Anatomy and Physiology

INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
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!!JAY AMBE!!
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1. INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE
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OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
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PREPARED BY
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DR. NAITIK D. TRIVEDI,
M. PHARM, PH. D
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LECTURER AT GOVERNMENT AIDED,
A. R. COLLEGE OF PHARMACY & G. H. PATEL INSTITUTE OF
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PHARMACY, VALLABH VIDYANAGAR, ANAND.
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Mobile: +91 - 9924567864
E-mail: mastermindnaitik@gmail.com
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DR. UPAMA N. TRIVEDI,

M. PHARM, PH. D
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR & HoD (Pharm.D),
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INDUBHAI PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY AND RESEARCH

CENTRE, DHARMAJ.
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E-mail: ups.aasthu@gmail.com
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https://www.drnaitiktrivedi.com/ 1
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INTRODUCTION:
 Anatomy and physiology concern with the structures and functions of the human body.
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 Anatomy describes the structures of the body -- their scientific names, composition,
location, and associated structures. Anatomy (“a cutting open”) is a plan or map of the
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body.
 Physiology studies the function of each structure, individually and in combination with
other structures.
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Anatomy and physiology always work together. As we examine each part of the body,
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always consider both its structure and its function.
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 The study of anatomy is divided into 2 major fields:
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1. Gross anatomy is the study of large visible structures
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2. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that are too small to see, such as cells
and molecules.
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1. Gross anatomy, also called macroscopic anatomy, is separated into 5 major divisions:
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A. Surface anatomy describes surface forms and marks.
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B. Regional anatomy describes the organization of specific areas of the body such as the
head or hand. This approach is used mostly in professional schools: medical, dental,
physical therapy.
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C. Systemic anatomy describes groups of organs that function together for a single purpose.
D. Developmental anatomy describes the structural changes in an organism from fertilized
egg to maturity. Embryology is the anatomical study of early development.
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E. Clinical anatomy describes various medical specialties, including medical anatomy
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(changes that occur during illness), and radiographic anatomy.

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2. Microscopic anatomy is divided into two major divisions:

A. Cytology, the study of cells and their structures.
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B. Histology, the study of tissues and their structures.

 Physiology has many specialties. The 4 basic divisions are:
1. Cell physiology, including chemical and molecular processes within and between cells.
2. Special physiology, the study of specific organs such as the heart.
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3. Systemic physiology, the cooperative functions of all the organs in an organ system. We
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will use a systemic physiology approach in this class.
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4. Pathological physiology, the effects of diseases on organs and organ systems.
 Levels of Organization
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 Our bodies are organized at many different levels.
 The levels of organization of living things, from smallest to largest, are:
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1. Atoms, the smallest functional units of matter.
2. Molecules, active chemicals.
3. Organelles, specialized structures within a cell.
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4. Cells, the smallest living units.
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5. Tissues, a group of similar cells that work together.
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6. Organs, two or more tissue types working together.
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7. Organ systems, two or more organs working together.
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8. Organism, a single individual, including all of the above.
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The human body is divided into 11 interconnected organ systems. All organ systems work
together, and many organs function in more than 1 organ system.
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1. The Integumentary System: includes the skin & derived structures, it protects internal
organs & helps maintain body temperature.
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2. The Skeletal System: includes the bones & joints, it provides support & protection to
internal organs.
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3. The Muscular System: includes skeletal muscle and it provides movement.
4. The Nervous System: includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It provides regulation
of body functions & sensory perception.
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5. The Endocrine System: includes hormone-producing cells & glands. It regulates
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homeostasis, growth & development.
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6. The Cardiovascular System: includes blood, heart, & blood vessels. It is responsible for
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delivery of oxygen & nutrients to the tissues.
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7. The Lymphatics & Immune System: includes lymphatic vessels & fluid. It is involved
in the defense against infection.
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8. The Respiratory System: includes lungs & airways. It is involved in the absorption of
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oxygen & release of carbon dioxide.
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9. The Digestive System: includes organs of the gastrointestinal tract. It is responsible for
the absorption of nutrients.
10. The Urinary System: includes the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. It is responsible for
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electrolyte balance & waste removal.

11. The Reproductive System: includes the reproductive organs in males and females. It
controls the biological process by which new individuals are produced.
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HOMEOSTASIS:
 Ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions despite a changing external
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environment. Dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance.
 The body is said to be in homeostasis when its cellular needs are adequately met and
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functional activities are occurring smoothly.
 Virtually every organ system plays a role in maintaining the internal environment.
A homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of 5 parts:
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1. Receptors: It act as a sensors/receiver that respond to a stimulus. It monitors change in
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control condition.
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2. Sensory Neurons: It send the input information/message to control center, means
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information from cell/tissue/organ etc to integrated system i.e brain and spinal cord.
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3. Integrated System: It analyze the incoming message received from the sensory neurons
and sends out commands/messages. In the body there are hundred controlled conditions.
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A few examples are heart rate, blood pressure, temperature and breathing rate.
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4. Motor Neurons: The output information/message from integrated center (brain and
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spinal cord) to cell/tissue/organ etc are travelled by motor neurons.

5. Effectors: The cell/tissue/organ etc act as effector that responds according to output
command of the control/integrated center.
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Receptors, control center and effectors maintain the homeostasis by two mechanisms:
1. Negative feedback:
 When the response of effectors opposes the original stimulus, it is called negative
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feedback because it negates the stimulus.
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An example of negative feedback is the temperature thermostat in your home.

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 Temperature sensors turn the air conditioner off and on to maintain air temperature
within a specific, limited range.
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 In the same way, the brain controls normal body-temperature homeostasis by negative
feedback.
– Some stimulus (Stress) disrupts homeostasis (control condition) by an increase in
body temperature.
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– Due to this condition thermoreceptors (temperature sensitive receptors) in the
skin and brain activate and send input message via nerve impulse to control
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center.
– Control center analyze the input message and send output message to effectors
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(skin).
– Effectors according to output message of control center increases sweating from
sweat glands causes increased heat loss by evaporation.
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Finally, decreases the temperature in the form of response and normalize the body
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temperature (control condition).
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2. Positive feedback:
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The effector adds to the initial stimulus instead of negating it, speeding up the process.
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– Labor contraction is the example of positive feedback system.
– Labor contractions force baby’s head or body into birth canal.
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– It produces effect on control condition and increases distention of cervix of
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uterus.
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It activates the stretch receptors of cervix and send input message to control
center via sensory nerve impulse.
– Control center activates the hypothalamus and pituitary gland and send the output
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message to increase oxytocin secretion in blood.

– Oxytocin produces their effect on to the effector (cervix of uterus) and cause
distention of cervix of uterus than the normal value to push the baby further into
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birth canal.
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– Birth of the baby decreases distention of cervix of uterus and interrupts positive
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feedback cycle.
BODY CAVITIES AND SEROUS MEMBRANES
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 The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other
structures that separate compartments.
 The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest body
compartments.
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 These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows
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for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their functions.
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The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without
distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs.
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Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities

 The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) cavities are each subdivided into smaller
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cavities.
 In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity
(or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord.
The anterior (ventral) cavity has divided by the diaphragm muscle into 2 parts:
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1. A superior thoracic cavity, containing the

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A. Pleural cavity (left and right, divided by the mediastinum) organs: lungs
membranes: visceral and parietal pleura
B. Pericardial cavity organs: heart membranes: visceral and parietal pericardium
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2. Inferior abdominopelvic cavity, containing the

A. Peritoneal cavity membranes: visceral and parietal peritoneum
B. Abdominal cavity (superior peritoneal) organs: liver, stomach, spleen, intestine
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C. Pelvic cavity (inferior peritoneal) organs: intestine, bladder, reproductive organs

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Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity:
 The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs are covered with
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a thin, double layered membrane – serosa or serous membranes.
 Part of the membrane lining the cavity walls - parietal serosa -folds on itself to form
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the visceral serosa which covers the organs in the cavity.
– Parietal - "parie"- means wall
– Visceral - "viscus"- means an organ in a body cavity
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BODY FLUIDS:
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Water content of the body is divided into:
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1. Intracellular compartment (67%) - Inside the cell
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2. Extracellular compartment (33%) - Outside the cell
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1. Intracellular Fluid (ICF)
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 Comprises, 2/3 of the body water.
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 If body has 60% water, ICF is about 40% of your weight.

 The ICF is primarily a solution of potassium and organic anions, proteins etc.
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The cell membranes and cellular metabolism control the constituents of this ICF.
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2. Extracellular compartment (ECF):

 It is the remaining 1/3 of your body's water.
 ECF is about 20% of the body weight.
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 The ECF is primarily a NaCl and NaHCO3 solution.

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The ECF is further subdivided into three sub-compartments:

A. Interstitial Fluid (ISF).
B. Plasma.
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C. Transcellular fluid
A. Interstitial Fluid (ISF)

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Interstitial Fluid (ISF) surrounds the cells, but does not circulate.
 It is the main component of the extracellular fluid
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It comprises about 3/4 of the ECF.
 Interstitial fluid is found in the interstitial spaces, also known as the tissue spaces.
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Composition of interstitial fluid:
 Water solvent amino acids  Neurotransmitters
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 Sugars  Salts
 Fatty acids  Waste products from the cells.
  Lymph is considered a part of the interstitial
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Coenzymes
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fluid
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Hormones
Function of interstitial fluid
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 Intercellular communication.
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 Interstitial fluid bathes the cells of the tissues.
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 Removal of metabolic waste.
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B. Plasma:
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It is the yellow liquid component of blood in which the blood cells in whole blood are
normally suspended
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 55% of the total blood volume.

 It is the intravascular fluid part of extracellular fluid (all body fluid outside of cells)
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It makes up about 1/4 of the ECF.

Composition of plasma
 Water (90% by volume)  Mineral ions
 Dissolved proteins  Hormones
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 Glucose  Carbon dioxide.

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 Clotting factors
Function of plasma
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Plasma is the main medium for excretory product transportation.

 Blood serum is blood plasma without fibrinogen or the other clotting factors (i.e., whole
blood minus both the cells and the clotting factors).
C. Transcellular fluid
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 Transcellular fluid is the portion of total body water contained within epithelial lined
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spaces.
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Smallest compartment.
 It is about 2.5% of the total body water.
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Examples
– Cerebrospinal fluid – Joint fluid (Synovial fluid)
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– Ocular fluid (Aqueous humor) – Urine
Composition of transcellular fluid:
1. Cerebrospinal fluid:
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The CSF is mainly produced by the choroid plexus.
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– The entire nervous system contains between 80-150 ml of CSF.
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– It is a clear colorless liquid that contains White blood cells, glucose, protein, lactic
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acid, urea, cations (Na+, K+, Ca+ etc) and anions (Cl-, and HCO3-).
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2. Ocular fluid (Aqueous humor):
– The aqueous humor is a transparent, gelatinous fluid similar to plasma.
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– It is located in the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye, the space between
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the lens and the cornea.
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– It contains Amino acids (transported by cilliary muscles), 98% water,

Electrolytes, Ascorbic acid, Glutathione
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3. Joint fluid (Synovial fluid):

– Synovial fluid is clear, pale yellow, viscid, and does not clot.
– The principal role of synovial fluid is to reduce friction between thearticular
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cartilage of synovial joints during movement.
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– It contains Normal 3–4 mg/ml hyaluronic acid, a polymer of disaccharides,

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WBC, RBC and proteins

4. Urine:
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– Urine is a typically sterile liquid by product of the body secreted by

the kidneys through a process called urination and excreted through the urethra.
– It contains 95% water, Organic solutes like urea, creatinine, uric acid, and trace
amounts of enzymes, carbohydrates, hormones, fatty acids, pigments, and mucins,
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and inorganic ions such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-),
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magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), ammonium (NH4+), sulfates (SO42-), and
phosphates (e.g., PO43-).
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SOME DEFINITIONS RELATED TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
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SUBJECT:
CELL: It is living structural and functional units of body enclosed by membrane.
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CYTOLOGY: It is the branch of science concern with the study of cells.
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TISSUE: It is a group of cells that usually have common embryonic origin and function together
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for special activities.
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BLOOD: It is a liquid connective tissue.
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LYMPH: It is a thin, watery, clear, modified tissue fluid formed by the passage of substance
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from the blood capillaries into the tissue space (interstitial space) and enters in to the closed
system of lymphatic capillaries to lymphatic vessels and lymphatic sinus.
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CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: Cardiovascular is the system which includes the study of the
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heart, blood vessels and blood.
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IMMUNE SYSTEM: It is the collection of cells, tissues and molecules that protects the body
from numerous pathogenic microbes and toxins in our environment.
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Try not to become a person of success, but rather try to become a

person of value. ~Albert Einstein
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16. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
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!! JAY AMBE !!
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PREPARED BY
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M. PHARM, PH. D
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PROFESSOR & H.o.D.,

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SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, BAKROL

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M. PHARM, PH. D
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Mobile: +91 - 9924567864
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More info visit: www.drnaitiktrivedi.com 1

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Respiration:
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Respiration means exchange of gases—oxygen and carbon dioxide—between the atmospheric
air, blood, and tissue cells. Inhalation and exaltation, inspiration and expiration, breathing in
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and breathing out known as respiration.
The respiratory system consists of the nose, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea,
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windpipe), bronchi, and lungs.
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Its parts can be classified according to either structure or function.
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Structurally, the respiratory system consists of two parts:
1. The upper respiratory system: It includes the nose, pharynx, and associated
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structures.
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2. The lower respiratory system: It includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
Functionally, the respiratory system also consists of two parts:
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1. The conducting zone:
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- It consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and

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within the lungs.

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- These contain the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and
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terminal bronchioles.
- Their function is to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs.
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2. The respiratory zone

- It consists of tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs.
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- These include the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and
alveoli. They are the main sites of gas exchange between air and blood.
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Types of respiration:
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There are 3 types of respiration:

1. Pulmonary Ventilation: Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide between air and
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lungs known as pulmonary ventilation.

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2. External respiration: Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide between lungs and
blood known as external respiration.
3. Internal Respiration: Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide between blood and
cell known as internal respiration.
1. NOSE:
Nose is made up by two kind of frame work:
i. Bony frame work:
It is made up by Frontal bone, Nasal Bone and Maxilla
ii. Cartilage Frame Work:
It is made up by Lateral Nasal Cartilage, Septal Nasal Cartilage and Alar Cartilage

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The nose can be divided into
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external and internal portions.
The external nose:
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- It is the portion of the nose
visible on the face and consists
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of a supporting framework of
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bone and hyaline cartilage
covered with muscle and skin
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and lined by a mucous membrane.
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The external nose is somewhat flexible because it consist hyaline cartilage.
External nose consist two opening which is known as external nares or nostrils divided
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by vertical septum.
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- External nose also consist of hair inside the nostril.

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- The external nose have three functions:

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i. Warming, moistening, and filtering incoming air;

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ii. Detecting olfactory stimuli or identify the smell

iii. Modifying speech
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The internal nose:

- Anteriorly, the internal nose merges with the external nose, and posteriorly it
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communicates with the pharynx through two openings called the internal nares or
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choanae.
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- The space within the internal nose is called the nasal cavity.
- The anterior portion of the nasal cavity just inside the nostrils, called the nasal vestibule,
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is surrounded by cartilage.
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- The superior part of the nasal cavity is surrounded by bone.

- A vertical partition, the nasal septum, divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides.

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- Superior attachment of the nose to the frontal bone is known as Root.
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- Tip of nose known as Apex.
3. PHARYNX (THROAT)
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It is a funnel-shaped tube about 13 cm (5
in.) long
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- It starts from the internal nares and
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extends to the level of the cricoid cartilage,
the most inferior cartilage of the larynx
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(voice box)
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and is lined with a mucous membrane.
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- Contraction of the skeletal muscles
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assists in deglutition (swallowing).

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- The pharynx functions as a passageway for air and food.

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- It provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils, which
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participate in immunological reactions against foreign invaders.

- The pharynx can be divided into three anatomical regions:
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i. Nasopharynx:
 It is the superior portion of the pharynx.
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 It lies posterior to the nasal cavity and extends to the soft palate.
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 There are five openings in its wall: two internal nares, two openings that lead
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into the auditory tubes (commonly known as the Eustachian tubes), and the
opening into the oropharynx.
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ii. Oropharynx:
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 It extend behind mouth from soft palate to level of hyoid bone.

 This portion of the pharynx has both respiratory and digestive functions,
serving as a common passageway for air, food, and drink. Because the
oropharynx is subject to abrasion by food particles, it is lined with
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
 Oropharynx consist, the palatine and lingual tonsils.
iii. Laryngopharynx:
Its end portion open in to the esophagus (food tube) and the larynx (voice box).

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3. LARYNX (VOICE BOX)
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- The larynx is known as voice box.
- It connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea.
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- The wall of the larynx is composed of nine pieces of cartilage:
 Three occur singly (thyroid cartilage, epiglottis, and cricoid cartilage), and
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 Three occur in pairs (arytenoid, cuneiform, and corniculate cartilages).
The arytenoid cartilages are the most important because they influence changes in
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position and tension of the vocal folds (true vocal cords for speech).
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- During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx rise. Elevation of the pharynx widens
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it to receive food or drink and elevation of the larynx move down the the epiglottis
so food not enter into the wind pipes.
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- The mucous membrane of the larynx forms two pairs of folds a superior pair called
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the ventricular folds (false vocal cords) and an inferior pair called the vocal folds
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(true vocal cords).

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4. TRACHEA
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- Trachea is also known as windpipe.
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It is a tubular passageway for air.
It is about 12 cm (5 in.) long and 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter.
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- It is extends from the larynx bronchi.
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- Trachea consist 16–20 incomplete, horizontal rings of hyaline cartilage resemble the
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letter C.
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- The open part of each C-shaped cartilage ring faces posteriorly toward the esophagus.
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5. BRONCHI
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- The trachea divides into a right and left primary bronchi.

- Right primary bronchi goes into the right lung, and a left primary windpipe bronchi,
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which goes into the left lung.

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- The right primary bronchi is more vertical, shorter, and wider than the left.
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- As a result, an aspirated object is more likely to enter and lodge in the right primary
bronchus than the left.
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- The primary bronchi contain incomplete rings of cartilage like trachea.

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- The primary bronchi in to the lungs divide to form smaller bronchi known as the
secondary (lobar) bronchi, one for each lobe of the lung. (The right lung has three lobes;
the left lung has two.)
- The secondary bronchi branches known as tertiary (segmental) bronchi it further divide
in to bronchioles.
- Bronchioles further divide in to smaller branches known as terminal bronchioles.
- This branch like structure resembles an inverted tree and is commonly referred to as the
bronchial tree.

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6. LUNGS
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- There are two lungs in human body.

- It is cone-shaped organs reside in the thoracic cavity.
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- Lungs are separated from each other by the heart and other structures in the
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mediastinum.
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- Each lung is enclosed and protected by a double-layered serous membrane known as

the pleural membrane.
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- The superficial layer is parietal pleura and the deep layer is the visceral pleura.
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- Between the visceral and parietal pleurae there is a small space which is known as the
pleural cavity, which contains a small amount of lubricating fluid secreted by the
membranes.
- This pleural fluid reduces friction between the membrane of lungs and allowing them
to slide easily over one another during breathing.
- The broad inferior portion of the lung is known as the base and narrow superior portion
of the lung is the apex.

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- Right lung is shorter and wider than the left lungs because right side lobes of
liver occupy more space than the left lobes.
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- Left lung is long and narrow and it has lingula portion because left side of lung
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consist cardiac notch.

- Right lung capsular layer is thicker than the left lung.
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- Right side of lung consist horizontal and oblique fissure so it divide in to three
lobes, 1. Superior lobe 2. Middle lobe 3. Inferior lobe
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- Left side of lung consist only oblique fissure so it divide in to two lobes, 1.
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Superior lobe and 2. Inferior lobe

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7. BRONCHIOLES
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 It is a smallest branches of respiratory tree having <1mm diameter.

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 It do not consist cartilage rings but larger branches may have small patches of cartilage
 Asthma like disease condition affects the smallest terminal bronchioles
8. ALVEOLI
 Smallest bronchioles have clusters of tiny sacs branching off known as alveoli which
produce “grapelike clusters.”
 Each lung consist 300-500 million alveoli.
 It is made up by Single cell layer of thick squamous epithelium.
 Alveoli are the “functional units” of the respiratory system
 It is the actual site of gas exchange with blood.

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 Alveoli increase in number and size until adolescence after adolescence, can increase
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in size only and if damaged, it has limited ability to repair themselves
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DIAGRAM OF RESPIRATORY SYTEM

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SPIROMETER
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According to Boyle’s law pressure is inversely proportional to the volume.
During breathing our body follows Boyle’s law.
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 Spirometer is a biomedical device which measures the lung capacity and lung volume.
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 Pulmonary function tests (PFTs) are one of the main diagnostic tools employed by
pulmonary physicians.
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 They can be used for a variety of purposes including to help identify the etiology of
dyspnea, to follow progression of pulmonary diseases and response to treatment and to
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evaluate fitness to undergo other procedures or treatments such as thoracic surgery or

peripheral blood stem cell transplantation.
 Given this wide range of uses, it is critical that a pulmonary physician be able to read
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and interpret these tests.

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 There are essentially four categories of information which can be obtained with routine
pulmonary function testing:
1. Lung volumes which can allow us to measure the maximum volume of the lungs
as well as sub-compartments thereof.
2. Flow rates which measure the maximal flow of gas out of (and sometimes into)
the lung.
3. Diffusing capacity which measures the transfer of gas from the alveolar space
into the capillary blood stream.
4. Maximal inspiratory and expiratory pressures which measure the applied
strength of the respiratory muscles.
Principle of Spirometer
 It is made of metal and consists of two chambers- outer chamber is filled with water
and called the water chamber, and inner chamber is a floating drum immersed in water
in an inverted manner.

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 The drum is counterbalanced by a weight attached to the top of floating drum by means
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of a chain or string.
 The inner chamber has a small hole at the top, and a long metal tube passes from bottom
towards top through inner chamber and penetrates into the outer water chamber above
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the level of water.
 A rubber tube is connected to the outer metal tube and a mouth piece is attached to the
other end of the rubber tube.
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 The subject/participant respires through the mouth piece.
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 During expiration the inner drum moves up by balancing weight comes down and
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during inspiration it is vice-versa.
 The upward and downward movements of the counter balancing weights are recorded
in the form of ink pen attached to the weight indicating inspiration and expiration,
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respectively.
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 The record of lung volumes and lung capacites can be recorded by a Spirometer as a
Spirogram.
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Traditional Water Tank Spirometer

Types of spirometer
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Sr. No Types of spirometer Figure

1. Basic Incentive Spirometer
 An incentive spirometer is a handheld medical
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device used to help patients improve the functioning of

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their lungs.
 By training patients to take slow and deep breaths,
thissimplified spirometer facilitates lung expansion and
strengthening.
 Patients inhale through a mouthpiece, which causes a
piston inside the device to rise.
 This visual feedback helps them monitor their
inspiratory effort.
 Incentive spirometers are commonly used after surgery
or other illnesses to prevent pulmonary complications.

