
(LAB)
Production of new cells.
(4 phases)
✓ MITOSIS
✓ G1
synthesis
✓ S
✓ G2
gap
MITOSIS
• Growth and repair cell damage
• Somatic cells
• Each cell must have a complement of
the genetic material
• Prior to cell division, the DNA needs to
be replicated so that each daughter cell
reaches an exact copy
• Then the chromosome condenses in
the nucleus of the cell
• DNA condenses by wrapping around
cores of HISTONE proteins forming
nucleosomes
• Beads-on-a-string structure called
CHROMATIN
• Replicated chromosomes – SISTER
CHROMATIDS
(1) PROPHASE
 Nucleolus disappears
 Chromosomes condenses and become
visible
 2 sister chromatids held together at the
CENTROMERE.
 Centrioles migrate to opposite poles-
bridge of microtubules called SPINDLE
APPARTUS
 LATE PROPHASE: Nuclear envelopes
breakdown
END: chromosomes attach by protein in
their centromere called KINETOCHORE to
microtubule from each plate moving the
chromosome toward the equator of the
cell
(2) METAPHASE
 Complete migration of centrioles on
the opposite poles
 Chromosomes aligned at the center of
the cell
(3) ANAPHASE
 Begins by degradation of proteins
that hold sister chromatids together
freeing individual chromosomes
 Free chromosomes are pulled by
kinetochore to opposite poles
(4) TELOPHASE
 Cleavage furrow forms in the center
of the cell
 Chromosomes cluster at opposite
poles and begin decondensing, nuclear
envelope reforms
 Spindle apparatus disassembles;
microtubules broken down into
tubulin monomers
END: CYTOKINESES
MEIOSIS
• Generates gametes for
reproduction
• Germ cells -> gonads
• Haploid cells are produced from a
diploid cell
• Genetically unique cells -> half the
number of chromosomes as the
original cell
• 2 rounds of division -> successful
reduction in the number of
P a g e | 14 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

chromosomes in a new haploid EPITHELIUM: CHRACTERISTICS

daughter cell
1. CLOSELY APPOSED CELLS – little
• Begins after a cell has successfully
extracellular material between cells
completed the INTERPHASE
2. Different organs exhibit special
ANIMAL CELLS membrane modification on apical
surface.
- Completed by extending cleavage • CILIA
furrow to completely separate - Motile, found on
newly formed daughter cells uterine tubes and
conducting tubes of
PLANT CELLS
the respiratory
- Can’t be constricted by actin fibers- system.
vesicles form an expanding • MICROVILLI
membrane partition called the - Small, non-motile
CELL PLATE projections that line all
absorptive cell in the
~CHECKPOINTS~ small intestine and
G1 / S proximal convoluted
tubules in the kidney.
• Primary point at which cell cycle • STEREOCILIA
continues or stops - Long, non-motile,
• External signals & growth factors that branched microvilli that
influence cell cycle and affect progress line cells in epididymis
at or before this critical checkpoint and vas deferens.

G2 / M
• Allows cells that have successfully
completed all three phases to begin
mitosis
SPINDLE CHECKPOINT

• Ensuring all chromosomes have

attached to the spindle in preparation
for anaphase 3. All epithelia have free portion (apical
surface) and lower portion (basal
surface)
• APICAL SURFACE
» Exposed at the body surface or at
EPITHELIUM lumen of the body cavity, duct, tube
and vessel.
- Cells (specialized functions) -> Tissues • BASAL SURFACE
- Tissues » Rest on a basement membrane
o A. Epithelium
o B. Connective ✓ Basement membrane: non-living
o C. Muscular adhesive material secreted by the
o D. Nervous Tissue epithelium and the underlying
connective tissue.
- Cells that cover the external surfaces
of the body, line the internal
cavities, form various organs and
glands and line the ducts.
- Differs from organ to organ
o Depends on location and
function
P a g e | 15 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

4. AVASCULAR
• NO BLOOD VESSELS within the
layer.
• Oxygen, nutrients and other
metabolites diffuse from the
blood vessels in the underlying
connective tissues to the
epithelium.

5. FREQUENT CELL DIVISION

• Exposed to wear and tear
injury, needs replacement.

EPITHELIUM: CLASSIFICATION
• NUMBER OF CELLS
A. SIMPLE
B. STRATIFIED
• MORPHOLOGY (SURFACE CELLS)
A. SQUAMOUS
B. CUBODIAL
C. COLUMNAR

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM

GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
CHARACTERISTICS
- “secretes” a product

1. ENDOCRINE GLANDS
- Internal secretion –
HORMONES
- “DUCTLESS”
- Pituitary, thyroid, testes,
ovaries

2. EXOCRINE GLANDS
- Secretes product
“outside” or onto a
surface
- True “ducts”
P a g e | 16 (HUMAN HISTOLOGY PRELIM)

- Extracellular and
unicellular
- Situated in sweat
(sudoriferous) and oil
(sebaceous) glands

EXOCRINE EPITHELIAL GLANDS

1. UNICELLULAR
• Goblets cells (Trachea
epithelium; absorptive cells)
• Mucin and Mucus

2. MULTICELLULAR
• Salivary Glands
• MEROCRINE GLAND

• Sebaceous Glands
• HOLOCRINE GLAND