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2. Whole body plethysmograph
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 This type of spirometer gives a more accurate
measurement for the components of lung volumes as
compared to other conventional spirometers.
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 A person is enclosed in a small space when the
measurement is taken.
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3. Pneumotachometer
 This spirometer measures the flow rate of gases by
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detecting pressure differences across the fine mesh.
 One advantage of this spirometer is that the subject
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under investigation can breathe in fresh air during the
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experiment.
4. Fully electronic spirometer

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 Electronic spirometers have been developed that
compute airflow rates in a channel without the need for
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fine meshes or moving parts.

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 They operate by measuring the speed of the airflow with

techniques such as ultrasonic transducers, or by
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measuring pressure difference in the channel.

 These spirometers have greater accuracy.
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5. Peak flow meter

 The peak expiratory flow (PEF), also called peak
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expiratory flow rate (PEFR), is a person's maximum

speed of expiration, as measured with a peak flow
meter, a small, hand-held device used to monitor a
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person's ability to breathe out air.

 It measures the airflow through the bronchi and thus the
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degree of obstruction in the airways.

 Peak expiratory flow is typically measured in units of
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liters per minute (L/min).

6. Windmill-type spirometer
 Used specially for measuring forced vital capacity
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without using water and has broad measurements

ranging from 1000 ml to 7000 ml.
 It is more portable and lighter as compared to traditional
water-tank type spirometer.
 This spirometer should be held horizontally while
taking measurements because of the presence of
rotating disc.

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Calculation steps for Total Lung volume/Minute Volume:
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1. Tidal volume (VT)
 Healthy adult doing 12 breaths in each minute and with each inhalation and
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exhalation moving about 500 mL of air into and out of the lungs. The volume
of one breath is called the tidal volume (VT).
2. Minute Ventilation (MV )
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 We are doing 12 breaths in each minute so the minute ventilation (MV ) is the
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the total volume of air inhaled and exhaled in each minute.
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Minute Ventilation (MV ) = Tidal volume (VT) x 12
= 500 mL/ breath x 12 breaths/min = 6 litres/min
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 In a typical adult, about 70% of the tidal volume (350 mL) actually reaches the
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respiratory zone of the respiratory system namely the respiratory bronchioles,
alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli and participates in external respiration.
 The other 30% (150 mL) remains in the conducting airways of the nose,
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pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles known
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as dead space because these part does not undergo respiratory exchange of
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gases.
 Not all of the minute ventilation can be used in gas exchange because some of
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it remains in the anatomic dead space.

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3. Alveolar Ventilation Rate

 The alveolar ventilation rate is the volume of air per minute that actually
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reaches the respiratory zone.

 In the example just given, alveolar ventilation rate would be -------
350 mL/breath x 12 breaths/min = 4200 mL/min.
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4. Inspiratory Reserve Volume

 When we do very deep breath, we can inhale more than 500 mL of air. This
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additional inhaled air, called the inspiratory reserve volume which is about 3100
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mL in an average adult male and 1900 mL in an average adult female

5. Expiratory Reserve Volume or Force Expiratory Volume
 If inhalation follows forced exhalation we can more air in addition to the 500
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mL of tidal volume which is 1200 mL in males and 700 mL in females is called

the expiratory reserve volume or force expiratory volume.
6. Residual Volume
 When we do force expiration not all amount of air go out some amount remain
in anatomical dead space that is 1200 mL in male and 1100 mL in female which
is known as residual volume.
7. Inspiratory capacity
 Inspiratory capacity is the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume
(500 mL + 3100 mL = 3600 mL in males and 500 mL + 1900 mL = 2400 mL
in females).

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8. Functional residual capacity
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 Functional residual capacity is the sum of residual volume and expiratory
reserve volume (1200 mL + 1200 mL = 2400 mL in males and 1100 mL + 700
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mL = 1800 mL in females).
9. Vital capacity
 Vital capacity is the sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and
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expiratory reserve volume (4800 mL in males and 3100 mL in females).
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10. Total lung capacity
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 Finally, total lung capacity is the sum of vital capacity and residual volume
(4800 mL + 1200 mL = 6000 mL in males and 3100 mL + 1100 mL = 4200 mL
in females).
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12. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
!! JAY AMBE !!

PREPARED BY
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M. PHARM, PH. D
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CENTRE, DHARMAJ.
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M. PHARM, PH. D
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Mobile: +91 - 9924567864
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INTRODUCTION OF GIT
 The system by which ingested food is acted upon by physical and chemical means to
provide the body with absorbable nutrients and to excrete waste products is called
digestive system. OR
The organs involved in the breakdown of food—collectively called the digestive system.
 The medical specialty that deals with the structure, function, diagnosis, and treatment
of diseases of the stomach and intestines is called gastroenterology.
 The medical specialty that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the
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rectum and anus is called proctology.
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The digestive system is divided into two groups of organs

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The Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT) The Accessory Digestive Organs

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 Mouth  Teeth
 Oropharynx  Tongue
 Esophagus  Salivary Glands
 Stomach  Liver
 Small Intestine  Gallbladder
 Large Intestine  Pancreas
 Rectum
 Anus
The Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT)

 The gastrointestinal (GI) tract, or alimentary canal, is a continuous tube that extends
from the mouth to the anus through the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
 Organs of the gastrointestinal tract include the mouth, oropharynx, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine and large intestine.
 The length of the GI tract is about 5–7 meters.
The Accessory Digestive Organs
 The accessory digestive organs include the teeth tongue, salivary glands, liver,
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gallbladder, and pancreas.
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 The teeth help in the physical breakdown of food, and the tongue assists in chewing
and swallowing.
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The other accessory digestive organs are not come in direct contact with food.
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 They produce or store secretions that flows into the GI tract through ducts; the
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secretions aid in the chemical breakdown of food.
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BASIC PROCESSES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
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There are total six basic processes carried out by digestive system
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1 Ingestion  This is an eating process in which foods & liquids take into the mouth.
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2 Secretion  In one day the secretary cells of the walls of the GI tract and accessory
digestive organs secrete a total of about 7 liters of water, acid, buffers,
and enzymes into the lumen of the tract.
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3 Mixing &  Alternate contractions and relaxations of smooth muscle in the walls
propulsion of the GI tract mix food & secretions & propel them toward the anus.
 This capability of the GI tract to mix and move material along its
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length is called motility or peristalsis movement.

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4 Digestion There are two processes of break down ingested food into small
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molecules
Mechanical digestion Chemical digestion
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 teeth cut and grind food &  The large carbohydrate, lipid,
 then smooth muscles of the protein, and nucleic acid
stomach and small intestine churn molecules in food are split into
the food smaller molecules by
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 food molecules become dissolved hydrolysis

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& thoroughly mixed with  Digestive enzymes catalyzed

digestive enzymes the catabolic reactions
5 Absorption  The transfer of ingested and secreted fluids, ions, and the products of
digestion into the epithelial cells lining the lumen of the GI tract is
called absorption.
 The absorbed substances pass into blood or lymph and circulate to
cells throughout the body.
6 Defecation  Wastes, indigestible substances, bacteria, cells sloughed from the
lining of the GI tract, and digested materials that were not absorbed in
their journey through the digestive tract leave the body through the
anus in a process called defecation.
 The eliminated material is termed feces.
THE LAYERS OF THE GIT

 The wall of the GIT having same basic, four-layered arrangement of tissues.
 The four layers of the tract, from deep to superficial, are the
The layers of the GIT
Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis Serosa
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Epithelium Lamina Propia Muscularis mucosa
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1. MUCOSA
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 The mucosa is the innermost layer of the GI tract.

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 The mucosa surrounds the lumen, or open space within the digestive tube.
 This layer comes in direct contact with digested food (chyme).
 It is absorptive & secretary layer of GIT.
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 The epithelium of the mucosa is particularly specialized, depending on the portion of

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the digestive system.

 It is made up of three layers:
i. The epithelium
 A layer of epithelium in direct contact with the contents of the GI tract
 It is the innermost layer and it is responsible for most digestive, absorptive, and
secretory processes.
ii. The lamina propria

 It is a layer of connective tissue that is unusually cellular compared to most
connective tissue.
iii. The muscularis mucosae
 It is a thin layer of smooth muscle.
 In the esophagus, the epithelium is stratified, squamous, and non-keratinizing, for
protective purposes.
 In the stomach. the epithelium is simple columnar, and is organized into gastric pits and
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glands to deal with secretion.
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 In the small intestine, the epithelium (particularly the ileum) is specialized for
absorption, with villi and microvilli increasing surface area.
2. SUBMUCOSA
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 The submucosa consists of areolar connective tissue that binds the mucosa to the
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muscularis.
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 The submucosa is relatively thick, highly vascular, and serves the mucosa.
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The absorbed elements that pass through the mucosa are picked up from the blood
vessels of the submucosa.
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 It also contains that receive absorbed food molecules.
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 Also located in the submucosa is an extensive network of neurons known as the

submucosal plexus.
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 The submucosa may also contain glands, lymphatic vessels & lymphatic tissue.
3. MUSCULARIS
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 The third layer of the alimentary canal is the muscalaris also called the muscularis
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externa.
 The muscularis in the small intestine is made up of a double layer of smooth muscle:
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- Inner circular layer

- Outer longitudinal layer.
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The contractions of these layers promote mechanical digestion, expose more of the food
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to digestive chemicals, and move the food along the GI tract.

 In the most proximal and distal regions of the GI tract, including the mouth, pharynx,
anterior part of the esophagus, and external anal sphincter, the muscularis is made up
of skeletal muscle.
- Which gives you voluntary control over swallowing and defecation.
 In the rest of the GI tract, the muscularis consists of smooth muscle that is generally
found in two sheets: an inner sheet of circular fibers and an outer sheet of longitudinal
fibers.
- Involuntary contractions of the smooth muscle help break down food, mix it with
digestive secretions, and propel/move it along the tract.
 The stomach is prepared for its churning function by the addition of a third layer, the
oblique muscle.
4. SEROSA
 Those portions of the GI tract that are suspended in the abdominopelvic cavity have a
superficial layer called the serosa.
 Instead of serosa, the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus have a dense sheath of collagen
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fibers called the adventitia.
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 These tissues serve to hold the alimentary canal in place near the ventral surface of the
vertebral column.
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**NEURAL INNERVATION OF THE GI TRACT**
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The gastrointestinal tract is regulated by
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 An intrinsic set of nerves known as the enteric nervous system (ENS) and
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An extrinsic set of nerves that are part of the autonomic nervous system.
Intrinsic Set
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 Intrinsic innervations of the alimentary canal is provided by the ENS, which runs from
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the esophagus to the anus, and contains approximately 100 million motor, sensory, and
interneurons (unique to this system compared to all other parts of the PNS).
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 These enteric neurons are grouped into two plexuses.

- The myenteric plexus (plexus of Auerbach) lies in the muscularis layer of the
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alimentary canal and is responsible for motility, especially the rhythm and force of
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the contractions of the muscularis.

- The submucosal plexus also called plexus of Meissner, lies in the submucosal layer
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and is responsible for regulating digestive secretions and reacting to the presence of
food.
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Extrinsic set
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 Extrinsic innervations of the alimentary canal are provided by the ANS, which includes
both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.
 In general, sympathetic activation restricts the activity of enteric neurons, thereby
decreasing GI secretion and motility.
 In contrast, parasympathetic activation increases GI secretion and motility by
stimulating neurons of the enteric nervous system.
PERITONIUM
The peritoneum supports the abdominal organs and give way for their blood and lymph vessels
and nerves.
There are two layers of the peritoneum:
 The outer layer, called the parietal peritoneum, is attached to the abdominal wall;
 The inner layer, the visceral peritoneum, is wrapped around the internal organs that are
located inside the intraperitoneal cavity.
The mesentery is the double layer of visceral peritoneum.
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The potential space between these two layers, the peritoneal cavity, is filled with a small
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amount of slippery serous fluid.
The structures in the abdomen are classified as intraperitoneal and retroperitoneal
Intraperitoneal Organs
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 Intraperitoneal organs are enveloped by visceral peritoneum, which covers the organ
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both anteriorly and posteriorly.
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 Examples include the stomach, liver and spleen.
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Retroperitoneal Organs
 Retroperitoneal organs are not associated with visceral peritoneum; they are only
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covered in parietal peritoneum, and that peritoneum only covers their anterior surface.
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MOUTH
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 The mouth, or oral cavity, is the first part of the digestive tract.
 It is adapted to receive food by ingestion, break it into small particles by mastication,
and mix it with saliva.
 The lips, cheeks, and palate form the boundaries.
 The oral cavity contains the teeth and tongue and receives the secretions from the
salivary glands.
 Lips and Cheeks
 The lips and cheeks help hold food in the mouth and keep it in place for chewing.
 They are also used in the formation of words for speech.

 The lips contain numerous sensory receptors that are useful for judging the
temperature and texture of foods.
 Palate
 The palate is the roof of the oral cavity.
 It separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.
 The anterior portion, the hard palate, is supported by bone.
 The posterior portion, the soft palate, is skeletal muscle and connective tissue.
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 Posteriorly, the soft palate ends in a projection called the uvula.
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 During swallowing, the soft palate and uvula move upward to direct food away
from the nasal cavity and into the oropharynx.
 Tongue
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 The tongue manipulates food in the mouth and is used in speech.
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 The surface is covered with papillae that provide friction and contain the taste buds.
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 Teeth
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 A complete set of deciduous (primary) teeth contains 20 teeth.

 There are 32 teeth in a complete permanent (secondary) set.
 The shape of each tooth type corresponds to the way it handles food.
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SALIVARY GLAND IV
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Several glands associated with the oral cavity secrete saliva
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 The basic secretory units of salivary glands are clusters of cells called an acini.
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 These cells secrete a fluid that contains water, electrolytes, mucus and enzymes, all of
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which flow out of the acinus into collecting ducts
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 The salivary glands make saliva & empty it into your mouth through ducts.
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Classification of Salivary Glands Based On Secretion:

Two basic types of acinar epithelial cells exist in salivary glands:
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1. Serous gland
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Made up by serous cells, which secrete a watery fluid, essentially devoid of mucus. Ex.:
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paratid gland
2. Mucous gland
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Made by mucous cells produce a very mucus-rich secretion.

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Ex.: Lingual, buccal etc.

3. Mixed gland
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 Made by both serous & mucous cell

Ex.: Submandibular, sublingual and labial glands
Classification of Salivary Glands Based on Anatomy:
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Salivary Glands
The Major Salivary Glands The Minor Salivary Glands
Parotid Submaxillary Sublingual Buccal Labial Lingual Palatal Palatoglosal

Glands Glands Glands
Anterior Posterior
lingual lingual
A. The Major Salivary Glands

1. The parotid glands
 Parotid glands are the largest salivary gland.
 Approximately 6 cm legnth and 3-4 cm width and weigh up to 30 grams.
 They are located within each of our cheeks and inferior and anterior to the ears,
between the skin and the masseter muscle.
 In our oral cavity, they are responsible for the secretion of about 20% of saliva.
 Each secretes saliva into the oral cavity via a parotid duct
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 This saliva is known as serous i.e. more liquid and fluid.
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 It helps in the first phase of the digestion of food, facilitate mastication "chewing".
 These glands secrete a protein-rich fluid which is a suspension of alpha-amylase
enzyme.
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2. Submaxillary Glands
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 These glands are located under the lower jaw, outside the oral cavity.
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 This is the movable part of our jaw.
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It is the second-largest salivary gland and produces approx. 65-70% of saliva.
 It is a mixture of serous and mucous glands and released through submandibular
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ducts.
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 Its saliva is more viscous as compared to the secretion of the parotid gland.
3. Sublingual Glands
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 It is the smallest of the major salivary glands. They are located under the tongue.
 Approximately 5% of the saliva comes from these glands.
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 The saliva that comes out is mostly mucus, having a viscous texture and flows into
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the mouth through sublingual ducts.

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Salivary Glands
B. The Minor Salivary Glands

There are hundreds of minor salivary glands throughout the mouth. Most are found in the lining
of the lips, the tongue, and the roof of the mouth, as well as inside the cheeks, nose, sinuses,
and larynx.
1. Buccal glands
 These are minor salivary glands located on the inner side of the cheeks.
2. Labial glands
 These are minor salivary glands located on the inner side of the lip.
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3. Lingiual glands
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 The anterior and posterior lingual glands are mainly mucous.
 The anterior glands are embedded within muscle near the ventral surface of the
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tongue and open by means of four or five ducts near the lingual frenum and the
posterior glands are located in the root of the tongue.
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4. Palatine glands
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 These are minor salivary glands located on the tong on its lateral and posterior
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surfaces.
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 The palatal glands are mucous glands and occur in both the soft and hard palates.
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Properties & Composition
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 Saliva is mainly water. 1000 mL to 1500 mL of saliva is secreted per day and it is
approximately about 1 mL/minute.
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 In fact, it’s 97-99.5% water which makes it hypoosmotic.

 Its osmolarity depends on the glands that are active and the amount and type of stimulus
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for salivation.
 Generally, saliva is a bit acidic, pH 6.75-7.00, but the PH can vary. Its solutes include
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electrolytes (mainly sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate); the digestive

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enzymes salivary amylase and lingual lipase; the proteins mucin, IgA, and lysozyme;
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metabolic wastes (uric acid, urea).

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 When dissolved in water, the glycoprotein mucin forms thick mucus that lubricates the
oral cavity and hydrates foodstuffs.
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Salivation and Its Neuronal Regulation

 The secretion of saliva, called salivation and it is controlled by the autonomic nervous
system.
 Parasympathetic stimulation promotes continuous secretion of a moderate amount of
saliva. Sympathetic stimulation decrease salivation during stress, resulting in dryness
of the mouth.
SYMPATHETIC INNERVATION
The sympathetic control of salivary production is by the superior cervical ganglion.
Sympathetic stimulation results in the release of noradrenaline, which acts upon alpha-
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and beta-adrenergic receptors.
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This results in the following effects:
 Decreased production of saliva by acinar cells
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 Increased protein secretion
 Decreased blood flow to the glands
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Decreases salivation
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PARASYMPATHETIC INNERVATION
The parasympathetic outflow is coordinated via centres in the medulla, and innervation occurs via
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the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves.
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The information from the mouth, tongue, nose and other reflexes are integrated within the brain in
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the presence of food, parasympathetic stimulation occurs.
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Parasympathetic outflow results in the release of acetylcholine (ACh) onto M3 muscarinic
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receptors.
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This results in the following effects:
 Acinar cells increase secretion of saliva

 Duct cells increase HCO3– secretion
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 Co-transmitters result in increased blood flow to the salivary glands

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 to increase the rate of expulsion of saliva
Increases salivation
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Functions of Saliva
1. Chemical digestion: breaks down starch by the function of “salivary amylase”
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2. Helps chewing and swallowing

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3. Lubricating effect: moisturizes the inside of the mouth and creates smoother speech
4. Solvent effect: dissolves food and allows the tongue to taste food
5. Cleaning effect: washes away food debris and bacteria remaining in the mouth
6. Antibacterial effect: Lysozyme, peroxidase and lactoferrin fight against pathogenic
microorganisms
7. pH buffering effect: Prevents sudden changes in pH
8. Supplies minerals, including calcium and phosphorus, to teeth
PHARYNX
 After swallowing of food, it enter into the pharynx
 Pharynx is a funnel-shaped tube that extends from the nasal cavity to the esophagus
posteriorly and anteriorly to the larynx.
 The pharynx is composed of skeletal muscle and lined by mucous membrane,
 It is divided into three parts:
1. Nasopharynx 2. Oropharynx 3. Laryngopharynx.
 The functions of nasopharynx is only in respiration. The oropharynx & laryngopharynx
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involve in both digestive as well as respiratory functions.
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ESOPHAGUS
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The esophagus start with throat and ends at stomach, it passes through the opening of
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diaphragm called esophageal hiatus.
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The esophagus is a collapsible muscular tube, about 25 cm long.
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There are two sphincters- an areas which open & close in the esophagus.
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Sphincters of Esophagus
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The upper esophageal sphincter (UES)

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The lower esophageal sphincter
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(LES)
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 It is under voluntary as well as  It is under only involuntary control
involuntary control.  It prevents stomach acid entering

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 Prevent food & liquids from entering the into the esophagus.
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windpipe.
 It can be opened & closed consciously,
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as during swallowing & vomiting.

Function
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 The esophagus serves to pass food and liquids from the mouth down to the stomach.
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 This is carried by periodic contractions (peristalsis).

 With vomiting, these contractions are reversed, allowing stomach contents to be
returned to the mouth to spit out.
MASTICATION
 Mastication is a sensory-motor activity aimed at the preparation of food for swallowing.
 It is a complex process involving activities of the facial, the elevator and suprahyoidal
muscles, and the tongue.
 These activities result in patterns of rhythmic mandibular movements, food
manipulation and the crushing of food between the teeth.
 Saliva facilitates mastication, moistens the food particles, makes a bolus, and assists
swallowing.
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 The movement of the jaw, and thus the neuromuscular control of chewing, plays an
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important role in the reducing partical size of the food.

IV
Characteristics of the food, e.g. water and fat percentage and hardness, are influences
the masticatory process.
TR
 Food hardness is sensed during mastication and affects masticatory force, jaw muscle
I
&
activity, and mandibular jaw movements.
ED
DEGLUTITION / SWALLOWING
D
IV
The movement of food from the mouth into the stomach is called
IK
TR
swallowing or deglutition
IT
Deglutition is facilitated by the secretion of saliva and mucus

N.
NA
Swallowing occurs in three stages

A
.
1st stage 2nd stage 3rd stage

AM
DR
the voluntary stage, the involuntary stage, the involuntary stage,

UP
the bolus is passed into the bolus through the the bolus through the
the oropharynx pharynx into the esophagus esophagus
into the stomach
.
DR
STOMACH
 The stomach is a J-shaped organ of the GI tract directly inferior to the diaphragm
 The stomach connects the esophagus to the duodenum, the 1st part of the small
intestine.
 Anatomically the stomach has four parts
PARTS OF STOMACH
1. Cardia 2. Fundus 3. Body 4. Pylorus
I
ED
The opening of The rounded The large central The region of the stomach
the stomach. portion superior portion of the that connects stomach to
IV
to and to the left stomach- inferior the
TR
of the cardia to the fundus duodenum
I
&
ED
Pyloric antrum Pyloric Canal
D
IV
connects to the body of the which leads
IK
stomach to duodenum into the
TR
duodenum
IT
When the stomach is empty, the mucosa lies in large folds, called rugae.
 The pylorus communicates with the duodenum by smooth muscle sphincter called the
N.
NA
pyloric sphincter.
 The concave medial border of the stomach is called the lesser curvature, & the convex
A
.
lateral border is called the greater curvature.

AM
DR
UP
.
DR
Histology of stomach
 The wall of the stomach is made of the same four layers like remiang GIT, but some
adaptations make it for the unique functions.
 In addition to the typical circular and longitudinal smooth muscle layers, the muscularis
has an inner oblique smooth muscle layer.
 The surface of the mucosa is a layer of simple columnar epithelial cells called surface
mucous cells.
 The mucosa contains a lamina propria (areolar connective tissue) and a muscularis
mucosae (smooth muscle).
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
Gastric glands
A
 Flow pathway of gastric juice

.
AM
Epithelial cells extend down into the lamina propria, where they form columns of secretory
DR
cells called Gastric glands

UP
Several gastric glands open and secrets there secretions into the bottom of narrow channels
called Gastric pits.
.
Then Secretions flow into the lumen of the stomach.

DR
 The gastric glands contain three types of exocrine gland cells that secrete their products
into the stomach lumen:
Exocrine Gland Cells/ Secretary Cells
Mucous Neck Cell Chief Cells Parietal Cells
Secrete thin, acidic mucus secrete pepsinogen produce intrinsic factor

and gastric lipase & HCL
 The secretions of gastric cells form gastric juice, which total 2000–3000 mL per day.
 The gastric glands also include a type of enteroendocrine cell, the G cell, which is
located mainly in the pyloric antrum and secretes the hormone gastrin into the
bloodstream.
GASTRIC JUICE
 Gastric juice is the secretion of gastric glands.
 Total amount secreted: 1, 200-1500 ml per day.
 Night secretion alone is 400 ml/day.
I
 pH: 0.9-1.5
ED
 Composition of gastric juice
GASTRIC JUICE COMPOSITION
IV
Water 99.5% Solid 0.5%
TR
I
&
ED
Organic substances Inorganic Substances
D
Enzymes Other organic 1. Hydrochloric Acid
IV
2. Calcium
IK
3. Sodium
TR
1. Pepsin 1. Mucus
4. Potassium
2. Rennin 2. Intrinsic
IT
5. Bicarbonate
3. Gastric factors
6. Chloride
4. Lipase
N.
7. Phosphate
NA
5. Gelatinase
8. Sulphate
6. Urease
A
.
ACID PRODUCTION IN STOMACH

AM
DR
HCl is produced by the parietal cells of the stomach.

UP
Inside the parietal cell water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) combine to produce carbonic
acid (H2CO3)
Carbonic anhydrase converts carbonic acid into its component ions a hydrogen ion (H+) and a
.
bicarbonate ion (HCO3–) in the parietal cell.

DR
Then H+ ion is transported into the stomach lumen & K+ ions in the parietal cell via the H+–
K+ ATPase by using ATP for energy
The bicarbonate ion is transported out of the cell into the blood in exchange for a chloride ion
(Cl–) called Protein pump
This chloride ion is then transported into the stomach lumen via a chloride channel.
This results in both hydrogen and chloride ions being present within the stomach lumen.
Their opposing charges leads to them associating with each other to form
Hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Regulation of acid production through parasympathetic nervous system
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
Increase acid production
TR
 HCl secretion by parietal cells can be stimulated by several sources:
IT
- Acetylcholine (ach) which is released from the vagus nerve of parasympathetic

N.
neurons
NA
 Gastrin secreted by G cells

- G cells are activated by the vagus nerve
A
.
 Histamine, released by mast cells in the nearby lamina propria.

AM
DR
- Histamine release in response to the presence of gastrin and ACh.

 Acetylcholine and gastrin stimulate parietal cells to secrete more HCl in the presence
UP
of histamine.
 Receptors for all three substances are present in the plasma membrane of parietal cells.
.
 This leads to increased fusion of vesicles in parietal cell however it is via the secondary
DR
messenger cAMP
 Stimulation of the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane which leads to the increased
insertion of H+– K+ ATPase into the membrane, hence allowing for the increased
movement of hydrogen ions into the stomach thus increasing acid production.
Decreasing acid production

 The increase of acid in the empty stomach between meals, increase in acid leads to a
lower pH within the stomach, which inhibits the secretion of gastrin, via the production
of somatostatin from D cells.
 Once food has been broken down into chyme, it passes into the duodenum, triggering
the enterogastric reflex.
 Inhibitory signals are sent to the stomach via the enteric nervous system, as well as
signals to medulla – reducing vagal stimulation of the stomach.
Pepsin role in protein digestion
I
 The pepsin is only proteolytic enzyme which digest protein in the stomach.
ED
 Pepsin is secreted by chief Cells.
 Pepsin severs certain peptide bonds between amino acids, breaking down a protein
IV
chain of many amino acids into smaller peptide fragments.
 Pepsin is most effective in the very acidic environment of the stomach (pH 2); it
TR
becomes inactive at a higher pH.
I
&
 Testing, smelling, seeing or just thinking about food can cause gastric glands in the
ED
stomach to secrete gastric juice.
D
 The hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice converts pepsinogen into pepsin by cleaving
IV
off a stretch of amino acids called a peptide.
IK
 This reaction requires very acidic pH, ranging between 1 to 3.
TR
 The acidic environment is needed for the generation and activity of pepsin.
IT
 The hydrochloric acid in the stomach generally provides a pH of about 1.5 to 3.5.
 The acid in the stomach causes food proteins to unfold in a process called denaturation.
N.
NA
 Due denaturation, pepsin break the proteins into smaller fragments, called peptides or
polypeptides.
 The small intestine will continue to break down proteins by chopping the peptides into
A
.
amino acids, which can readily be absorbed into the blood stream.
AM
DR
 Pepsin digests proteins for several hours before the partially digested food mix is slowly
UP
transferred to the small intestine.

Functions of the Stomach
1. Mixes saliva, food, and gastric juice to form chyme.
.
2. Serves as a reservoir for food before release into small intestine.

DR
3. Secretes gastric juice, which contains

 Hcl -kills bacteria and denatures protein
 Pepsin-begins the digestion of proteins,
 Intrinsic factor-aids absorption of vitamin B
 Gastric lipase-aids digestion of triglycerides
4. Secretes gastrin into blood.
PANCREAS
Anatomy of pancreas
 The pancreas is a retroperitoneal gland
 It is about 12–15 cm (5–6 in.) long and 2.5 cm (1 in.) thick,
 Located posterior to the greater curvature of the stomach.
 The pancreas consists of
- Head - Body - Tail
 The head is the expanded portion of the organ near the curve of the duodenum; superior
I
ED
to and to the left of the head are the central body and the tapering tail.
 It connected to the duodenum by two ducts.
- Accessory duct IV
- Pancreatic duct
TR

I
The pancreatic duct is the larger duct.
&
ED
 The pancreatic duct joins to the common bile duct from the liver and gallbladder and
D
enters the duodenum as a dilated common duct called the hepatopancreatic ampulla.
IV
 The passage of pancreatic juice and bile through the hepatopancreatic ampulla into the
IK
small intestine is regulated by the sphincter of the hepatopancreatic ampulla.


TR
The other major duct of the pancreas, the accessory duct (duct of Santorini), empties
IT
into the duodenum about 2.5 cm (1 in.) superior to the hepatopancreatic ampulla.
N.
NA
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
Histology of the Pancreas

 Exocrine portion
- The pancreas is made up of small clusters of glandular epithelial cells.
- About 99% of the clusters, called acini, constitute the exocrine portion of the
pancreas.
- The cells within acini secrete a mixture of fluid and digestive enzymes called
pancreatic juice.
 Endocrine portion
I
- The remaining 1% of the clusters, called pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans),
ED
forms the endocrine portion of the pancreas.
- These cells secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic
polypeptide.
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
PANCRATIC JUICE
A
.
AM
Properties
DR
 The pancreas produces 1200–1500 mL of pancreatic juice per day.

UP
 It is a clear, colorless, odorless liquid consisting mostly of water, some salts, sodium
bicarbonate, and several enzymes.
 Pancreatic juice is highly alkaline fluid of low viscosity,.
.
 pH = 7.1- 8.2
DR
Composition
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
Functions of pancreas/ pancreatic juice
IK
1. Buffering
TR
 The sodium bicarbonate gives pancreatic juice a slightly alkaline pH (7.1–8.2) that
IT
buffers acidic gastric juice in chime.

N.
 Maintain the proper pH for the action of digestive enzymes in the small intestine.
NA
2. Starch digestion
 The enzymes in pancreatic juice include a starch digesting enzyme called
A
.
pancreatic amylase.
AM
DR
3. Protein digestion
 Trypsin
UP
 Trypsinogen is the inactive form of trypsin.

 It is activated by enteropeptidase secreted by intestinal mucosa.
.
 It activates trypsinogen to trypsin.

DR
 Once trypsin is formed, trypsin by itself activates trypsinogen. This type of a

reaction is known as an autocatalytic reaction.
 Chymotrypsinogen:
 Chymotrypsinogen is activated to chymotrypsin-an endopeptidase by trypsin.
 Chymotrypsin breaks peptide bonds adjacent to aromatic amino acids.
 The pH required for this action is about 7-8.
 This enzyme helps to digest large proteins into smaller peptides.
 Procarboxypeptidase A and B:
 Both are activated by trypsin into carboxypeptidase A and B, respectively.

 They are exopeptidases because they cleave or break peptide bonds at the
carboxy terminal of the protein.
 Elastase:
 Activated to elastase by trypsin.
 An elastase acts on the protein elastin attacking peptide bonds adjacent to
aliphatic amino acids.
 Collagenase:
I
 Activated into collagenase by trypsin and digests collagen.
ED
 Nucleases:
 Convert the RNA & DNA into mononucleotides.
4. Lipid Digestion
IV
TR
 Pancreatic lipase
I
&
 It is the most important fat splitting enzyme in the GIT.
ED
 It acts on emulsified fats, emulsification carried by bile salts in the presence of
D
IV
lecithin and monoglycerides.
 Bile salts activate pancreatic lipase.
IK
TR
 The triglycerides are broken down by lipase into glycerol and fatty acids
IT
 Prophospholipase:
 This is activated by trypsin to phospholipase.
N.
NA
 Phospholipase converts lecithin into lysolecithin by splitting of fatty acid and then
absorbed it.
A
 Cholesterol esterase:
.
AM
DR
 This enzyme hydrolyses cholesterol ester to yield free cholesterol which is

absorbed along with fatty acids.
UP
.
DR
LIVER
 The liver is a peritoneal organ positioned in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen.
It is the largest visceral structure in the abdominal cavity.
 The largest gland in the human body.
 The liver is the heaviest gland of the body, weighing about 1.4 kg in an average adult.
 It is an accessory digestion gland, performs a wide range of functions;
including synthesis of bile, glycogen storage and clotting factor production.
Anatomy of liver
I
 Liver Surfaces
ED
Liver Surfaces
Diaphragmatic surface
IV Visceral surface
TR
I
&
the anterosuperior surface of the liver the posteroinferior surface of the liver.
ED
D
The posterior aspect of the diaphragmatic Except the fossa of the gallbladder & porta
IV
surface is not covered by visceral peritoneum, hepatis, it is covered with visceral peritoneum.
IK
TR
In direct contact with the diaphragm, area o It lies in contact with the right kidney, right adrenal
IT
known as the ‘bare area’ of the liver. gland, right colic flexure, transverse colon
N.
NA
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
Ligaments of the Liver

There are various ligaments that attach the liver to the surrounding structures. These are formed
by a double layer of peritoneum.
Falciform  It is attaches the anterior surface of the liver & anterior to abdominal wall.
ligament  Falciform ligament divide liver into 2 lobes
 the small left and
 large right lobs
 The right lobe divides into the caudate and quadrate lobes by a deep,
I
transverse fissure called as the porta hepatis.
ED
 It transmits all the vessels, nerves and ducts entering or leaving the liver
with the exception of the hepatic veins.
Coronary
IV
 It attaches the superior surface of the liver to the inferior surface of
TR
ligament the diaphragm and boundaries of the bare area of the liver
I
&
 The anterior and posterior folds unite to form the triangular ligaments on the right
ED
and left lobes of the liver.
D
IV
Triangular  The left triangular ligament is formed by the union of the anterior and posterior
IK
ligaments layers of the coronary ligament at the apex of the liver.
TR
 The right triangular ligament is formed in a similar fashion adjacent to the bare
IT
area and attaches the right lobe of the liver to the diaphragm.
Lesser  It the liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach and first part of the duodenum.
N.
NA
omentum  It consists of the hepatoduodenal ligament & the hepatogastric ligament,

A
.
HISTOLOGY OF LIVER
AM
DR
1. Hepatocytes
UP
 Hepatocytes are the major functional cells of the liver and perform a variety of the
functions like metabolic, secretory, and endocrine.
 These are specialized epithelial cells with 5 to 12 sides that make up about 80% of the
.
volume of the liver.

DR
 Hepatocytes form complex three-dimensional arrangements called hepatic laminae.

 Grooves in the cell membranes between neighboring hepatocytes provide spaces for
canaliculi into which the hepatocytes secrete bile.
 Bile, a yellow, brownish, or olive-green liquid secreted by hepatocytes, serves as both
an excretory product and a digestive secretion.
2. Bile canaliculi
 These are small ducts between hepatocytes that collect bile produced by the
hepatocytes.
From bile canaliculi, bile passes into
Bile ductules
Then into the bile ducts.
The bile ducts merge and eventually form the

Larger right and Left hepatic ducts,
I
ED
Which unite and exit the liver as the common hepatic duct.
The common hepatic duct joins the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form
IV
the common bile duct
Bile enters the small intestine to participate in digestion.

TR
I
&
3. Hepatic sinusoids
ED
 Hepatic sinusoids are highly permeable blood capillaries between rows of hepatocytes
D
that receive
IV
- Oxygenated blood from branches of the hepatic artery
IK
TR
- Nutrient-rich deoxygenated blood from branches of the hepatic portal vein.
 Hepatic sinusoids deliver blood into a central vein then the blood flows into the hepatic
IT
veins, which drain into the inferior vena cava.

N.
NA
 The hepatic sinusoids contains Kupffer cells- a phagocytic cell.

 Together, a bile duct, branch of the hepatic artery, and branch of the hepatic vein are
referred to as a portal triad.
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
1. Metabolism
Liver contains many metabolic enzyme which metabolized carbohydrates, protein &
lipids.
2. Detoxification
The liver is detoxifies many toxins. Those toxins can be naturally present in the waste
generated by our body, like ammonia, or in the ones we eat or drink, like medicine or
alcohol.
I
3. Excretion
ED
Excretion of bilirubin, cholesterol, hormones, toxins and drugs
4. Synthesis
IV
Synthesis of plasma proteins, such as albumin, glucose, glycogen, ATP, liporpteins,
TR
cholesterol and clotting factors.
I
&
5. Storage
ED
Storage of glycogen, vitamins (A B12, D, E & K) and minerals (iron & copper)
D
IV
6. Protection
Cells of the liver phagocytize aged red blood cells, white blood cells, and some
IK
TR
bacteria.
IT
7. Activation of vitamin D
The skin, liver, and kidneys participate in synthesizing the active form of vitamin D.
N.
NA
BILE
PROPERTIES OF BILE
A
.
 Each day, hepatocytes secrete 800–1000 mL of bile,

AM
DR
 A yellow, brownish, or olive-green liquid. It has a pH of 7.6–8.6

COMPOSITION OF BILE
UP
.
DR
FUNCTIONS OF BILE
 Bile salts
- Which are sodium salts and potassium salts of bile, play a role in emulsification,
the breakdown of large lipid globules into a suspension of small lipid globules.
- The small lipid globules present a very large surface area that allows pancreatic
lipase to more rapidly accomplish digestion of triglycerides.
- Bile salts reduce the surface tension, help in the absorption of lipids after their
I
digestion.
ED
- Bile salts help in the absorption of lipid-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K.
 Mucin
-
IV
Mucin of bile acts as a buffer and a lubricant.
TR
 Lecithin and cholesterol:
I
&
- First, they are treated as food and are reabsorbed.
ED
- Secondly, they act as adjuvants to bile salts in the process of emulsification of fats.
D
IV
Maintain pH
- Bile is an important source of alkali for neutralising the HCl entering the intestine
IK
TR
from stomach.
IT
 Laxative Action:
- Bile salts stimulate peristalsis. When introduced directly into the colon it stimulates
N.
NA
peristalsis of these parts.

A
.
GALL BLADDER
AM
DR
 STRUCTURE
- It has a pear shape and its tip opens towards the cystic duct.
UP
- In adults, the gallbladder is approximately 7 to 10 cm long and 4 cm in diameter.

- It has a capacity of approximately 50 milliliters.
.
- The parts of the gallbladder include the broad fundus, body and neck.
DR
 FUNCTIONS
- Storage of bile made by liver, in gallbladder it is called gall.
- Concentrate bile by absorbing water from bile
- Regulate pressure in bilary system.
- Maintain pH of bile
- Secretes mucus.
I
ED
SMALL INTESTINE IV
 The small intestine is the longest part of the digestive system.
TR

I
The small intestine begins at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach & opens into the
&
ED
large intestine.
 It averages 2.5 cm in diameter; its length is about 3 m and about 6.5 m.
D
IV
ANATOMY OF SMALL INTESTINE
It consists of three parts:
IK
TR
i. Duodenum:
 The duodenum is the shortest region, in retroperitoneal. It starts at the pyloric
IT
sphincter of the stomach and extends about 25 cm. It merges with the jejunum.
N.
ii. Jejunum:
NA
 The jejunum is about 1m long & ends to the ileum. Jejunum means “empty,”
iii. Ileum:
A
 Last & longest region of the small intestine, ileum means twisted, it is about 2 m and
.
AM
DR
joins the large intestine at a smooth muscle sphincter called the ileocecal sphincter.
UP
.
DR
HISTOLOGY OF SMALL INTESTINE

 The wall of the small intestine is composed of the same four layers that make up most
of the GI tract: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa.
 The mucosa is composed of a layer of epithelium, lamina propria, and muscular mucosa
 Its length alone provides a large surface area for digestion and absorption. The area is
further increased by circular folds, villi, and microvilli.
LAYER OF GIT NAME OF CELLS THEIR FUNCTION
Mucosa Absorptive cells Digest and absorb nutrients in small intestinal chime
goblet cells secrete mucus
Secrete lysozyme, a bactericidal enzyme, and are
capable of phagocytosis. Paneth cells may have a
Paneth cells
I
role in regulating the microbial population in the
Epithelial
ED
small intestine.
Layer secrete the hormones
Enteroendo-crine
cells
IV
S cells,
CCK cells
Secretin
Cholecystokinin
TR
K cells glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide or GIP
I
&
Solitary Lymphatic Protection
Lamina
ED
Nodules
Propria
Peyer’s Patches
D
Sub Secrete analkaline mucus that helps neutralize
IV
Brunner’s Glands
Mucosa gastric acid in the chyme.
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
INTESTINAL JUICE AND BRUSH-BORDER ENZYMES

 About 1–2 L of intestinal juice, a clear yellow fluid, are secreted each day.
 Intestinal juice contains water and mucus and is slightly alkaline pH 7.6
 Together, pancreatic and intestinal juices provide a liquid medium that absorb of
substances from chyme in the small intestine.
 The absorptive cells of the small intestine synthesize several digestive enzymes, called
brush-border enzymes, and insert them in the plasma membrane of the microvilli.
BRUSH-BORDER ENZYMES
I
ED
Carbohydrate- Protein-Digesting Nucleotide-Digesting
Digesting Enzymes Enzymes Enzymes
IV
Dextrinase Aminopeptidase Nucleosidases
TR
I
&
Maltase Dipeptidase Phosphatases
ED
Sucrase
D
Lactase
IV
IK
COMPOSITION OF INTESTINAL FLUID/ SUCCUS ENTERICUS
TR
IT
N.
NA
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
FUNCTION OF SMALL INTESTINE

 Duodenum
The duodenum is act like the mixing pot.
It receives chyme from the stomach, which is a mixture of food products and acid.
Pancreatic enzymes enter here to break down the products from the stomach,
bicarbonate to neutralize the acid from the stomach before reaching the jejunum.
I
Liver introduces bile which allows for the breakdown & absorption of fat from
ED
food.
 The jejunum primary function is absorption, where sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids

are absorbed. IV
The ileum absorbs nutrients that did not get absorbed by the jejunum, with important
nutrients being vitamin B12 and bile acids for reuse.
TR
I
&
LARGE INTESTINE
ED
The large intestine, also known as the colon, is part of the digestive tract.
D
The large intestine, which is the terminal part of gastrointestinal (GI) tract, is so called
IV
because its diameter of lumen is larger, not because its length.
ANATOMY OF THE LARGE INTESTINE
IK
 The large intestine, which is about 1.5 m long and 6.5 cm in diameter, extends from the
TR
ileum to the anus.
IT
 Structurally, the four major regions of the large intestine are

I. cecum
N.
II. colon
NA
III. rectum
IV. anal canal
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
Cecum  Continue from ileum to colon

 Ileocecal sphincter is present in between small and large intestine.
 Hanging inferior to the ileocecal valve is the cecum, a small pouch of 6
cm.
 Appendix is a twisted, coiled tube, measuring about 8 cm (3 in.) in length
join to the cecum.
Colon  The colon (large intestine) is the distal part of the gastrointestinal tract,
extending from the cecum to the anal canal.
I
 Colon is divided into ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid
ED
portions
Ascending Colon
IV
 The colon begins as the ascending colon, a retroperitoneal structure which
TR
ascends superiorly from the cecum.
I
&
 When it meets the right lobe of the liver, it turns 90 degrees to
ED
move horizontally. This turn is known as the right colic flexure or hepatic
D
IV
flexure, and marks the start of the transverse colon.
IK
Transverse colon
TR
 The transverse colon extends from the right colic flexure to the spleen,
IT
where it turns another 90 degrees to point inferiorly.

 This turn is known as the left colic flexure or splenic flexure.
N.
NA
Descending Colon
 After the left colic flexure, the colon moves inferiorly towards the pelvis
A
– and is called the descending colon.

.
AM
DR
 When the colon begins to turn medially, it becomes the sigmoid colon.
Sigmoid Colon
UP
 The 40cm long sigmoid colon is located in the left lower quadrant of the
abdomen, extending from the left iliac fossa to the level of the S3 vertebra.
.
 This journey gives the sigmoid colon its characteristic “S” shape.
DR
RECTUM
 The roles of the rectum include temporary storage of fecal matter and defecation.
 The Rectum last 20 cm (8 in.) of the GI tract, lies anterior to the sacrum and coccyx.
 The terminal 2–3 cm of the rectum is called the anal canal. The mucous membrane of
the anal canal is arranged in longitudinal folds called anal columns
ANAL CANAL
 The anal canal forms the terminal part of the gastrointestinal tract.
 It extends from the anorectal junction to the anus.
 The opening of the anal canal to the exterior, called the anus, is guarded by an internal
anal sphincter of smooth muscle (involuntary) and an external anal sphincter of skeletal
muscle (voluntary).
 Normally these sphincters keep the anus closed except during the elimination of feces.
FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE INTESTINE
 Reabsorption of water and mineral ions such as sodium and chloride
 Bacteria in the large intestine convert proteins to amino acids, break down amino acids,
and produce some B vitamins and vitamin K.
I
 Formation and temporary storage of faeces.
ED
 Defecating (emptying the rectum).
DEFECATION IV
TR
 The process of defecation is normally a combination of both voluntary and involuntary
I
&
processes that create enough force to remove waste material from the digestive system.
ED
 The rectal ampulla acts as a temporary storage for the fecal material.
D
 As additional fecal material enters the rectum, the rectal walls expand.
IV
 A sufficient increase in fecal material in the rectum causes the stretch receptors from
IK
TR
the nervous system, located in the rectal walls, to trigger the contraction of rectal
IT
muscles, the relaxation of the internal anal sphincter, and an initial contraction of the
skeletal muscle of the external sphincter.
N.
NA
 The relaxation of the internal anal sphincter causes a signal to be sent to the brain
indicating an urge to defecate.

A
If this urge is not acted upon, the material in the rectum is often returned to the colon
.
AM
DR
by reverse peristalsis where more water is absorbed, thus temporarily reducing pressure
and stretching within the rectum.
UP
 The additional fecal material is stored in the colon until the next mass peristaltic
movement of the transverse and descending colon.
 If defecation is delayed for a prolonged period, the fecal matter may harden and
.
DR
autolyze, resulting in constipation.

 Once the voluntary signal to defecate is sent back from the brain, the final phase begins.
The abdominal muscles contract (straining), causing the intra-abdominal pressure to
increase.
 The external anal sphincter relaxes.
 The rectum now contracts and shortens in peristaltic waves, thus forcing fecal material
out of the rectum and down through the anal canal.
 The internal and external anal sphincters, along with the puborectalis muscle, allow the
feces to be passed by pulling the anus up and over the exiting feces in shortening and
contracting actions.
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
MOVEMENT OF GIT
.
AM
DR
THE GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY

 Motility is defined as involuntary mobility of human tubular organs.
UP
 For the effective digestion & absorption of food, it is necessary to mix as well as to
propel the chyme to next part of GIT.
.
 For this purpose , there are two types of movements in the GIT:
DR
1. Propulsion movements
2. Mixing movements
 Propulsion movements
Propulsion movements, provide movement of chyme in the digestive tract to that of the
rate of absorption and digestion.
Peristalsis
 Basic propulsion movement is called peristalsis.
 Peristalsis is carried out by circular muscle of muscularis layer. Circular muscles

form a contractile ring, which pushes chyme ahead.
 Alternate contraction and relaxation of GIT pushes chyme in the next part of GIT,
this is called peristalsis, the peristaltic movements are therefore unidirectional.
 Mixing movements
 Mixing movement ensures constant mixing of chyme, so that the entire volume of
the nutritionally important components is exposed to enzymes and came into a
contact with the lining of the intestine to be absorbed.
I
 These movements have different forms and varies throughout the digestive tract.
ED
Segmentation
 Segmentation is the processes in which chyme move back and forth to mix chyme
IV
and digestive juices properly.
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
THE MOVEMENT/ MOTILITY OF THE STOMACH

N.
NA
1) Mixing of food
2) Emptying into the duodenum
A
MIXING OF FOOD
.
AM

DR
Few minutes after food enters the stomach, gentle, peristaltic movements called mixing
waves starts in the stomach in every 15 to 25 seconds.
UP
 These waves macerate food, mix it with secretions of the gastric glands, and convert it
to a soupy liquid called chyme
.
GASTRIC EMPTYING
DR
 As food reaches the pylorus, each mixing wave periodically forces about 3 mL of
chyme into the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter, a phenomenon known as
gastric emptying.
 Most of the chyme is forced back into the body of the stomach, where mixing continues.
 The next wave pushes the chyme forward again and forces a little more into the
duodenum.
 These forward and backward movements of the gastric contents are responsible for
most mixing in the stomach
I
ED
.
IV
TR
I
&
MOTILITY OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
ED
1) Segmentation contractions
D
IV
2) Propulsion contractions
IK
Segmentation contractions
TR
 Segmentation is a manifestation of electrical slow-waves, which represent action
IT
potentials generated by the automaticity of smooth muscle.


N.
The maximum frequency of these slow waves is 12/min.
NA
 Therefore, segmentation can also occur up to 12 times per minute in duodenum.

 The normal frequency of segmentation movement at ileum is about 8 per minute.
A
.
Propulsion contractions
AM
DR
 The contractile ring in the small intestine has a velocity of about 0.5-2 cm/min.
 Faster in the proximal segments, in distal segments it slows down. One contractile ring
UP
travels a maximal distance of 10 cm, then it goes out and chymus wait for the new one.
 Therefore, the overall speed of passage of chyme is 1 cm/min.
.
Ileocecal valve
DR
 Function of this valve is to prevent reflux of chyme from colon into the small intestine.
MOTILITY OF THE COLON

Haustration churning
 It is a modified segmentation movement.
 One movement characteristic of the large intestine is haustral churning. In this process,
the haustra remain relaxed and become distended while they fill up.
 When the distension reaches certain point, the walls contract and squeeze the contents
into the next haustrum.
Peristalsis
 Peristalsis occurs at a slower rate (3–12 contractions per minute) than in more proximal
portions of the tract.
 The final type of movement is a mass peristalsis, strong peristaltic wave that begins at
about the middle of the transverse colon and quickly drives the contents of the colon
into the rectum.
I
 Because food in the stomach initiates this gastrcolic reflex in the colon, mass peristalsis
ED
usually takes place three or four times a day, during or immediately after a meal.
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS

IV
TR
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
I
&
ED
Mouth
D
 The digestion of carbohydrates is start in the mouth.
IV
 The salivary enzyme amylase starts the breakdown of
IK
TR
Starches-a polysaccharides Salivary amylase maltose-a disaccharide.
IT
Esophagus
 The bolus of food travels through the esophagus to the stomach, their no significant
N.
NA
digestion of carbohydrates takes place because esophagus not produces digestive

enzymes.
A
.
Stomach
AM
DR
 The acidic environment in the stomach stops the action of the amylase enzyme.
Small intestine
UP
 The next step of carbohydrate digestion takes place in the duodenum.

 The chyme from the stomach enters the duodenum and mixes with the digestive
.
secretion from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.

DR
 Pancreatic juices also contain amylase, which continues the breakdown of starch and
glycogen into maltose, a disaccharide.
Starches & glycogen Pancreatic amylase maltose-a disaccharide
 The disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides by enzymes called maltases,
 Sucrases and lactases, which are also present in the brush border of the small intestinal
wall.
Maltose- a disaccharide Maltase glucose a monosaccharide
Sucrose- a disaccharide Sucrase glucose + Fructose
Lactose- a disaccharide Lactase glucose + galactose
 Digestion of carbohydrates ends with the production of monosaccharides, which the

digestive system is able to absorb.
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
ABSORPTION

D
All carbohydrates are absorbed in the form monosaccharides.
IV
 The capacity of the small intestine to absorb monosaccharides is 120 grams per hour.
IK
 All dietary carbohydrates are absorbed, only indigestible cellulose and fibers excreted
in the feces.
TR
IT
 Monosaccharides are transported via facilitated diffusion or active transport.


N.
Fructose is transported via facilitated diffusion
NA
 Glucose and galactose are transported into absorptive cells of the villi via secondary
active transport, that is coupled to the active transport of Na.
A
.
 The transporter has binding sites for one glucose molecule and two sodium ions; unless
AM
DR
all three sites are filled, no substance is transported.

 Galactose competes with glucose to ride the same transporter.
UP
.
Site of Substrate
Enzyme Produced By End Products
DR
Action Acting On
Polysaccharides Disaccharides (maltose),

Salivary amylase Salivary glands Mouth
(Starch) oligosaccharides
Small Polysaccharides Disaccharides (maltose),

Pancreatic amylase Pancreas
intestine (starch) monosaccharides
Lining of the Monosaccharides (e.g.,

Small
Oligosaccharidases intestine; brush Disaccharides glucose, fructose,
intestine
border membrane galactose)
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PROTEIN

Stomach
 A large part of protein digestion takes place in the stomach.
 The enzyme pepsin plays an important role in the digestion of proteins by breaking
down the intact protein to peptides, which are short chains of four to nine amino acids.
Duodenum
 Pancreatic enzymes trypsin, elastase, carboxypeptidase and chymotrypsin are produced
released into the duodenum where they act on the chyme.
 Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase all cleave the peptide bond between a specific
I
ED
amino acid
 But carboxypeptidase splits off the amino acid at the carboxyl end of a peptide.
IV
 Protein digestion is completed by two peptidases in the brush border: aminopeptidase
and dipeptidase.
TR
 Aminopeptidase cleaves off the amino acid at the amino end of a peptide.
I
&
 Dipeptidase splits dipeptides (two amino acids joined by a peptide bond) into single
ED
amino acids.
D
IV
 The amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream through the small intestines.
IK
ABSORPTION
TR
 Most proteins are absorbed in the duodenum and jejunum.
IT
 Amino acids are absorb via active transport processes.

 Different transporters carry different types of amino acids.
N.
NA
 Some amino acids enter absorptive cells of the villi via Na+ dependent secondary active
transport processes.
 Other amino acids are actively transported by themselves.
A
.
 At least one transpoter brings in dipeptides and tripeptides together with H+; the
AM
DR
peptides then are hydrolyzed to single amino acids inside the absorptive cells.
UP
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF FATS

Stomach
.
 Lipid digestion begins in the stomach with the aid of lingual lipase and gastric lipase.
DR
Small intestine
 The large amount of lipid digestion occurs in the small intestine due to pancreatic lipase.
 When chyme enters the duodenum, the hormonal responses trigger the release of bile,
which is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
 Bile involves in the digestion of lipids,
 Emulsification is a process in which large lipid globules are broken down into several
small lipid globules.
 These small globules are more widely distributed in the chyme rather than forming
large aggregates.
 Lipids are hydrophobic substances: in the presence of water, they will aggregate to form
globules to minimize exposure to water.
 Bile contains bile salts, which are amphipathic, meaning they contain hydrophobic and
hydrophilic parts.
 Thus, the bile salts hydrophilic side can interface with water on one side and the
hydrophobic side interfaces with lipids on the other.
I
 By this way bile salts emulsify large lipid globules into small lipid globules.
ED
 Pancreatic juices contain enzymes called lipases.
 The pancreatic lipases break down the lipids into fatty acids and glycerides.
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
ABSOPTION
A
.
 Fatty acids and glycerides molecules can pass through the plasma membrane of the cell
AM
DR
and enter the epithelial cells of the intestinal lining.

UP
 The bile salts surround long-chain fatty acids and monoglycerides forming tiny spheres
called micelles.
 The micelles move into the brush border of the small intestine absorptive cells where
.
the long-chain fatty acids and monoglycerides diffuse out of the micelles into the
DR
absorptive cells leaving the micelles behind in the chyme.

 The long-chain fatty acids and monoglycerides recombine in the absorptive cells to
form triglycerides, which aggregate into globules and become coated with proteins.
 These large spheres are called chylomicrons.
 Chylomicrons contain triglycerides, cholesterol, and other lipids and have proteins on
their surface.
 The surface is also composed of the hydrophilic phosphate “heads” of phospholipids.
 Chylomicrons leave the absorptive cells via exocytosis.

 Chylomicrons enter the lymphatic vessels, and then enter the blood.
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF VITAMINS
D
 Vitamins can be either water-soluble or lipid-soluble.
IV
 Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed in the same manner as lipids.
IK
 It is important to consume some amount of dietary lipid to aid the absorption of lipid-
soluble vitamins.
TR
IT
 Water-soluble vitamins can be directly absorbed into the bloodstream from the
N.
NA
intestine.
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Pancreatic juice contains two nucleases: ribonuclease, which digests RNA, and
A
.
AM
deoxyribonuclease, which digests DNA.

DR
 The nucleotides that result from the action of the two nucleases are further digested by
UP
brush-border enzymes called nucleosidases and phosphatases into pentoses,

phosphates, and nitrogenous bases.
 These products are absorbed via active transport.
.
DR
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
PHASES OF DIGESTION
IV
Digestive activities occur in three phases:
IK
TR
1. The Cephalic Phase
IT
2. The Gastric Phase

3. The Intestinal Phase
N.
NA
CEPHALIC PHASE
 During the cephalic phase of digestion, the smell, sight, thought, or initial taste of food
activates neural centers in the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, and brain stem.
A
.

AM
The brain stem then activates the facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus (X)
DR
nerves.
UP
 The facial and glossopharyngeal nerves stimulate the salivary glands to secrete saliva.
 The vagus nerves stimulate the gastric glands to secrete gastric juice.
 The purpose of the cephalic phase of digestion is to prepare the mouth and stomach for
.
food that is about to be eaten.

DR
GASTRIC PHASE
 Once food reaches the stomach, the gastric phase of digestion begins. Neural and
hormonal mechanisms regulate the gastric phase of digestion to promote gastric
secretion and gastric motility.
Neural mechanisms
 Food in the stomach stimulates stretch receptors in its walls & Chemoreceptors in the
stomach monitor the pH of the stomach chyme.
Expanded of wall of stomach or pH increases activates,

the stretch receptors and chemoreceptors
Both receptors send nerve impulses to the submucosal plexus,
I
where they activate parasympathetic and enteric neurons.
ED
Result is increase peristalsis and continue to stimulate
IV
the flow of gastric juice from gastric glands.
TR
I
&
The peristaltic waves mix the food with gastric juice
ED
when the waves become strong enough, a small quantity of chyme undergoes gastric
D
IV
emptying into the duodenum.
IK
Hormonal mechanisms
TR
 Gastric secretion is stimulated chiefly by three chemicals:
IT
1. Acetylcholine (ACh)
This is secreted by the parasympathetic nerve fibers of both the short and long
N.
NA
reflex pathways.
2. Histamine
A
.
This is a paracrine secretion from the enteroendocrine cells in the gastric glands.
AM
DR
3. Gastrin
This is a hormone produced by enteroendocrine G cells in the pyloric glands.
UP
 All three of these stimulate parietal cells to secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic
factor.
.
 The chief cells secrete pepsinogen in response to gastrin and especially ACh, and ACh
DR
also stimulates mucus secretion.

INTESTINAL PHASE
 The intestinal phase of digestion begins once food enters the small intestine.
 The intestinal phase have inhibitory effects that decrease gastric activity & slow the
exit of chyme from the stomach. This prevents the duodenum from being overloaded
with more chyme than it can handle.
 These activities of the intestinal phase of digestion are regulated by neural and
hormonal mechanisms.
Neural mechanisms
 Distension of the duodenum by the presence of chyme causes the enterogastric reflex.
Stretch receptors in the duodenal wall send nerve impulses to the medulla oblongata,
where they inhibit parasympathetic stimulation and

stimulate the sympathetic nerves to the stomach.
As a result,
I
gastric motility is inhibited and
ED
there is an increase in the contraction of the pyloric sphincter
which decreases gastric emptying.
Hormonal regulation
IV
TR
 The intestinal phase of digestion is mediated by two major hormones secreted by the
I
&
small intestine:
ED
- cholecystokinin & secretin
D
IV
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is secreted by the CCK cells of the small intestinal secretary
cells in response to chyme.
IK
TR
 CCK stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice that is rich in digestive enzymes.
IT
 It also causes contraction of the wall of the gallbladder, which squeezes stored bile out
of the gallbladder into the cystic duct and through the common bile duct by relaxation
N.
NA
of the sphincter of the hepatopancreatic ampulla

 CCK also slows gastric emptying by contraction of the pyloric sphincter
A
 Secretin-Acidic chyme entering the duodenum stimulates the release of secretin from
.
AM
DR
the S cells of the small intestinal cells.

 In turn, secretin stimulates the flow of pancreatic juice that is rich in bicarbonate (HCO)
UP
ions to buffer the acidic chyme that enters the duodenum from the small intestine.
 Besides this major effect, secretin inhibits secretion of gastric juice, promotes normal
.
growth and maintenance of the pancreas, and enhances the effects of CCK.
DR
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
DISEASES/DISORDERS
TR
1. Peritonitis
IT
 A common cause of peritonitis, an acute inflammation of the peritoneum, is

N.
contamination of the peritoneum by infectious microbes, which can result from
NA
accidental or surgical wounds in the abdominal wall, or from perforation or rupture of

abdominal organs.
A
.
2. Mumps
AM
DR
 The salivary glands may be the target of a nasopharyngeal infection, the mumps virus
(paramyxovirus) typically attacks the parotid glands.
UP
 Mumps is an inflammation and enlargement of the parotid glands accompanied by

moderate fever, malaise (general discomfort), and extreme pain in the throat, especially
.
when swallowing sour foods or acidic juices.

DR
3. Gastroesophageal reflux disease

 If the lower esophageal sphincter fails to close adequately after food has entered the
stomach, the stomach contents can reflux into the inferior portion of the esophagus.
This condition is known as Gastroesophageal reflux disease (gerd).
 Hydrochloric acid (hcl) from the stomach contents can irritate the esophageal wall,
resulting in a Burning sensation that is called heartburn because it is experienced in a
region very near the heart
4. Pyloric stenosis
 It is a narrowing of the pyloric sphincter that must be corrected surgically. The hallmark
symptom is vomiting the spraying of liquid vomitus some distance from the infant.
5. Jaundice
 Jaundiceis a yellowish coloration of the sclera, skin, and mucous membranes due to a
buildup of a yellow compound called bilirubin.
 After bilirubin is formed from the breakdown of the heme pigment in aged red blood
cells, it is transported to the liver, where it is processed and eventually excreted into
I
bile.
ED
 The three main categories of jaundice are (1) prehepatic jaundice, due to excess
production of bilirubin; (2) hepatic jaundice, due to congenital liver disease, cirrhosis
IV
of the liver, or hepatitis; and (3) extrahepatic jaundice, due to blockage of bile drainage
TR
by gallstones or cancer of the bowel or the pancreas.
I
&
6. Liver cirrhosis
ED
 Cirrhosis of liver refers to inflammation and damage of parenchyma of liver.
D
IV
 It results in degeneration of hepatic cells and dysfunction of liver.
IK
7. Gallstones
TR
 If bile contains either insufficient bile salts or lecithin or excessive cholesterol, the
IT
cholesterol may crystallize to form gallstones.

 As they grow in size and number, gallstones may cause obstruction to the flow of bile
N.
NA
from the gallbladder into the duodenum.

8. Pancreatitis
A
.
 Inflammation of the pancreas, as may occur in association with alcohol abuse or chronic
AM
DR
gallstones, is called pancreatitis.

9. Diarrhea:
UP
 Symptoms of diarrhea include frequent, loose, watery stools (feces) which are usually
accompanied by an urgent need to go to the toilet.
.
 Abdominal pain or cramping may also occur, and sometimes nausea or vomiting.
DR
 Viruses or bacterial infection also leads diarrhea.

10. Vomiting:
 Vomiting is the contents of the stomach are forcefully expelled through the mouth,
usually involuntarily.
 Nausea is the term used to describe feeling sick or like you are just about to vomit.
 Infection from bacteria, viruses or ther micro-organisms causes of vomiting.
11. Crohn’s Disease:

 Crohn’s disease is a chronic bowel disease that causes patches of inflammation in the
GI tract anywhere between the mouth and the anus, although the area where the small
intestine joins the large intestine is most commonly affected.
 Symptoms may include diarrhea that persists for several weeks, abdominal pain and
weight loss.
12. Ulcerative colitis:
 Ulcerative colitis affects only the innermost lining of the colon. Although the colon is
I
the only part of the bowel affected, the whole of the colon is inflamed. Symptoms are
ED
similar to Crohn’s disease and include diarrhea, rectal bleeding or bloody stools,
abdominal pain, tiredness, and loss of appetite.
13. Malabsorption syndromes:
IV
TR
 Malabsorption syndromes refers to a number of different conditions in which the small
I
&
intestine is unable to absorb nutrients, such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins or
ED
minerals.
D
IV
14. Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD):

IK
Peptic ulcer disease is an used to describe both gastric and duodenal ulcers, which are
TR
small holes that can occur in the lining of your stomach (gastric ulcer) or upper part of
IT
your small intestine (duodenal ulcers).

 The most common cause is an infection with a bacteria called Helicobacter pylori.
N.
NA
 Overuse of anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or diclofenac, excessive

acid production in the stomach, and smoking are also common causes.
A

.
Symptoms typically include abdominal pain and heartburn.

AM
DR
15. Hemorrhoids
 Hemorrhoids are swollen blood vessels that line the anal opening.
UP
 They are caused by chronic excess pressure from straining during a bowel movement,
persistent diarrhea, or pregnancy.
.
16. Anal fissures

DR
 Anal fissures are splits or cracks in the lining of the anal opening.
 The most common cause of an anal fissure is the passage of very hard or watery stools.
 An anal fissure is one of the most painful problems because the exposed muscles
become irritated from exposure to stool or air, and leads to intense burning pain,
bleeding, or spasm after bowel movements.
17. Appendicitis
 Appendicitis is an inflammation of the appendix, a finger-shaped pouch that projects
from your colon on the lower right side of your abdomen.
 Appendicitis causes pain in your lower right abdomen.

18. Hernia
 A hernia is the abnormal exit of tissue or an organ, such as the bowel, through the wall
of the cavity in which it normally resides.
 Hernias come in a number of types. Most commonly they involve the abdomen,
specifically the groin.
 Groin hernias are most commonly of the inguinal type but may also be femoral.
I
ED
ENERGETICS
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) IV

 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a unique and the most important high-energy
TR
I
&
molecule in the living cells.
ED
 It consists of an adenine, a ribose and a triphosphate moiety.
D
 ATP is a high-energy compound due to the presence of two phosphoanhydride bonds
IV
in the triphosphate unit.
IK
TR
The hydrolysis of ATP is a classical example of exergonic reaction
ATP+H2O ADP + Pi (G° = –7.3 Cal/mol)
IT
N.
NA
FORMATION OF ATP
 ATP can be synthesized in two ways
1. Oxidative phosphorylation :
A
.
AM
This is the major source of ATP in aerobic organisms. It is linked with the
DR
mitochondrial electron transport chain.

UP
2. Substrate level phosphorylation :

ATP may be directly synthesized during substrate oxidation in the metabolism.
In glycolysis & citric acid cycle transfer high-energy phosphate to use produce
.
ATP.
DR
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

The electron transport chain (ETC) or respiratory chain carried out in mitochondria.
Mitochondria
 The power houses of cell
 The mitochondria are the centres for metabolic oxidative reactions to generate reduced
coenzymes (NADH and FADH2) which, in turn, are utilized in ETC to liberate energy
in the form of ATP.
 So the mitochondria is called a power house of the cell.

Mitochondrial organization
 The mitochondrion consists of five distinct parts. These are the outer membrane, the
inner membrane, the intermembrane space, the cristae and the matrix
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
Inner mitochondrial membrane:
IK
TR
The electron transport chain and ATP synthesizing system are located on the inner
IT
mitochondrial membran.
 It is impermeable to ions (H+, K+, Na+) and small molecules (ADP, ATP).
N.
NA
 This membrane is highly folded to form cristae.

 The surface area of inner mitochondrial membrane is greatly increased due to cristae.
 The inner surface of the inner mitochondrial membrane possesses specialized particles,
A
.
AM
the phosphorylating subunits which are the centres for ATP production.
DR
Mitochondrial matrix:
UP
 The interior ground substance forms the matrix of mitochondria.

 It is rich in the enzymes responsible for the citric acid cycle, E-oxidation of fatty acids
and oxidation of amino acids.
.
DR
Structural organization of ETC/respiratory chain:

 The inner mitochondrial membrane can be disrupted into five distinct respiratory or
enzyme complexes, denoted as complex I, II, III, IV and V.
 The complexes I-IV are carriers of electrons while complex V is responsible for ATP
synthesis.
 Besides these enzyme complexes, there are certain mobile electron carriers in the
respiratory chain. These include NADH, coenzyme Q, cytochrome C and oxygen.
 The enzyme complexes (I-IV) and the mobile carriers are collectively involved in the
transport of electrons.
COMPLEX I
 To start ETC, two electrons are carried to the first complex on chain NADH.
 Complex I is composed of flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and an enzyme containing
iron-sulfur (Fe-S).
 FMN, which is prosthetic groups or co-factors in the ETC. A prosthetic group is a non-
protein molecule required for the activity of a protein.
I
ED
 The enzyme in complex I is NADH dehydrogenase, a very large protein containing 45
amino acid chains. Complex I can pump four hydrogen ions from the matrix into the
intermembrane space’ IV
UBIQUINONE (Q) AND COMPLEX II
TR

I
Complex II directly receives FADH2, which does not pass through complex I.
&
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 The compound connecting the first and second complexes to the third is ubiquinone
D
(Q).
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 The Q molecule is reduced to QH2, & delivers its electrons to the next complex in the
IK
ETC.

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Q receives the electrons from NADH from complex I and from the FADH2 from
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complex II, including succinate dehydrogenase.

N.
NA
COMPLEX III
 The third complex is composed of cytochrome B, another Fe-S protein, rieske center
(2Fe-2S center), and cytochrome C proteins; this complex is also called cytochrome
A
.
oxidoreductase.
AM
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 Cytochrome proteins have a prosthetic heme group. The heme molecule carries
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electrons.
 Complex III pumps protons through the membrane and passes its electrons to
cytochrome c for transport to the fourth complex of proteins and enzymes.
.
COMPLEX IV
DR
 The fourth complex is composed of cytochrome proteins C, A, and A3.

 This complex contains two heme groups (one in each of the cytochromes A and A3)
and three copper ions (a pair of Cua and one Cub in cytochrome A3).
 The cytochromes hold an oxygen molecule very tightly between the iron and copper
ions until the oxygen is completely reduced. The reduced oxygen then picks up two
hydrogen ions from the surrounding medium to produce water (H2O).
 The removal of the hydrogen ions from the system also contributes to the ion gradient
used in the process of chemiosmosis.
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OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

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The transport of electrons through the ETC is linked with the release of free energy.
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 The process of synthesizing ATP from ADP and Pi coupled with the electron transport
N.
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chain is known as oxidative phosphorylation.

 The complex V of the inner mitochondrial membrane is the site of oxidative
phosphorylation.
A
.
Enzyme system for ATP synthesis :

AM
DR
 ATP synthase, present in the complex V, utilizes the proton gradient for the synthesis
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of ATP.
 ATP synthase is a complex enzyme and consists of two functional subunits, namely F1
and F0.
.
 Its structure is comparable with ‘lollipops’.

DR
 The F0 subcomplex is composed of channel protein ‘C’ subunits to which F1-

ATPsynthase is attached
 F-ATPsynthase consists of a central γ subunit surrounded by alternating α and β
subunits.
 In response to the proton flux, the subunit physically rotates.
 This induces conformational changes in the β subunits that finally lead to the release of
ATP.
 According to the binding change mechanism, the three subunits of F-ATP synthase
adopt different conformations.
 One subunit has 1st open (O) conformation, the second has loose (L) conformation
while the third one has tight (T)conformation).
 The rotation of γ subunit, which in turn induces conformation changes in β subunits.
 The substrates ADP and Pi bind to β subunit in L-conformation.
 The L site changes to T conformation, and this leads to the synthesis of ATP.
 The O site changes to L conformation which binds to ADP and Pi.
I
 The T site changes to O conformation, and releases ATP. This cycle of conformation
ED
changes of subunits is repeated.
 And three ATP are generated for each revolution.
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&
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IT
N.
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A
.
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THE ROLE OF ATP

 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a small molecule that acts as a coenzyme within a
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cell.
 The main role of ATP is to provide energy. Below are the ways it provides energy which
.
1. A source of energy.
DR
- An ATP molecule releases approximately 30kj (mol^-1) of energy

- Energy from an ATP molecule is released in small quantities to prevent
damage to the cell
- Energy released is used for metabolism in the cell.
2. Muscle contraction
- ATP is critical for the contraction of muscles; it binds to myosin to provide
energy and facilitate its binding to actin to form a cross-bridge.
- ADP and phosphate are then released and a new ATP molecule binds to
myosin.
3. Structural Maintenance
- ATP plays a very important role in preserving the structure of the cell by
helping the assembly of the cytoskeletal elements.
4. Cell Signaling
- ATP has key functions both in intracellular and extracellular signaling.
5. Active Transport
I
- ATP plays a critical role in the transport of macromolecules such as proteins
ED
and lipids into and out of the cell.
6. Synthesis of DNA and RNA
IV
- During DNA synthesis, ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) reduces the sugar
TR
residue from ribonucleoside diphosphates to form deoxyribonucleoside
I
&
diphosphates such as dADP.
ED
CREATININE PHOSPHATE
D
IV
 The muscles of the body function through the use of ATP, or adenosine triphosphate,
IK
to power contractions.
TR
 When one molecule of ATP is used in the contraction process, it is hydrolyzed to ADP,
IT
adenosine diphosphate, and an inorganic phosphate.

 The muscles’ limited ATP supply is used very quickly in muscle activity, so the need
N.
NA
to regenerate ATP is essential.

 One of the ways that this ATP supply is regenerated is through the molecule creatine
A
.
phosphate (or phosphocreatine).

AM
DR
 Formula: Creatine~PO 3-
 The high energy phosphate bond in phosphocreatine has more energy than the bond
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in ATP, 10,300calories per mole in comparison with ATP- 7300.

 In the process of regeneration of ATP, creatine phosphate transfers a high-energy
phosphate to ADP.
.
 The products of this reaction are ATP and creatine.

DR
 Creatine phosphate can be obtained from two sources: ingestion of meat and internal
production by the liver and kidneys.
 Creatine and creatinine (fromed from the metabolism of creatine) waste is removed
from the body through the kidneys and urinary system.
I
ED
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I
&
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BASAL METABOLIC RATE
D
 Basal metabolism or basal metabolic rate (BMR) is defined as the minimum amount of
IV
energy required by the body to maintain life at complete physical and mental rest in
IK
TR
the postabsorptive state (i.e. 12 hours after the last meal).
IT
 It may also called resting metabolic rate (RMR).

MEASUREMENT OF BMR
N.
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Preparation of the subject:

 For the measurement of BMR the subject should be awake, at complete physical and
mental rest, in a post-absorptive state and in a comfortable surrounding (at 25°C).
A
.
AM
Measurement :
DR
 The BMR is determined either by the apparatus of Benedict and Roth (closed circuit
UP
device) or by the Douglas bag method (open circuit device).

 The Benedict-Roth method, the volume of O2 consumed (recorded on a graph paper)
by the subject for a period of 2-6 minutes under basal conditions is determined.
.
 Let this be A liters for 6 minutes. The standard calorific value for one liter O2 consumed
DR
is 4.825 Cal.
- Heat produced in 6 min = 4.825 ˟ A
- Heat produced in one hour = 4.825A ˟ 10
Units of BMR :
- BMR is expressed as Calories per square meter of body surface area per hour
i.e. Cal/sq.m/hr.
 For the calculation of body surface area, the simple formula devised by Du Bois is used.
A = H 0.725 ˟ W 71.84 ˟ 0.425
where A = Surface area in cm2

H = Height in cm
W = Weight in kg.
 To convert the surface area into square meters(m2), divide the above value (cm2) by
10,000.
Normal values of BMR :
 For an adult man 35–38 Cal/sq. m/hr
 For an adult woman 32-35Cal/sq.m/hr.
 A BMR value between –15% and+20% is considered as normal.
I
ED
Some authors continue to represent BMR as Cal/day.
 For an adult man BMR is around 1,600 Cal/day


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For an adult woman around 1,400 Cal/day.
This is particularly important for easily calculating energy requirements per
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day.
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&
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FACTORS AFFECTING BMR
D
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1. Surface area : The BMR is directly proportional to the surface area. Surface area is
IK
related to weight and height.
TR
2. Sex : Men have marginally higher (about 5%) BMR than women. This is due to the
IT
higher proportion of lean muscle mass in men.

3. Age : In infants and growing children, with lean muscle mass, the BMR is higher. In
N.
NA
adults, BMR decreases at the rate of about 2% per decade of life.

4. Physical activity: BMR is increased in persons (notably athletes) with regular exercise.
A
.
This is mostly due to increase in body surface area.

AM
DR
5. Hormones : Thyroid hormones (T) have a stimulatory effect on the metabolism of the
body and, therefore, BMR. Thus, BMR is raised in hyperthyroidism and reduced in
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hypothyroidism. In fact, the measurement of BMR was earlier used to assess thyroid
function.
.
DR
QUESTIONS
1. Draw a neat diagram of GI tract. Explain how fats are digested and absorbed.
2. Explain how digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats takes place.
3. List out the various enzymes present in the secretions of GIT.
4. Discuss the digestion of carbohydrates
5. Describe the gross anatomy of stomach. Explain its physiological functions.
6. Explain various phases of acid secretion in stomach.
7. Explain how digestion takes place in stomach.
8. Write composition and functions of gastric juice.
9. Draw a neat labeled diagram of stomach Mention the functions of stomach.
I
10. Write the anatomy of pancreas. Mention the functions of pancreatic enzymes.
11. Discuss the endocrine and exocrine secretions of pancreas.
ED
12. Describe the anatomy, histology and functions of small intestine.
13. Discuss the food absorption in small intestine.
14.
15.
IV
Explain peristaltic movement of small intestine.
Describe the anatomy of liver and mention its functions.
16. What is liver cirrhosis?
TR
I
17. Name salivary glands and discuss the composition and functions of saliva..
&
18. Write the composition of bile. Give functions of bile.
ED
19. Note on BMR and give use of creatinine phosphate.
D
20. Explain formation and role of ATP.
IV
Define following terms:-
a. Peptic Ulcer Disease
IK
b. Inflammatory Bowel Disease
TR
c. Hernia
IT
d. Diarrhea
e. Liver Cirrhosis
f. Hepatitis
N.
NA
g. Gastroenteritis
h. Heart Burn
A
.
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DR
UP
.
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ED
15. GUSTATORY SENSATION/TONGUE
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!! JAY AMBE !!
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N.
A
AM
UP
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PREPARED BY
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&
M. PHARM, PH. D
I
PROFESSOR & H.o.D.,

ED
SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, BAKROL

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TR
&
D.

M. PHARM, PH. D
IK

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Mobile: +91 - 9924567864
.
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Anatomy of Gustatory Sensation:
TR
Gustation is the special sense associated with the tongue.
The surface of the tongue, along with the rest of the oral cavity, is lined by a stratified squamous
N.
epithelium.
Raised bumps called papillae (singular = papilla) contain the structures for gustatory
A
AM
transduction.
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There are four types of papillae, based on their appearance:
1. Circumvallate,
.
2. Foliate,
3. Filiform, and
4. Fungiform.
DR
&
Within the structure of the papillae are taste buds that contain specialized gustatory receptor
I
cells for the transduction of taste stimuli. These receptor cells are sensitive to the chemicals
ED
contained within foods that are ingested, and they release neurotransmitters based on the
IV
amount of the chemical in the food.

TR
Neurotransmitters from the gustatory cells can activate sensory neurons in the facial,
glossopharyngeal, and vagus cranial nerves.
D.
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NA
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Physiology of Gustation:
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N.
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D.
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NA
The gustatory system is much simpler than the olfactory system.

.
Five primary taste submodalities are generally recognized:

DR
1. sweet,
2. sour,
3. salty, and
4. bitter and
5. Umami.
Research at the turn of the 20th century led to recognition of the fifth taste, umami, during the
mid-1980s. Umami is a Japanese word that means “delicious taste,” and is often translated to
mean savory. Very recent research has suggested that there may also be a sixth taste for fats,
or lipids.
Sweet

I
ED
IV
- Generally, sweetness is caused by a form of sugar or alcohol. Certain amino acids may
TR
also taste sweet.
- Examples of sweet foods include: Honey, strawberries, candy, fruit juice, cake etc…
N.
Sour
- Sourness, or tartness, is the taste of acids. It’s brought on by hydrogen ions.
A
AM
- Example of sweet foods include: Vinegar, lemon juice, cranberries, yogurt, buttermilk
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Salty
- Saltiness is usually caused by table salt, or sodium chloride, that’s added to food. It can
.
also be caused by mineral salts.
-
Bitter
DR
Salty foods include: Soy sauce, processed meat, preserved olives, fries etc …
&
- Bitterness is due to many different molecules. These molecules are usually found in
I
plants.
ED
- Bitter foods include: coffee, wine, dark chocolate, arugula etc …

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Savory
TR
- Savory taste is caused by amino acids. It’s commonly brought on by aspartic acid or
glutamic acid. Occasionally, savory is also called “umami” or “meaty.”
D.
- Savory foods include: Meat broth, aged cheese, ripe tomatoes, asparagus etc …
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NA
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N.
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D.
Different regions on the tongue exhibit different maximal sensitivities to the four taste
IK
submodalities.
- Tip of the tongue is the most sensitive to sweetness
IT
- Front half of each side of tongue detect saltiness

NA
- Posterior half of each side of tongue detect sour taste.

- Back or rear of the tongue detect bitterness.
.
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- The Umami taste sensation is most intense when coupled with the salty taste.

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N.
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UP
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D.
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THE CELL
!!JAY AMBE!!
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ED
IV
2. THE CELL
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I
&
ED
PREPARED BY
D
IV
M. PHARM, PH. D
IK
TR
Mobile: +91 - 9924567864
IT
&
N.
NA

M. PHARM, PH. D
A
.

AM
CENTRE, DHARMAJ.
DR
UP
.
DR
THE CELL
! !JAY AMBE! !
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL
I

ED
INTRODUCTIONS:
CELL: It is living structural and functional units of body enclosed by membrane.
CYTOLOGY: It is the branch of science concern with the study of cells.
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THE CELL
 PARTS OF THE CELLS:

It is mainly divided in to three main parts:
I
1) Plasma membrane:
ED
 It is the outer surface of cells. It’s separates cells from internal environments to
external environments.
IV
 It is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell. This
selectivity helps to maintain the normal cellular activities.
2) Cytoplasm: TR
 It consist all the cellular contains between plasma membrane and nucleus.
I
&
 It consist two components:
ED
a) Cytosol: The fluid portion of cytoplasm contains water, dissolved solutes and
suspended particles.
D
b) Organelles: This is surrounded by cytosol. Each type of organelles has characteristics
IV
shapes and specific functions. Eg: Ribosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi
IK
complex, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes and Mitochondria.
TR
3) Nucleus:
 It is large organelles. It is a house for most of DNA.
IT
 Within the nucleus, each chromosomes a single molecules of DNA associated

with several proteins, contains thousand of hereditary units called genes that
N.
NA
control cellular structures and functions.

►THE PLASMA MEMBRANE◄
 It is a thin barrier that separates the internal components of a cell from extracellular
materials. It is also known as cell membrane.
A
.
 It is well describe by fluid mosaic model. According to this model, the molecular
AM
DR
arrangement of the plasma membrane resembles an ever-moving sea of fluid lipids

that contains a mosaic of many proteins.
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.
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THE CELL
Some proteins floats freely like ice bridges in the lipid sea, whereas others are anchored at
specific location like boat at a dock.
I
 MEMBRANE CHEMISTRY AND ANATOMY:
ED
 It consist 50:50 mix by weight of protein and lipids that are held together noncovalent
interactions.
IV
 In plasma membrane protein are large molecules than the lipid. So one protein
molecules surrounded by around 50 lipids molecules.
A) Membrane lipids: TR
 The plasma membrane is made up by lipid bilayer.
I
&
 It consist three types of lipids,
ED
a) Phospholipids: 75% of membrane lipids are phospholipids. It contains phosphate
groups.
D
b) Cholesterol: 20% of membrane lipids are cholesterol. Which is a steroid attached
IV
with –OH group.
IK
c) Glycolipids: 5% of membrane lipids are glycolipids. Attached with carbohydrate
TR
groups.
 The lipid bilayer is amphipathic because it consist both polar and non polar parts.
IT
 In phospholipids, the polar part is the phosphate containing head which is hydrophilic
(water loving). The non polar part contains two long fatty acid tails which are
N.
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hydrophobic (water hating) hydrocarbon chains.

 Cholesterol molecules are weakly amphipathic.
 In glycolipids carbohydrate groups act head as polar group while their fatty tail act as
non polar group.
A
.
B) Membrane proteins:
AM
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Plasma membrane consist two types of proteins

a) Integrated proteins:

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It extends across the phospholipids bilayer among the fatty acid tail.
 Most of integral proteins are glycoprotein, it is attached with sugar groups.
 The portion of the attaché sugar group faces the extracellular fluids.
b) Peripheral proteins:
.
 They do not extend across the phospholipids bilayer.


DR
They are loosely attached to the inner and outer surface of the membrane and
are easily separated from it.
THE CELL
Role and functions of the Proteins:

1) Act as channels:
I
 It act as channels that means some proteins have a pore though which certain
ED
substance can flow into or out of the cells.
2) Act as transporter:
IV
 It acts as transporter that means it works as carrier for moving the substance from
one side to other side.
3) Works as receptors: TR
 It works as receptors that means it identify and attach to a specific molecules such
I
&
as a hormone, a neurotransmitter etc.
ED
 A molecule that specifically binds to receptors by forces other than covalent bonds
is called as legend of those receptors.
D
4) Works as enzymes:
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 These are mainly take part in catalyzing reaction inside or out side of the cells.
IK
5) Act as a cytoskeleton anchor:
TR
 In side the cells they all provides the structural stability and maintain the shape of
cells.
IT
 They also participate in the movements of the cell.

6) Work as a cell identity marker:
N.
NA
 It works as a cell identity marker that means distinguishes your cells from anyone
else’s.
 Most of glycoproteins and glycolipids work as a cell identity marker.
 MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY:
A
.
1) Communication:
AM
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 It plays a main role in cellular communication.

 This includes interactions with other body cells, foreign cells and ligands such as
UP
hormones, neurotransmitters, enzymes, nutrients and antibodies in the extracellular

fluid.
2) Electrochemical gradients:
 The membrane maintains the electrical and chemical difference (gradient) between
.
the inside and out side of the membrane is known as electrochemical gradient.

DR
In the extracellular fluids, the main cation (positively charged ion) is Na+ and main
anion (Negative Charged ion) is Cl-.
THE CELL
 In the cytosol the main cation is K+ and anions are organic phosphate (PO4-) and
amino acids in proteins. .
I
 The electrochemical gradient arises because inside surface of the membrane is more
ED
negatively charged than the outer surface. As a result there is a voltage is form is
known as membrane potential across the membrane.
IV
 The voltage across the plasma membrane of cells through out your body is between -
20 and -200 milllivolts (mV).
 The negative sign in front of the number means inside is negatively relative to the
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outside.
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&
3) Selective permeability:
ED
 It regulates the entry and exit of the materials.
 It permits passage of certain substance and restricts the others.
D
Eg.: water is passage more easily than other substances.
IV
The selectivity is depends on several factors such as;
IK
a) Lipid solubility:
TR
 Substances that dissolve in lipids (Nonpolar, Hydrophobic molecules) pass easily
through out the phospholipids bilayers.
IT
b) Size:
 Large molecules like as proteins cannot pass through plasma membrane.
N.
NA
 Small uncharged polar molecules can pass through the phospholipids bilayer.
c) Charges:
 It is impermeable to all charged molecules and ions but some charged molecules
can pass through the pores of the membrane.
A
.
 Presence of channels and transporters:

AM
DR
 Polar and charged substance cannot pass by the phospholipids bilayer but they
can pass by the help of several proteins either they form the water filled pores or
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act as transporters.
 Transporters pick up the molecules from one side of the membrane and leave it
to other side.
.
DR
THE CELL
►MOVEMENTS OF MATERIALS ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE: ◄

 Movement of the material across the plasma membrane is describe by the two
I
processes;
ED
A) Passive process
B) Active process
IV
A) Passive process:
“When the movement is Depend on concentration gradient means process is held from higher
concentration to lower concentration is known as passive transport.”
TR
 It is also known as nonionic diffusion as well as downhill process.
I
&
 Passive transfer is energy independent.
ED
 Passive transport is best express by Fick’s first law of diffusion, which state that the
drug molecules transport from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration
D
until equilibrium attained and that the rare is directly proportional to the concentration
IV
of gradient across the membrane.
IK
TR
dQ = DAKm/w (CGIT – C)
dt h
IT
Where,
dQ/dt = rate of drug transport (amount/time)
N.
NA
D = Diffusion coefficient of the drug through the membrane. (area/time)

A = Surface area and h = thickness of the membrane.
Km/w = partition coefficient of the drug between the lipoidal membrane and the aqueous GIT
A
fluid.
.
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(CGIT – C) = Different in concentration between GI fluid and plasma.

DR
Above equation shows that;


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The drug or transportation is down hill process.

 The rate of transfer is proportional to concentration gradient between GI fluid and
plasma compartment.
 Greater the area and lesser the thickness of the membrane faster the transfer.
.
The another passive transport processes are;

DR
i) Diffusion:
 All the substance has their own kinetics energy. So movement of the molecules or
ions due to their kinetics energy is known as diffusion.
THE CELL
 When the two such areas are connected and one side area have more particles than the
other sides it will create the concentration gradient.
I
 So the substances move by their kinetics energy from higher concentration to lower
ED
concentration until the equilibrium rich. It is known as net diffusion.
 Eg.: if we have a two compartment vessels fill up by water then add crystal of dye in
IV
one compartment so the dye diffusion is held from dye added water to water because
of concentration different.
 Lipid soluble molecules such as oxygen, nitrogen, steroids, fat soluble vitamins (A, D,
TR
E & K), glycerol etc are cross the plasma membrane by simple diffusion.
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&
 Diffusion is important in the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood
ED
and body cell and between blood and air within the lungs during breathing.
 Small molecules that are not lipid soluble may diffuse into or out of cells through
D
water filled pores of integral proteins.
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 Eg.: Sodium ions (Na+), Potassium ions (K+), Calcium ions (Ca+), Chloride ions (Cl-),
IK
Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and urea.
TR
ii) Osmosis:
 Another passive process is osmosis.
IT
 In this process water is move by osmosis across a membrane from an area of higher
water concentration (lower solute concentration in water) to an area of lower water
N.
NA
concentration (higher solute concentration in water).

 For the description of this process take a sac made of cellophane (selective permeable
membrane) contain a sugar solution and it immersed in a beaker of pure water. It is
only permeable for water not for sugar because sugar molecules are large in size.
A
.
 The water concentration on the two sides are different means lower water
AM
DR
concentration inside the sac because the additional of sugar.

iii) Pore transport:

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It is also known as connective transport, bulk flow transport or filtration.

 The process is important for the absorption of lower weight and lower size molecules.
 Urea, water and sugars are transfer by this mechanism.
B) Active process:
.
“When the movement is against the concentration gradient energy is a required mean the
transport of molecules is occurring by the help of ATP is known as active process”.
DR
 The drug is transported from a region of lower to higher concentration i.e against the
concentration gradient.
THE CELL
 It is known as uphill transport.

 Energy is required for this transfer.
I
 Substances that transport actively are sodium, potassium, calcium, glucose, certain
ED
amino acids and vitamins like niacin, pyridoxine and ascorbic acid.
It includes the different processes like;
IV
i) Primary active transport:
 Movement of ions or molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from a
region of lower to higher concentration by pump protein that use energy from the
TR
splitting of ATP.
I
&
Eg.: Sodium ions (Na+), Potassium ions (K+), Calcium ions (Ca+), Chloride ions (Cl-) and
ED
other ions.
ii) Secondary active transport:
D
 When the simultaneously movements of two substance is held in which one substance
IV
is Na+ or Transport by using energy is known as secondary active transport.
IK
Eg.: Glucose into cells lining of the small intestine and the kidney tubules.
TR
 In this transport if the both substances move in a same direction is known as
symporters and if the both substances movement are in opposite direction is known as
IT
antiporters.
Eg.: Sodium ions (Na+), Potassium ions (K+), Calcium ions (Ca+) etc
N.
NA
iii) Endocytosis:
 It is a minor transport mechanism which involves engulfing extracellular materials
within a cell.
 Vitamins like A, D, E, K and drugs like insulin refer this phenomenon.
A
.
 Endocytosis includes two types of processes;

AM
DR
a) Phagocytosis:
 It is known as cell eating.

UP
Absorption of solid particles.

b) Pinocytosis:
 It is known as cell drinking.
 Absorption of fluid solute.
.
DR
THE CELL
►CYTOPLASM◄
It consist all the cellular contains between plasma membrane and nucleus.
I
It consist two components:
ED
1. Cytosol:
 It is the unsaturated soluble portion of the cells.
IV
 Chemically it is 75-90 % water plus solid components (protein, carbohydrate, lipids
and inorganic substance).
 Inorganic substance and smaller organic substance such as simple sugar and amino
TR
acid are soluble in water and are present as solute. While larger particle such as
I
&
protein and polysaccharide glycogen found as colloidal particle in surrounding
ED
medium and they are not dissolved.
 The cytosol receives raw material from the external environment and gain usable
D
energy from them by decomposition reaction.
IV
2. Organelles
IK
 These are specialized structures that have characteristics appearance and specific role
TR
in growth, maintenance, repair and control.
 The number and types of organelles vary in different kinds of cells depending on their
IT
function. Different types of organelles are:

A) Mitochondria:
N.
NA
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
 Mitochondria are the largest components of the cytoplasm.

DR
 They are the power house of the cell and each cell may contain from 50 to 2500
mitochondria depending upon the respiratory activity of the cells.
THE CELL
Eg: The cell of skeletal muscle, kidney and liver contain large number of mitochondria
while heart muscles contain less.
I
 They are vary in shape and size (0.5 to 3μ long and 0.1 to 0.6μ wide).
ED
 They have two membranes, the outer is smooth but the inner is arranged series of
folds form ridges known as cristae.
IV
 Mitochondria consist central cavity enclosed by inner membrane is known as matrix.
 Folds increase the inner surface area which useful for the cellular respiration.
 The matrix and cristae contains the catalytic enzyme which produce the ATP.
TR
 Mitochondria swell in hypotonic solution and shrink hypertonic solution.
I
&
 The mitochondria contain large number of enzyme system known as “cylophorase”
ED
which are involved in:
a) Oxidation of pyruvic acid in Kreb’s cycle via acetyl CoA
D
b) Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
IV
c) Synthesis of fatty acids
IK
 Although each cell’s nucleolus contains genes from both your mother and father,
TR
mitochondria genes usually are inherited only from mother because the head of the
sperm which is the part that penetrates and fertilizes an egg have lacks mitochondria.
IT
B) Endoplasmic Reticulum:
N.
NA
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
THE CELL
 This is the complicated and organized system of membranes in the cytoplasm of the
cell.
I
 This membrane is constituted of protein lipid double layer and is very well developed
ED
in tissue with active protein synthesis.
 There are two types of endoplasmic reticules one is rough or granular endoplasmic
IV
reticulum consist ribosomes on their surface and second is smooth endoplasmic
reticulum or agranular which has no ribosomes.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum is associated with the protein synthesis.
TR
 It serves as temporary storage area for newly synthesized molecules and may add
I
&
sugar groups to certain proteins. Eg.: Glycoproteins.
ED
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the site for fatty acids, phospholipids and steroidal
synthesis.
D
 Enzyme within the smooth ER can inactive or detoxified a verity of chemicals
IV
including alcohols, pesticides, and carcinogens.
IK
C) Ribosome:
TR
 Ribosomes are tiny granules that contain ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and many
ribosomal proteins.
IT
 The size of the ribosomes ranges from 15 to 20 millimicrone and the diameter being
150Ao.
N.
NA
 The rRNA synthesized by DNA in nucleus.

 Functionally the ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
 Some ribosomes are known as free ribosomes, float in cytosol. They are not attached
to other organelles. Free ribosomes are form singly or in clustered form.
A
.
 Other ribosomes attached to a cellular structure called endoplasmic reticulum.

AM
DR
D) Golgi Complex:
 The golgi complex or apparatus is an organelles located near the nucleus.

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It consist flattened sac called cisterns which consists small Golgi vesicles.
 The Golgi complex processes sorts, packages and deliver proteins and lipids to
plasma membrane and forms lysosomes and secretary vesicles.
 All the proteins are export from the cells by similar rout i.e ribosomes (site of protein
.
synthesis) – rough endoplasmic reticulum cistern – transport vesicles – Golgi complex

– secretary vesicles – release to exterior of the cells by exocytosis.
DR
A trip through a Golgi complex normally occurs as follows:
THE CELL
 Within the cistern of rough ER, protein becomes surrounded by a piece of the ER
membrane which form a transport vesicle.
I
 The transport vesicle leaves the ER and moves toward the Golgi complex.
ED
 Here, the vesicle fuses within the side of the Golgi stack closest to the ER which is
term as cis or entry cistern. As a result of this fusion the protein enters the Golgi
IV
complex.
 Then they move cis cistern to middle cistern and then next cistern.
 As the proteins pass through the Golgi cistern, they are modified in various ways
TR
depending on their function and destination. Finally they enter to trans or exit cistern.
I
&
 The trans or exist cistern modified the protein in to vesicles.
ED
 Some vesicles become seretory vesicles and discharge their contain in to the
extracellular fluid by exocytosis process.
D
E) Lysosomes:
IV
 Lysosomes are membrane enclosed vesicles that form in the Golgi complex.
IK
 Inside the lysosomes, there are as many as 40 kinds of powerful digestive (hydrolytic)
TR
enzymes capable of breaking down a wide variety of molecules.
 Some disorders are caused by faulty lysosomes.
IT
 Eg.: Tay-Sachs disease is an inherited which is cause by absence of single lysosomes

enzyme. This enzyme is essential for the break down of membrane glycolipids which
N.
NA
is essential for to prevent the nerve cells function. In absence of this enzyme nerve
cells get damage and produce blindness in child, demented, die usually before the age
of 5.
 Lysosomes work best at acidic pH. The lysosomes membrane have active transport
A
.
pump that drive hydrogen ion (H+) into the lysosomes. So the interior of a lysosomes
AM
DR
has a pH 5, which is 100 times more acidic than the cytosolic pH of 7.

 Lysosomes digest the bacteria and other substance that enter the cell by phagocytosis
UP
or pinocytosis.
 Lysosomal enzymes may also destroy their own host cells called autolysis.
 Lysosomes digest the old organelles and return the digested components to the cytosol
for reuse. So old organelles are replaced by new organelles this process is known as
.
autophagy.

DR
Lysosomal enzymes may digest the cellular debris at the site of injury.
F) Peroxisomes:
 It have the similar structure to lysosomes but smaller than the lysosomes.
THE CELL
 It contains one or more enzymes that are used in oxygen to oxidize process. Such
reaction produces hydrogen peroxide.
I
G) The cytoskeleton:
ED
 Coordination of the cellular movements and cellular shape is maintained by the
cytoskeleton.
IV
 The cytoskeleton is responsible for the movement of whole cells, such as phagocytes
and for movement of organelles and some chemicals within the cells.
There are three main types of the proteins comprise the cytoskeletons:
TR
a) Microfilaments:
I
&
 It has rod like structures of varying length that are formed from the protein actin.
ED
 In muscles tissue actin filament (thin filament) and myosin filaments (thick
filaments) are important for the muscles contraction.
D
 In nonmuscle cells, actin microfilaments provide support and shape.
IV
b) Microtubules:
IK
 It is larger than microfilaments.
TR
 They are relatively straight and cylindrical in structure that consist protein is
known as tubulin.
IT
 Microtubules also work as conveyer belt for the movement of various substances.
c) Intermediate filaments:
N.
NA
 It is strong and tough.

 It holds the organelles in their position.
H) Centrosome and Centriols:
 Near the nucleus is a dense area of cytoplasmic material with radiant microtubules
A
.
called as centrosome.
AM
DR
 Centrosomes serve as center for organizing microtubules in non-dividing cells.

 It also forms the mitotic spindle during cell division.

UP
Within the Centrosomes, a pair of cylindrical structures known as Centriols.

 Each Centriols is composed of nine cluster of three microtubules arranged in a
circular pattern.
.
DR
THE CELL
►NUCLEUS◄
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
 Nucleus is a spherical or oval in shape and is the heaviest or largest structure in the
ED
cell. Within the nucleus are most of the hereditary unit of the cell known as genes,
D
which control cellular structure and direct many cellular activities.
IV
 The nuclear genes are arranged side bi side and form a specific structure known as
chromosomes.
IK
 Human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes, 23 inherited from each parents.
TR
 A double membrane called the nuclear envelope separates the nucleus from the
IT
cytoplasm. Both layers of the nuclear layer envelop are phospholipids bilayer similar
to plasma membrane.

N.
The two membranes are separated from each other by the perinuclear cisterns and join
NA
at interval to form pores which allows the passage of materials from the cytoplasm to
the nucleus and vice versa an these pores are 10 times more larger than the pores of
channels in the plasma membrane, even larger molecules such as RNA and various
A
.
protein can also pass.


AM
Inside the nucleus one or more spherical bodice are present known as nucleoli
DR
(Singular is nucleolus). They contain bunch of protein, DNA and RNA that are not
enclosed by membrane.
UP
 Nucleolus or Nucleoli contains ribosomes as well as ribosomal RNA and it play a key
role in protein synthesis.
 A chromosome is a very long DNA molecule that is coiled and packed in amazing
compact structure together with several proteins.
.
 In chromosomes two identical pair consist nucleoprotein strands that are joined at
DR
centromere and separated during cell division is known as chromatid. It forms a tough
thread like structure in not dividing 46 chromosomes.
THE CELL
 Chromatin has a “beads on a string (thread)” structure. Each beads known as

nucleosomes consist eight proteins molecules called as histone which are wrapped by
I
double strand DNA twice around it.
ED
►PROTEIN SYNTHESIS◄
Cells are basically protein factories that constantly synthesize large number of diverse
IV
protein. The, protein determine the physical and chemical characteristics of cells and
therefore of organisms.
Some proteins are structural to form plasma membranes, microfilaments, microtubules,
TR
Centriols, mitochondria and other parts of cells.
I
&
Other proteins serve as hormones, antibodies and contractile elements in muscle tissue also it
ED
act as enzyme.
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
This process can be divided into two parts:

.
1. Transcription
AM
DR
 Before the synthesis of a protein begins, the corresponding RNA molecule is

produced by RNA transcription.
UP
Three forms of RNA are made from the DNA template,

a) messenger RNA (mRNA) which direct synthesis of a polypeptide chain,
b) transfer RNA (tRNA) which bind to amino acid during translation and
c) ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which comes together with ribosomal protein to make up
.
ribosomes.
DR
In protein synthesis, one strand of the DNA double helix is used as a template by the RNA
polymerase to synthesize a messenger RNA (mRNA) this strand refer as sense strand and the
THE CELL
other strand that not transcribed known as antisense strand, during the transcription the
changes in to the nitrogen base are as under;
I
DNA RNA
ED
A U
T A
IV
G C
C G
A TR U
T A
I
&
Template DNA base sequence Complementary RNA sequence
ED
Within DNA are region known as intron that do not synthesis of part of protein and intron are
located between regions called exons that do code for proteins.
D
Initially mRNA transcript include both introns and exons then RNA region corresponding to
IV
DNA introns are deleted (cut out) and the exon are spliced (rejoined) and finally mRNA
IK
migrates from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, this process is known as mRNA splicing.
TR
In the cytoplasm, the start the next step which is translation
2. Translation
IT
 It is the process where the nucleotide sequence in a molecule of mRNA specifies the
amino acid sequence for protein molecules.
N.
NA
 In the mRNA molecules, each set of three consecutive nucleotide bases is called
codon and specifies one amino acid.
 Most mRNA molecules contain 300-3000 nucleotides so it form 100 to 1000 amino
acid because three nucleotide code for one amino acids.
A
.
Translation process following steps;

AM
DR
Initiation:
a) In the cytoplasm, the small ribosomal subunit binds to one end of the mRNA
UP
molecules and finds the start codon, a sequence where translation will begin. Then the
large ribosomal subunit joins in the process.
b) In the cytosol, tRNA binds to one kind of amino acid and brings it to the ribosomes.
One end of the tRNA carries amino acid and another part of each tRNA has a triplet
.
of nucleotides called as anticodon. This anticodon of the tRNA attach to

DR
complementary codon on mRNA.

c) Eg.: if the mRNA codon is AUG then tRNA have the anticodon UAC would attach.
d) In the starting of this process tRNA brings methionine amino acid.
THE CELL
Elongation:
e) Once the first tRNA attach to mRNA, the ribosomes moves exactly three nucleotides
I
along the mRNA and the tRNA carry its amino acid on that particular nucleotides or
ED
codon.
f) When the second tRNA brings the next amino acid first tRNA again goes back in to
IV
the cytoplasm. The proper amino acids are brought into line, one by one peptide
bonds form between them and protein progressively lengthens.
g) Each time the ribosome moves one codon along mRNA and empty tRNA is eject. The
TR
released tRNA can pick up another amino acid.
I
&
Termination:
ED
h) When the specified protein is complete, synthesis is terminated by a special stop
codon.
D
i) Then assemble protein is then released from the ribosomes.
IV
j) After protein synthesis small and large ribosomal subunits separate.
IK
►CELL CYCLE◄
TR
Cell Cycle
IT
Positive control Negative Control

N.
NA
(Stimulate Cell Division) (Inhibit Cell Division)

In the normal cell cycle include,
G1 Phase Pre (Nucleic acid) Synthesis Interval
S Phase Synthesis of DNA Occur
A
.
G2 Phase Post Synthetic Interval

AM
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M Phase Mitosis occur produce two G1 Cells Which

either enter in to Next Cycle or Pass in to non
UP
proliferative phase (G0-quiescent phase).

G1 G0
 S (synthesis) phase, M (mitosis) phase, G1 (Check point 1 between M and S phase where
.
cell is preparing for S phase by synthesis messenger RNAs and proteins need for DNA
DR
replication), G2 (check point 2 between S and M phase where double the number of
chromosomes), Go is the quiescent phase where the cell is not constantly divide, here the
Rb protein is hypophosporylated. If the DNA or cell is damaged the repairing of cell is
THE CELL
take place either in check point 1 or check point 2. If the repair is fails then cell goes in to
the apoptosis.
I
 In normal human, cell proliferation and cell destruction process is controlled by positive
ED
(Stimulate Cell Growth) and negative regulation (Inhibit Cell Growth).
 In positive control, two families of proteins; cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases (cdks)
IV
have a major role. Each cdk is inactive until it binds to a cyclin, the binding enabling the
cdk to phosphorylate the protein(s) necessary for a particular step in the cell cycle. After
the phosphorylation take place cyclin is degraded by ubiquitin/protease system. There are
TR
eight groups of cyclins. Those important in the control of the cell cycle are cyclins A, B,
I
&
D and E. Each cyclin is associated with and activates the particular cdk(s). Cyclin A
ED
activates cdks 1 and 2; cyclin B, cdk 1; cyclin D, cdks 4 and 6; cyclin E, cdk 2.
 In negative regulation, the mediators either stop the cell cycle or produce cell death
D
(apoptosis). Different mediators are Rb protein that holds the cycle in Go phase while it is
IV
hypophosporylated. Another two families inhibitors are, one is CIP family (cdk inhibitor
IK
proteins, also termed KIP or kinase inhibitory proteins) – p21, p27, and p57. Other is Ink
TR
family (inhibitor of kinase) – p16, p19 and p15. p 21 is the under control of the gene p51.
IT
N.
NA
A
.
AM
DR
Genetically regulate positive and negative regulators in control of cell proliferation.

Significance of Cell cycles:

UP
It replace dead cell and injured cell.

 Add new cells in place of dead cells and injured cells.
 It maintains the normal body structure of the cell and in regulation condition protects
us from the various diseases like skin cancer.
.
 It pass the genetically information from parents to daughter cells.


DR
It maintains the normal homeostasis mechanism of body.

 When needed it produce the apoptosis so inhibit the unwanted cell growth.
THE CELL
 It maintain the genetically information for individual means it differentiate two person
by genetically.
I
►NORMAL CELL DIVISION◄
ED
“Cell division is the process by which cells produce themselves.” Two kind of cell division
are recognizing;
IV
1) Somatic cell division:
 In this process parent cell produces two identical daughter cells. This process consists
of TR
a) Nuclear division known as mitosis and
I
&
b) Cytoplasmic division known as cytokinesis.
ED
 In this process daughter cell have same number and kind of chromosomes as the
original parent cell.
D
2) Reproductive cell division:
IV
 In this process sperm and egg cells are produce. These are the cell which produce new
IK
organism.
TR
 The process consists of a special nuclear division called as meiosis (reduction
division) followed by cytokinesis.
IT
1) SOMATIC CELL DIVISION:

 Human cells, except for egg and sperm, contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
N.
NA
 Two chromosomes that belong to a pair, one contributed by mother and one
contributed by father known as homologues chromosomes.
 It is describe by following two steps,
a) Interphase: Cell is between divisions, chromosomes are not seen under light
A
.
microscope. It include G1 Phase, S Phase and G2 Phase

AM
DR
b) Cell division: parent cell produce two identical daughter cells, chromosomes
are visible under light microscope. It include Mitosis and Cytokinesis.
UP
.
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THE CELL
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
A
.
AM
DR
UP
BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF CELL DIVISION

.
DR
THE CELL
 Nuclear Division Mitosis
I
The process called mitosis is the distribution of the two sets of chromosomes into two
ED
separate and equal nuclei. It results in the exact duplication of genetic information.
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
THE CELL
Mitosis is divided in to four stages prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

1) Prophase:
I
 It is the first stage of mitosis. Each prophase chromosomes contains a pair of identical
ED
double strand chromatids.
 Each chromatid pair is held together by a small spherical body known as centromere
IV
that is required for the proper segregation of chromosomes.
 Attached to the outside of each centromere is a protein complex known as the
kinetochore. TR
 Later in prophase the nucleoli disappear and nuclear envelop breaks down and
I
&
dissolve in to cytosol.
ED
 In addition each centrosomes and its Centriols move to opposite pole (ends) of the
cell.
D
 So the centrosomes start to form mitotic spindle, a football shaped assembly of
IV
microtubules that are responsible for the movement of chromosomes.
IK
As the mitotic spindle develop three types of microtubules form:
TR
1) nonkinetochore microtubules grow from centrosomes, extend inward but do not
bind to kinetochores.
IT
2) Kinetochore microtubules grow from centrosomes, extend inward and attached to

kinetochore
N.
NA
3) Aster microtubules go out of centromers.

 The spindle is the attachment site for the chromosomes and it also distributes
chromosomes to opposite poles of the cells.
2) Metaphase:
A
.
 In this phase, the centromeres of the chromatids pairs line up at the exact centre of the
AM
DR
mitotic spindle. This portion is known as equatorial plane region.

3) Anaphase:

UP
It is characterized by the splitting and separation of centromers and the movment of

two sister chromatids of each pair toward opposite poles of the cells.
 Separated chromatids known as daughter chromosomes.
 The movement is due to shortening of kinetochore microtubules and elongation of the
.
nonkerinetochore microtubules. These processes increase the distance between

DR
separated chromosomes. They also pulled by the microtubules so appears as a V

shapes from the centromeres.
THE CELL
4) Telophase:
 It is the final stage of mitosis.
I
 In this phase the identical sets of chromosomes at opposite poles of the cells uncoiled
ED
and revert to the thread like chromatin form.
 A new nuclear envelop is form around the each chromatin mass, new nuclei appears
IV
in the daughter nuclei and eventually mitotic spindle breaks up.
 Cytoplasmic Division: Cytokinesis
 Division of parent cells cytoplasm and organelles is called cytokinesis.
TR
 It begins in late anaphase and earlier telophase with formation of cleavage furrow.
I
&
 The furrow gradually deepens until opposite surfaces of the cells make contact and
ED
the cell are split in two. When cytokinesis is complete, interphase begins.
D
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND PASSIVE TRANSPORT
IV
MECHANISMS:
IK
Sr. No Active Transport Passive transport
TR
1. It is energy dependent process It is energy independent process
2. It is uphill process It is downhill process
IT
3. It is against concentration gradient process It follows the concentration gradients.

4. Transport of molecules from lower Transport of molecules from higher
N.
NA
concentration to higher concentration to lower

5. Primary active, secondary active, Diffusion, osmosis and pore transfer
phagocytosis and pinocytosis are example are the example of passive transport
of active transport.
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
THE CELL
CELL JUNCTION
Unicellular organisms use to adhere to the environment, nutrition or pathogenesis.
I
Multicellular organisms require adhesion for cells to adhere to each other and the
ED
extracellular matrix. Cell adhesion occurs through specific cellular specializations and
molecules and has both static and dynamic functions.
IV
Cell junction molecules
The molecules responsible for creating cell junctions include various cell adhesion molecules.
There are four main types: TR
1. Selectins, 3. integrins, and
I
&
2. cadherins, 4. the immunoglobulin super family.
ED
1. Selectins are cell adhesion molecules that play an important role in the initiation of
inflammatory processes. The functional capacity of selectin is limited to leukocyte
D
collaborations with vascular endothelium. There are three types of selectins found in
IV
humans; L-selectin, P-selectin and E-selectin. L-selectin deals with lymphocytes,
IK
monocytes and neutrophils, P-selectin deals with platelets and endothelium and E-selectin
TR
deals only with endothelium. They have extracellular regions made up of an amino-
terminal lectin domain, attached to a carbohydrate ligand, growth factor-like domain
IT
(EGF) and short repeat units (numbered circles) that match the complimentary binding
protein domains.
N.
NA
2. Cadherins are calcium-dependent adhesion molecules. Cadherins are extremely important

in the process of morphogenesis – fetal development. Together with an alpha-beta catenin
complex, the cadherin can bind to the microfilaments of the cytoskeleton of the cell. This
allows for homophilic cell–cell adhesion. The β-catenin–α-catenin linked complex at the
A
.
adherens junctions allows for the formation of a dynamic link to the actin cytoskeleton.
AM
DR
3. Integrins act as adhesion receptors, transporting signals across the plasma membrane in
multiple directions. These molecules are an invaluable part of cellular communication, as
UP
a single ligand can be used for many integrins. Unfortunately these molecules still have a
long way to go in the ways of research.
4. Immunoglobulin superfamily are a group of calcium independent proteins capable of
homophilic and heterophilic adhesion. Homophilic adhesion involves the
.
immunoglobulin-like domains on the cell surface binding to the immunoglobulin-like

domains on an opposing cell’s surface while heterophilic adhesion refers to the binding of
DR
the immunoglobulin-like domains to integrins and carbohydrates instead.
THE CELL
Cell adhesion is a vital component of the body. Loss of this adhesion effects cell structure,
cellular functioning and communication with other cells and the extracellular matrix and can
I
lead to severe health issues and diseases.
ED
TYPES OF CELL JUNCTIONS
IV
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
A
.
AM
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UP
.
DR
THE CELL
1. Anchoring Junctions:
a. Adherens junctions (zonula adherens)
I
b. Desmosomes(macula adherens) and
ED
c. Hemidesmosomes
2. Gap junctions (communicating junction)
IV
3. Tight junctions (occluding junctions)
1. Anchoring junctions:
TR
Cells within tissues and organs must be anchored to one another and attached to
I
&
components of the extracellular matrix. Cells have developed several types of
ED
junctional complexes to serve these functions, and in each case, anchoring proteins
extend through the plasma membrane to link cytoskeletal proteins in one cell to
D
cytoskeletal proteins in neighboring cells as well as to proteins in the extracellular
IV
matrix.
IK
Three types of anchoring junctions are observed, and differ from one another in the
TR
cytoskeletal protein anchor as well as the transmembrane linker protein that extends
through the membrane:
IT
Junction Cytoskeletal anchor Transmembrane linker Ties cell to:

N.
NA
Adherens junctions Actin filaments Cadherin / Integrins Other cells / EC matrix

Desmosomes Intermediate filaments Cadherin Other cells
Hemidesmosomes Intermediate filaments Integrins EC matrix
Anchoring-type junctions not only hold cells together but provide tissues with
A
.
structural cohesion. These junctions are most abundant in tissues that are subject to
AM
DR
constant mechanical stress such as skin and heart.

a. Adherens junctions (Zonula Adherens)
UP
Adherens junctions share the characteristic of anchoring cells through their

cytoplasmic actin filaments. Similarly to desmosomes and hemidesmosomes, their
transmembrane anchors are composed of cadherins in those that anchor to other cells
and integrins in those that anchor to extracellular matrix. There is
.
considerable morphologic diversity among adherens junctions. Those that tie cells to
DR
one another are seen as isolated streaks or spots, or as bands that completely encircle
the cell. The band-type of adherens junctions is associated with bundles of actin
filaments that also encircle the cell just below the plasma membrane. Spot-like
THE CELL
adherens junctions help cells adhere to extracellular matrix both in vivo and in
vitro where they are called focal adhesions. The cytoskeletal actin filaments that tie
I
into adherens junctions are contractile proteins and in addition to providing an
ED
anchoring function, adherens junctions are thought to participate in folding and
bending of epithelial cell sheets. Thinking of the bands of actin filaments as being
IV
similar to 'drawstrings' allows one to envision how contraction of the bands within a
group of cells would distort the sheet into interesting patterns
Eg.: heart muscle, layers covering body organs, digestive tract
TR
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
Principal interactions of structural proteins at cadherin-based adherens junction. Actin

.
filaments are linked to α-actinin and to membrane through vinculin. The head domain
AM
DR
of vinculin associates to E-cadherin via α-, β-, and γ-catenins. The tail domain of
vinculin binds to membrane lipids and to actin filaments.
UP
b. Desmosomes(macula adherens)
Desmosomes, also termed as maculae adherentes, can be visualized as rivets through
the plasma membrane of adjacent cells. Intermediate filaments composed of keratin or
desmin are attached to membrane-associated attachment proteins that form a dense
.
plaque on the cytoplasmic face of the membrane. Cadherin molecules form the actual
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anchor by attaching to the cytoplasmic plaque, extending through the membrane and
binding strongly to cadherins coming through the membrane of the adjacent cell.
THE CELL
Eg.: Skin, lining of internal body cavity surfaces

It disappear when cells are transformed
I
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&
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IV
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IT
N.
NA
A
.
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c. Hemidesmosomes
Hemidesmosomes form rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
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components such as the basal laminae that underlie epithelia. Like desmosomes, they
tie to intermediate filaments in the cytoplasm, but in contrast to desmosomes, their
transmembrane anchors are integrins rather than cadherins.
Present in tissues subject to shear or lateral stress
.
2. Gap junctions (communicating junction)

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Communicating junctions, or gap junctions allow for direct chemical communication

between adjacent cellular cytoplasm through diffusion without contact with the
extracellular fluid. This is possible due to six connexin proteins interacting to form a
THE CELL
cylinder with a pore in the centre called a connexon. The connexon complexes
stretches across the cell membrane and when two adjacent cell connexons interact,
I
they form a complete gap junction channel. Connexon pores vary in size, polarity and
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therefore can be specific depending on the connexin proteins that constitute each
individual connexon. Whilst variation in gap junction channels do occur, their
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structure remains relatively standard, and this interaction ensures efficient
communication without the escape of molecules or ions to the extracellular fluid.
Gap junctions play vital roles in the human body, including their role in the uniform
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contractile of the heart muscle. They are also relevant in signal transfers in the brain,
I
&
and their absence shows a decreased cell density in the brain. Retinal and skin
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cells are also dependent on gap junctions in cell differentiation and proliferation.
Used for rapid communication in heart muscle, smooth muscle, embryo blastocyst
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cells, electrical and chemical integration as a single functional unit. Also in embryonic
IV
development
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Direct communication between cells (open & close) of signaling molecules in ATP,
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cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), inositol triphosphate (IP3), glucose,
glutathione, glutamate, sodium, potassium and calcium ions.
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NA
A
.
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3. Tight junctions (occluding junctions)

.
Found in vertebrate epithelia, tight junctions act as barriers that regulate the
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movement of water and solutes between epithelial layers. Tight junctions are
classified as a paracellular barrier which is defined as not having directional
THE CELL
discrimination; however, movement of the solute is largely dependent upon size and
charge. There is evidence to suggest that the structures in which solutes pass through
I
are somewhat like pores.
ED
Physiological pH plays a part in the selectivity of solutes passing through tight
junctions with most tight junctions being slightly selective for cations. Tight junctions
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present in different types of epithelia are selective for solutes of differing size, charge,
and polarity.
Proteins: There have been approximately 40 proteins identified to be involved in tight
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junctions. These proteins can be classified into four major categories; scaffolding
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&
proteins, signalling proteins, regulation proteins, and transmembrane proteins.
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 Scaffolding Proteins – organise the transmembrane proteins, couple
transmembrane proteins to other cytoplasmic proteins as well as to actin filaments.
D
 Signaling Proteins – involved in junctions assembly, barrier regulation, and gene
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transcription.
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 Regulation Proteins – regulate membrane vesicle targeting.
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 Transmembrane Proteins – including junctional adhesion molecule (JAM),
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occludin, and claudin. It is believed that claudin is the protein molecule

responsible for the selective permeability between epithelial layers.
General principal of cell communication:
N.
NA
Communication between cells is mediated mainly by extracellular signal molecules. Some of

these operate over long distances, signaling to cells far away; others signal only to immediate
neighbors. Most cells in multicellular organisms both emit and receive signals. Reception of
A
the signals depends on receptor proteins, usually (but not always) at the cell surface, which
.
bind the signal molecule. The binding activates the receptor, which in turn activates one or
AM
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more intracellular signaling pathways. These relay chains of molecules—mainly intracellular

signaling proteins—process the signal inside the receiving cell and distribute it to the
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appropriate intracellular targets. These targets are generally effector proteins, which are
altered when the signaling pathway is activated and implement the appropriate change of cell
behavior. Depending on the signal and the nature and state of the receiving cell, these
effectors can be gene regulatory proteins, ion channels, components of a metabolic pathway,
.
or parts of the cytoskeleton—among other things.

DR
THE CELL
Intracellular signaling pathway activation by extracellular signal molecule

The signal molecule usually binds to a receptor protein that is embedded in the plasma
I
membrane of the target cell and activates one or more intracellular signaling pathways
ED
mediated by a series of signaling proteins. Finally, one or more of the intracellular signaling
proteins alters the activity of effector proteins and thereby the behavior of the cell.
IV
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N.
NA
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.
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 Signaling is endocrine, paracrine, synaptic, or direct cell contact

- signal transduction is mediated by receptor proteins
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- Receptors bind primary signal (ligand)

- Some amplification event occurs
- Example: ligand gated ion channel opens: Influx of ions triggers change in activity
(vesicle fusion in nerve end, contraction in muscle)
.
- Example: ligand binds to 7-pass membrane receptor catalyzes GTP exchange to Ga-
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subunit of trimeric G-protein active Ga-subunit-GTP is allosteric activator of effector

enzymes:
THE CELL
- ADENYLATE CYCLASE: makes cyclic AMP

- PHOSPHOLIPASE C: makes DAG and IP3
I
these second messengers activate target enzymes Trigger cascades
ED
- Must shut off cascade: removal of ligand, hydrolysis of GTP, phosphodiesterase,
protein phosphatases, Ca++ ion pumps
IV
The biding of extracellular signal molecules to either cell surface receptors or
intracellular receptors
A. Most signal molecules are hydrophilic and are therefore unable to cross the target
cell’s plasma membrane directly; instead, they bind to cell-surface receptors, which in
TR
I
turn generate signals inside the target cell
&
B. Some small signal molecules, by contrast, diffuse across the plasma membrane and
ED
bind to receptor proteins inside the target cell— either in the cytosol or in the nucleus
D
(as shown here). Many of these small signal molecules are hydrophobic and nearly
IV
insoluble in aqueous solutions; they are therefore transported in the bloodstream and
other extracellular fluids bound to carrier proteins, from which they dissociate before
IK
entering the target cell.
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IT
N.
NA
A
.
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THE CELL
FORMS OF INTERCELLULAR SIGNALING

1. Direct cell contact: ex. delta/notch
I
Cells that maintain an intimate membrane-to-membrane interface can engage in
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contact-dependent signaling.
2. Paracrine: local ex. nitric oxide, histamines, prostaglandins
Paracrine signals are released by cells into the extracellular fluid in their
IV
neighborhood and act locally.
3. Synaptic: ex. Neurotransmitters
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Neuronal signals are transmitted along axons to remote target cells.
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&
4. Endocrine: long distance ex. estrogen, epinephrine
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Hormones produced in endocrine glands are secreted into the bloodstream and are
often distributed widely throughout the body
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N.
NA
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THE CELL
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:
1) Draw the neat labeled diagram of cell.
I
2) Write a short note on plasma membrane.
ED
3) Write the functions of membrane proteins
4) How plasma membrane is selectively permeable?
IV
5) Write fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane.
6) Enlist the various transport mechanism and explain active transport process.
7) Write difference between active and passive transport.
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8) Write a short note on mitochondria.
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&
9) Explain the detail mechanism of protein synthesis.
ED
10) Write short note on cell cycle.
11) Explain the process of mitosis in cell division.
D
12) Write short note on molecules of cell junctions.
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13) Classify cell junctions. Explain anchoring junctions.
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14) Write short note on gap junction.
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! ! JAY AMBE! !
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3. ELEMENTRY TISSUE OF THE BODY
!!JAY AMBE!!
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3. ELEMENTARY TISSUES OF
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THE BODY
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&
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PREPARED BY
D
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M. PHARM, PH. D
IK

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Mobile: +91 - 9924567864
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&
N.
NA

M. PHARM, PH. D
A
.

AM

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CENTRE, DHARMAJ.
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!! JAY AMBE!!
ELEMENTARY TISSUES OF THE BODY
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DEFINITION: “It is a group of cells that usually have common embryonic origin and
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function together for special activities.”
INTRODUCTION:
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Body tissues can be classified in to four principal types according to their function and
structure:
1) Epithelia tissue:
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 It cover body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavity and ducts.
 It also forms glands.
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&
2) Connective tissue:
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 It provides the supports and protects the body and its organs.
 It binds organs together.
 It store energy as reserved fat.
D
 It provides immunity.
IV
3) Muscle tissue:
 It is responsible for movements and generation of force.
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4) Nervous tissue:
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 It initiates and transmits action potential (Nerves Impulse) that helps coordinate body
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activities.
During the embryonic developments zygote produces three germ layers:
a) Ectoderm N.
NA
b) Endoderm and
c) Mesoderm.
These three are embryonic tissue from which all tissues and organs of the body develop.
 Epithelium tissue derived from all three layers.
A

.
Connective tissue and most muscles tissue derived from mesoderm.

 Nervous tissue derived from ectoderm
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►EPITHELIAL TISSUE◄
General future of epithelial tissue:
I
 It consist large and closely packed cells with little extracellular material between
ED
adjacent cells.
 It’s arrangement produce continues sheet which is either single layer or multi layers.
 Epithelial cells have an apical (free) surface, which produce the lining of internal
organ so it exposed in to a body cavity.
IV
 The basal surface of the epithelial cells attached with the basement membrane.
 Epithelial cells are avascular so the blood vessels that supply to nutrients and move
wastes are located in adjacent connective tissue.
 The material exchanges take place in epithelium by the diffusion process.
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 Epithelium cells are adheres to connective tissue which holds the epithelium in their
I
&
position.
 The junction between the epithelium and connective tissue is known as basement
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membrane which consist two layers.
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1) Basal lamina: contain collagen, laminin and proteoglycan secret by
IV
epithelium.
2) Reticular lamina: This contains reticular fibers, fibronectin and
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glycoproteins.
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 The main function of epithelium is protection, filtration, lubrication, secretion,
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digestion, absorption, transportation, sensory reception and reproduction.

 CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE: N.
NA
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1) Covering and lining epithelium:

It forms the superficial layer of the skin and some internal organ.
I
It forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities and the interior of the
ED
respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive systems.
 According to arrangements of layer it is classified in to three types:
I) Simple epithelium:
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 It is a single layer of cells.
 It founds where activities such as diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion and
absorption occurs.
 According to shape of the cells it is further divided in to:
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&
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a) Simple squamous Epithelium: N.

NA
 It is a flat in shape.
 This consists of a single layer of flat cells.
 Their surfaces look like as tiles floor.
 The nucleolus of each cell is oval or spherical shape.
 It follows the osmosis or diffusion process.
 It found in the body where the little wear and tear is found.
A
.
 It lines the hearts, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels and also forms the wall of
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capillary known as endothelium.

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 The cells which form the epithelial layer of serous membrane are known as
mesothelium.
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b) Simple cuboidal epithelium:
 It is cuboidal in shape.
 The nucleus of the cell is round.
 The main function of this tissue is absorption and secretion.
.
c) Simple columnar epithelium:

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 It is rectangular in shape.
 It consist oval nuclei.
 It mainly produces two forms:
i) Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium:

 It contains microvilli and goblet cells.
I
 Microvilli produce the microscopic fingerlike structure which increases the
surface area of plasma membrane.
ED
 Goblet cells secret mucus which is slightly sticky fluid.
ii) Celiated simple columnar cells:
 Celia produces the hairlike processes means it’s movement gives the motion.
IV
 Eg.: Secondary oocyte moves toward fallopian tube for fertilization by or
fertile ovum down the uterin tube to the uterus help of celia.
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II) Stratified Epithelium:
 It contains two or more layers.
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 It protects the underline tissues from where there is considerable tear and wear.
 According to shape it can be further classified as under: N.
a) Stratified squemous epithelium:
NA
 In the superficial layer this type of cells are flat whereas in the deep layers cells
vary in shape from cuboidal to columnar.
 Here, the basal cells continuously replicate by cell division and produce new cells
which shift upward toward the surface.
 So, they loss their blood supply from the connective tissue so they become
A
.
dehydrated, shrunken and harder.


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These processes replace old cells by new cells.

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 Stratified squemous epithelium exists in two forms:

i) Keratinized stratified squemous epithelium:
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 It consist tough layer of keratin.

 It is a protein which is water proof and prevents us from several
bacterial attacks.
ii) Non keratinized stratified squemous epithelium:
 It does not contain keratin and remains moist.
.
b) Stratified cuboidal epithelium:

DR
 It consist two or more layer of cells in which superficial cells are cube-shaped.
 Duct of adult sweat glands and part of male urethra consist these cells.
 The main function is to give protection.
c) Stratified columnar epithelium:

 It consist several layer of polyhedral cells.
I
 Only the superficial cells are columnar.
 Conjunctiva of eye, anal mucous membrane, urethra consist these cells.
ED
 It gives protection and secretion.
c) Transitional epithelium:
 Its appearance is variable mainly it depends either it is stretched or relaxed.
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 Its line the urinary bladder and portion of ureters and urethra.
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III) Pseudostratified epithelium: N.

 It contains mixture of cells in one layer.
NA
 It produces multilayered tissue like appearance because all cells nuclei not reach to
the surface of cells. These type of cells either ciliated or secrete mucus.
A
.
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.
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2) Glandular epithelium:
 These types of cells are mainly present in gland the main function of these cells is
I
secretion.

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There are two types of secretary gland:
a) exocrine:

It secret their product in to duct.

The secretion includes mucus, perspiration, skin oil, ear wax and digestive
IV
enzymes.
 Eg.: Sweat glands, Salivary glands.
 According to structure it is divided into two classes:
i) unicellular
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I
&
ii) multi cellular
 According to function it is divided in to:
ED
i) Merocrine glands: it forms the secretary product and discharge it. (salivary
D
glands)
ii) Apocrine glands: accumulate their secretary product on their apical surface.
IV
(mammary glands).
iii) Halocrine glands: accumulate secretary product in cytosol. (Sebaceous
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gland).
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N.
NA
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.
b) endocrine glands:

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Secret product in to blood.

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 Eg.: endocrine glands, pituitary glands, thyroid gland.

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►CONNECTIVE TISUUE◄
“It is the tissue which provide supports and strength of the other body tissues, protect and
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insults internal organs also it binds the other cells or tissue together.
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Classification of Connective tissue
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CONNECTIVE TISSUE
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Tissue Type Cells Present Fibers Present Matrix Characteristics
Loose Connective Tissue:
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Areolar Fibroblasts macrophages Collagen elastic Loosely arranged fibers in gelatinous
adipocytes mast cells reticular ground substance
plasma cells
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Adipose Adipocytes Reticular collagen Closely packed cells with a small amount
of gelatinous ground substance; stores fat
Reticular Reticular cells Reticular Loosely arranged fibers in gelatinous
Dense Connective Tissue:

TR ground substance
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&
Dense regular Fibroblasts Collagen (some elastic) Parallel-arranged bundles of fibers with
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few cells and little ground substance;
great tensile strength
D
Dense regular Fibroblasts Collagen (some elastic) Irregularly arranged bundles of fibers with
few cells and little ground substance; high
IV
tensile strength
Cartilage:
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Hyaline (gristle) Chondrocytes Collagen (some elastic) Limited ground substance; dense,
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semisolid matrix
Fibrocartilage Chondrocytes Collagen (some elastic) Limited ground intermediate between

IT
hyaline cartilage and dense connective

tissue
Elastic Chondrocytes Elastic Limited ground substance; flexible but firm

N.
NA
matrix
Bone (osseous tissue):
Compact Osteoblasts osteocytes Collagen Rigid, calcified ground substance with

(dense) (canal systems)
Spongy Osteoblasts osteocytes Collagen Rigid, calcified ground substance (no

A
.
(cancellous) osteons)
Blood & Lymph (vascular tissue):
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Blood Erythrocytes leukocytes “Fibers” are soluble “Matrix” is liquid blood plasma
thrombocytes proteins that form
during clotting
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Lymph Leukocytes “Fibers” are soluble “Matrix” is blood plasma

liquid proteins that form
during clotting
.
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1) Embryonic Connective Tissue:

 It is primarily present in the embryo or fetus.
I
 The term embryo used for developing human from fertilization through the first two
ED
months of pregnancy.
 The term Fetus used for developing human from the third month of pregnancy to birth.
 It is mainly divided in to two types:
a) Mesenchyme:
IV
 It forms all kind of connective tissue.
 It is composed by irregularly shaped mesenchymal cells, a semisolid ground
substance and delicate reticular fibers.
TR
b) Mucous connective tissue:
I
&

It is primarily found in umbilical cord of the fetus.

It also forms from the Mesenchyme.
ED

It contains star shaped cells, a more viscous and jelly like ground substance and
collagen fibers.
D
2) Mature connective tissue:
IV
 It exists in new born baby.
 It, form from Mesenchyme and does not change after the birth.
IK
 It is sub divided in to:
TR
a) Loose connective tissue:
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 Here the fibers are loosely woven.

It consists:
i) Areolar connective tissue:
N.
NA

It is the most widely connective tissue.

It consist several types of cells like as fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells,
mast cells and a few white blood cells.
 All three type of fibers – collagens, elastic and reticular.
 The fluid, semi fluids or gelatinous ground substance contains hyluronic acid,
A
.
chondrotin sulfate, dermatan sulfate and keratin sulfate.

 It located in subcutaneous layer of skin, papillary region of dermis of skin,
AM
DR
mucous membrane, blood vessels, nerve and around body organ.

 It provides strength, elasticity and support.
ii) Adipose tissue:
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
The cells of adipose tissue contain a fatty substance and they are large and round
in shape.
 It consists adipocytes cells that are specialized to store triglyceride (Fat and oil).
It is located in subcutaneous layer of skin, around heart, kidney, yellow bone
marrow of long bone and behind the eye ball sockets.
 The main functions of these tissues are reduce heat loss through skin, serve as
.
energy reserve, provides supports and protection.

DR
iii) Reticular connective tissue:

 It consists fine interlacing reticular fibers and reticular fibers.
 It forms the framework of certain organs and helps to bind together certain cells.
b) Dense Connective tissue:

 It consists more numerous, thicker and densely packed fibers.
I
 It further divided in to:
ED
i) Dense regular connective tissue:
Here, the bundle of collagen fibers regular and parallel arrangements which
gives great strength.
 The tissue is silvery white and tough.
IV
ii) Dense irregular connective tissue:
 It consists collagen fibers that are usually irregularly arranged.
 Heart valves, pericardium consists this type of tissue.
TR
iii) Elastic connective tissue:
I
&
 It consist branched elastic fibers.
 It provides strength and can be stretched.
ED
c) Cartilage:
 It is hard but elastic in nature.
D
 It consist elastic and collagen fibers.
IV
 There are three types of cartilage:
IK
i) Hyaline cartilage:
TR
 It provides the supports and flexibility, reduce the friction and absorb the shock
at joints.
IT
 Cartilage cells are large, arranged in group of 2 and 4.

 It’s mostly found in bones and ribs.
ii) Fibro cartilage: N.
 It consists large cells which are arranged in groups.
NA
 The collagen fibers are more than hyaline cartilage.

 It is found in inner vertebral discs, in knee joins.
iii) Elastic Cartilage:
 It consist elastic fiber in matrix.
A
 Mostly found in laryngeal cartilages, epiglottis and in Eustachian tube.

.
d) Bone tissue:
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 Together cartilage, joints and bone comprise the skeletal system.

 It is the hardest connective tissue.
 It consists two types of bone cells osteoclasts and osteoblasts.

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Bone tissue is mainly divided in to two types compact bone and spongy bone.
 Long bones are the examples of compact bones and spongy bones are flats at the
end of long bones.
 The main function of bones are it provide support, protection, assists in
movement, site of blood cell production, storage of energy.
.
e) Blood (Vascular tissue):


DR
Blood is a liquid connective tissue.

 It consist mainly formed elements like platelets, leukocytes, erythrocytes and
plasma consist protein, water and other solutes.
 The man function of blood tissue is transportation, regulation and protection.
►MUSCLES TISSUE◄
 Muscles cells consist fibers that are beautifully constructed and generate force for
I
constriction.

ED
As a result of constriction power it provides motion, maintains posture and generates
heat.
IV
TR
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&
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D
 Based on location, function and structure it is divided in to three types:
IV
1) Skeletal muscles tissue:
IK
 Its name shows its location means attached to bone.


TR
It is strait in nature, fiber contain light and dark band which is known as striation
which are visible in microscope.
 A single skeletal muscles fiber is very long, roughly cylindrical in shape and has more
IT
than one nuclei which are periphery of the cells.

 Skeletal muscles are voluntary in nature because it can be contracted and relaxed
below the conscious level.
N.
NA
2) Cardiac muscles tissue:

 They are in bulk form and produce wall of the heart.
 Like skeletal muscles it is striated but it is involuntary in nature means constriction in
not under the control of conscious level.
 The fibers are branched and cross sections are squares in shape.
A
 Centrally it contain one nuclei and cardiac muscles fibers attached end to end by one
.
another and the joint is known as intercalated disc which form welding like spot
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between cells.
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3) smooth muscles tissue:

 It is located in the wall of hollow internal structures such as blood vessels, air ways to
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the lungs, intestines, gallbladders and urinary bladders.

 It provides help in break down of foods, elimination of wastage and move fluid and
food through out body.
 It is involuntary in control.
.
DR
►NERVOUS TISSUE◄
I
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IV
TR
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&
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 It consist of the two principle kinds of cells
D
IV
1) Neurons:
 The neurons consists of three basic portion :
IK
a) Cell body:
TR
 Cell body contains a nucleolus surrounded by cytoplasm that includes typical
organelles such as lysosomes, mitochondria and Golgi complex.
IT
 In the cytoplasm it also contains the Chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies)

which is ordinary arrangement of endoplasmic reticulum, the site of protein
synthesis and it also contain neurofibrils which forms the cytoskeleton and
N.
provide the support and shape of the cells.
NA
b) Dendrites:
 Dendrites are the receiving or input portion of the neurons.
 They are usually short, tapering and highly branched.
 Usually dendrites are not mylinated.

A
Their cytoplasm contains chromatophilic substance, mitochondria and other

.
organelles.
AM
c) Axon:
DR
 It is a long, thin and cylindrical in shape.

 It is joined with cell body by axon hillock.
 The first portion of axon is known as initial segment where the nerves impulse are
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arise.
 It also contains mitochondria, microtubules and neurofbrils but no rough
endoplasmic reticulum so it does not synthesize protein.
 Its cytoplasm known as axoplasm which is surrounded by membrane known as
axolema.
.
 The side branch of axon is known as axon collaterals.

 At the end of axon it divides branch like structure known as axon terminals.
DR
 The tip of some axon terminals swell in to bulb shaped known as synaptic end
bulbs.
I
ED
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TR
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&
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IV
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 Classification of neurons:
TR
 According to functional classification it is divided in to:
IT
i) Sensory neurons or afferent neurons:

 It transmits nerve impulse from receptors of skin, sense organ, muscles, and joints
into the CNS.
N.
NA
ii) Motor or Efferent Neurons:

 It conveys motor nerve impulse from the CNS to the effectors which may be
either muscles or glands.
A
.
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.
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 According to structural it can be classified in to:
I
i) Multi polar neurons:
ED
 It has several dendrites and one axon.
 Most neurons of brain and spinal cord are of this type.
ii) Bipolar neurons:
IV
 It has one main dendrites and one axon.
 It is found in the eye, inner ear and olfactory areas of the brain.
iii) Unipolar neurons:

TR
It’s originated as bipolar neurons in the embryo but during the development axon
I
and body get fuse into a single process that divides in to two branch and consist
&
one cell body.

ED
It is always sensory neurons.
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IV
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TR
IT
N.
NA
A
.
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2) Neuralgia:
 Neuroglia or glia fills about half of the CNS.
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 Its have the glue like characteristics so it held nervous tissue together.
 Neuroglias are generally smaller than neurons.
 Neuroglia can multiply and divide in the mature nervous systems.
 Classification of Neuroglia:
.
 There are mainly six types of Neuroglia in which four astrocytes, olegodendrocytes,
microglia and ependymal cells are found in the CNS.
DR
 While neurolemmocytes (schwann cells) and satellite cells found in peripheral

nervous system.
a) Neuroglia found in CNS:
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i) Astrocytes:
 They are star shaped.
ED
 It produces the metabolism of neurotransmitters, maintain the proper balance of
K+ for generation of nerves impulse, and participate in brain development.
 It forms the blood brain barrier which regulates entry of substance in to the brain.
ii) Olegodendrocytes:
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 It is the most common glial Cells in the CNS.
 It is smaller than astrocytes.
 They coil around neurons and produce supporting structure to the neurons.
 It produces protein and lipid covering known as myelin sheath.
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iii) Microglia:
I
&
 It is the small and phagocytic Neuroglia derived from monocytes.
 They protect the CNS from the disease by engulfing invading microbes and
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clearing away debris from dead cells.
iv) Ependymal:
D
 It is the epithelial cells.

 The cells have different shaped from cuboidal to columnar and many are ciliated.
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 Ependymal cells line the fluid filled ventricles, cavity within the brain and central
canal means a narrow passage from spinal cord.
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 It forms the fluid which is known as cerebrospinal fluids.
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N.
NA
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b) Neuroglia found in peripheral nervous system:

i) Neurolemmocytes (schwann cells):
 Each cell produces myelin sheath around PNS Neurons.
.
ii) Satellite cells:

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 Which supports neurons in ganglia in PNS.
Myelination:
 The axons of most mammalian neurons are surrounded by a multilayered lipids and
I
proteins of Neuroglia and this covering is known as myelin sheath and the axon with
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such a covering are said to be a myelinated.
 Whereas those without covering are known as unmyelinated axon.
 The sheath electrically insulates the axon of neurons and increases the speed of nerve
impulse conduction.
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Two types of Neuroglia produce myelin sheath:
a) Neurolemmocytes in PNS.
b) Olgodendrocytes in CNS.
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 Myelination and unmyelination produce Grey matter and white matter in brain
I
&
and spinal cord.
 White matter refers to aggregations of myelinated process from many neurons.
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The whites colour of myelin gives white matter.
 The grey matters of nervous system contain either neuron cell bodies,
D
dendrites and axon terminals or bundles of unmyelinated axons and Neuroglia.

 In spinal cord the white matter surrounds inner core of gray matter shaped like
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a butterfly or the letter H.
 In the brain grey matter surrounds the outer region while white matter
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surround inner region of brain exactly opposite to spinal cord.
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NA
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 Function of Nervous tissue:

a) Sensory function:
I
 It sense certain changes both within body (the internal environment) such as
stretching of your stomach or increase the acidity and out side the body (the external
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environment) such as rain drop landing on your arm or the aroma of rose.
b) Integrative Function:
 It analyzes the sensory information, store some aspect and make some decision
regarding appropriate behavior.
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c) Motor function:
 It may respond to stimuli by initiating muscular contraction or glandular secretion.
IMPORTANT QUESTION:
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I
&
1. Write a short note on epithelial tissue.
2. Write a short note on Muscular tissue.
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3. Explain the function of muscular tissue.
4. What is tissue? Classify it and Write a note on Nervous tissue.
D
5. Classify the connective tissue and explain the dense connective tissue.
6. Draw the neat labeled diagram of neurons and explain it.
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“EVERYONE THINKS OF CHANGING THE WORLD, BUT NO ONE
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THINKS OF CHANGING HIMSELF”
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N.
NA
►GOOD LUCK◄
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UP
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8. THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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!! JAY AMBE !!
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N.
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PREPARED BY
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M. PHARM, PH. D
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LECTURER
Mobile: +91 - 9924567864
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M. PHARM, PH. D
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PROFESSOR
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!! JAY AMBE !!
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THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
N.
The reproductive system or genital system is a system of organs within an organism which
work together for the purpose of reproduction.
A
Reproduction is the process by which new individuals of species are produced via which genetic
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material pass from generation to generation.
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According to function, the male and female reproductive organ grouped as under
.
1. Gonads (Seeds): it includes testes and ovaries, the main function of testes are production
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of gametes and secretion of hormones.
Male gametes known as sperm
Female gametes known as oocytes
&
2. The ducts: It transport and store the gametes.
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3. Accessory sec gland: It produces materials that support gametes.

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4. Supporting Structures: It includes penis that have important role in reproduction.

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MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

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D.
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External Structures
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 Penis: External male sex organ
N.
- Uncircumcised: Foreskin not removed
- Circumcised: Removes some or all of foreskin
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 Scrotum: Sac of skin and muscle containing testicles

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Internal Structures
D.
 Prostate: Exocrine gland of male reproductive system

 Vas Deferens: Tubes connecting epididymis to ejaculatory ducts
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 Epididymis: Organ where sperm matures

 Testicles: Organ where sperm is created
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 Urethra: Tube that connects bladder to outside of body

NA
1. Scrotum:

.
Scrotum is a sac that hangs from the root of the penis and consists of loose skin and super
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fasia.
 It is a supportive structure of the penis.
 Internally scrotum consist vertical septum which divide it in to the two sacs.
 Each sec consist a single testes.
 Septum is covered by superficial fascia and muscle tissue known as dartos which consist
smooth muscles fibers.
 When dartos muscle contracts it produce wrinkle in the skin of scrotum.
 The location of the scrotum and contraction of its muscle fiber regulate the temperature
of testes.
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 Both production and survival of sperm required a temperature that is about 3oC lower
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than the normal body temperature.
 The cremaster muscles is a small band of skeletal muscle present in to the spermatic
N.
cord, during the cold and sexual arousal it elevate the testes and this action moves the
testes near to the pelvic cavity where they can absorb the heat.
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2. Testes:
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 Testes are formed in abdomen and descend into scrotum at 7th month of development.
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 The testes are paired oval glands.
 It is 5 cm length, 2.5 cm in diameter and 10-15 grams of weight of each testis.
N.
 The outer covering of testes is known as tunica vaginalis made up from serous
membrane.
 Internal to the tunica vaginalis dense white fibrous capsule known as tunica albuginea.
A
 Inside extending portion of the tunica albuginea produce lobules. There are 200 – 300
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lobules present in each testis.
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 Each lobule consist one to three tightly coiled tubules known as semniferous tubules.
 Seminiferous tubule consist spermatogenic cell is taking part in the production of sperm
.
cell, the process is known as spermatogenesis.
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 There many sustentacular cells lie between the spermatogenic cell which produce the
tight junction known as blood testes barrier.

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These barriers prevent the activation of immune system against the sperm because
spermatogenic cell (sperm) consist surface antigen that are recognize as foreign particle
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by the immune system.

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 The sustentacular cells also secret the fluid for the sperm transport as well as it secret the
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hormone inhibin which regulate the sperm production by inhibiting the secretion of FSH.
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3. Sperm:
 The mammalian sperm cell consists of a head, a midpiece and a tail. The head contains
D.
the nucleus with densely coiled chromatin fibres, surrounded anteriorly by an acrosome,
which contains enzymes (hyaluronidase and proteinases) used for penetrating the female
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egg.
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 The midpiece has a central filamentous core with many mitochondria spiralled around it,
NA
used for ATP production for the journey through the female cervix, uterus and uterine
tubes.
.
 The tail or "flagellum" executes the lashing movements that propel the spermatocyte.
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 Human sperm cells can survive within the female reproductive tract for more than 5 days
post coitus. Semen is produced in the seminal vesicles, prostate gland and urethral glands.
 Sperm mature at the rate of about 300 million per day.
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4. Ducts:
D.
A. Ducts of testis:
 After the production of sperm from the somniferous tubules, release in to the lumen and
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goes in to straight tubules.


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Newly forming fluid produce by the sustentacular (sertoli) cells produce pressure that
moves the sperm ahead.
NA
 These fluids contain potassium ions (K+), glutamic acid and antigen binding protein
(ABP).
.
 From the straight tubules, fluid moves with sperm in to rate testis, which leads toward an
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epididymis.
 Epididymis is a comma shaped organ about 4 cm long.
 Next to epididymis is ductus epididymis (Sperm get mature here in 10 – 14 days) is a
straight coiled structure 6 m in length continue with the tail epididymis.
 Within the tail of the epididymis, the ductus epididymis becomes less convoluted and its
diameter increases. After this point, the duct is referred to as the ductus deference, vas
deference or seminal duct.
 The ductus deference (vas deference) or seminal duct is 48 cm long, it store sperm. The
dilated terminal portion of this vas deference is known as the ampulla.
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B. Ejaculatory ducts:
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 Posterior to the urinary bladder are the ejaculatory ducts.
 Each ejaculatory duct is about 2 cm long and is formed by the union of the seminal
N.
vesicle and the ampulla.
 The ejaculatory duct ejects the sperm in to the urethra just before ejaculation.
A
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C. Urethra:
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 In the male, Urethra is the shared terminal duct of the reproductive and urinary systems.
 It serves as a passageway for both semen and urine.
 The urethra passes through the prostate gland, the urogenital diaphragm and the penis.
.

DR
Its measure about 20 cm in length, divided in to three parts:
 The prostate urethra: 2 – 3 cm long, passage from prostate gland.
 The membranous urethra: 1 cm in length
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 Spongy urethra: 15-20 cm long.
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 Spongy urethral end consist external urethral orifice.

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5. Accessory sex gland:

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The ducts of male reproductive system store and transport sperm cells while the accessory sex
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gland secret most of the liquid portion of

D.
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NA
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semen.
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A. The paired seminal vesicles:
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 It is a convoluted pouch like structure, about 5 cm in length and lying posterior to the
urinary bladder and anterior to the rectum.
N.
 It secrete:
 An alkaline,
A
 Viscous fluid that contains fructose, prostaglandins and clotting protein
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(semenogelin) (differ than the blood clotting protein).

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The alkaline nature of the fluid neutralizes the acid in the female reproductive tract.
 The fructose is used for ATP production by sperm.
 Prostaglandin is useful for the sperm motility and viability also stimulate the muscular
.
contraction in the female reproductive system.


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Seminogelin is the protein that causes the coagulation of semen after ejaculation.
Seminal vesicle adds 60 % of fluid of the total volume of semen.
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B. The prostate gland:

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 It is a doughnut shaped gland.

 It is inferior to the urinary bladder and surrounds the prostate urethra.
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 The prostate secrete milky and slightly acidic fluid which contains:
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 Citrate: Useful for the ATP production by the sperm.

 Acid phosphate: Functions are not known
 Proteolytic enzymes like Prostate specific antigen (PSA) – liquefy the coagulated
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semen, pepsinogen, lysozyme, amylase and hyaluronidase.

 The secretion of the prostate gland enters the prostatic urethra through many prostatic
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ducts.

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The secretion of the prostate gland adds 25 % of fluid out of total volume of semen.
NA
C: The bulbourethral or Cowper’s gland:
 It is about the size of pea and It lie inferior to the prostate gland.
.
 During sexual arousal, bulbourethral gland secrete alkaline substance that protect sperm
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by neutralizing acid in the urethra.

 It also secretes mucus that lubricates the end of penis and the lining of urethra.
6. Semen:
 Semen is the mixture of sperm and seminal fluid.

 The average volume of semen in each ejaculation is 2.5 – 5 mL.
 There are 50 – 150 million sperm present per milliliter (mL).
 When the sperm fall below the 20 million/mL, the male is likely to be infertile.
 The pH of semen is in the range of 7.2 – 7.7.
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7. Penis:
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 The penis contains the urethra, a passage for ejaculation of semen and for excretion of
urine.
N.
 It is cylindrical in shape and consist body, root and gland penis.
 the consensus is that the average erect human penis is approximately 12.9–15 cm (5.1–
A
5.9 in) in length with 95% of adult males falling within the interval 10.7–19.1 cm (4.2–
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7.5 in). Neither age nor size of the flaccid penis accurately predicts erectile length.

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The longest officially documented human penis was found by Doctor Robert Latou
Dickinson. It was 34.3 cm (13.5 in) long and 15.9 cm (6.26 in) around.
.
A. Body of penis:
 DR
It is composed by the three cylindrical masses of tissue:
 Tunica albuginea
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 Corpora cavernosa penis (Paired dorsolateral masses)

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Tunica albuginea consist corpus spongy penis at the middle part and spongy urethra.
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 All the three masses are covered by the facia and skin with the erectile tissue permeated
by blood sinuses.
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 During the sexual stimulation, which may be:

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 Visual,
 Tactile,
 Auditory,
D.
 Olfactory,
 Or Imagination large quantities of blood enter in to the penis due to the dilation of
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arteries (effect of nitric oxide).


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These vascular effects produce erection in penis.

 Ejaculation is the sympathetic reflex. As a part of reflex the smooth muscle spincter at the
NA
base of urinary bladder close.

 Thus urine is not expelled during ejaculation.
.
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B. Root of penis:
 It is the attached part, consisting of the bulb of penis in the middle and the crus of penis,
one on either side of the bulb. It lies within the superficial perineal pouch.
C. Gland penis:
 The distal end of the corpus spongiosum penis is slightly enlarged, acorn shaped region
known as gland penis.
 The margin of gland penis is known as corona.
 Gland penis consist the external urethral orifice.
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THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
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The female reproductive system include
N.
A. Internal genitalia:
 2 ovaries
A
 2 oviducts (uterine or Fallopian tubes)
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 Uterus
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 vagina
B. External genitalia
.
 clitoris
 labia minora DR
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 labia majora
C. Breasts and mammary glands
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TR
D.
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NA
.
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1. Ovaries:
 The paired ovaries are paired glands that resemble unshelled almonds in shape and size.
 Because of the same origins ovaries are homologues to testis.
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 The broad ligament of uterus, which is the part of partial peritoneum, attaché to ovaries
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by double layer fold of peritoneum known as mesovarium.
 The ovarian ligament anchors the ovaries to uterus and the suspensory ligament attach
N.
them to the pelvic wall.
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A. Structure of ovary:
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D.
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NA
.
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i) Germinal epithelium:
 It covers the surface of the ovary and it continues with the mesothelium that cover the
mesovarium.
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ii) Tunica albuginea:
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 It is a whitish capsule of dense irregular connective tissue extended deep to germinal
epithelium.
N.
iii) Stoma:
 Deep to the tunica albuginea known as stroma.
A
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 It divided in to the two portions, superficial portion known as cortex and deep portion
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known as medulla.
iv) Ovarian follicle:
.
 It is lie in to the cortex region of stoma.
DR
 Here the oocytes pass from the various steps of their development with their surrounding
cells.
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 The surrounding cells produce single layer known as follicular cells.

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 Later in developing stage of oocyte, it produces several layers known as granulose.

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 These surrounding cells secret estrogen and other fluid so follicle grow larger.
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v) Mature (Graafian) follicle:

TR
 It is a large fluid filled follicle after the rupturation of this follicle secondary oocyte get
expel out.
D.
vi) Corpus luteum:

 It is the remnant of an ovulated mature follicle.
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B. The Ovarian Cycle

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i) Follicular phase
NA
 1st approx 14 days but variable


.
Egg develops in a follicle

DR
 Stimulated by FSH
 Estrogen produced
ii) Ovulation
 Egg released from follicle (LH surge)

 Egg in abdominal cavity
 Picked up by fimbria of fallopian tube
 Not necessarily halfway point
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iii) Luteal phase
TR
 Postovulatory phase 14 days (more constant)
 Corpus luteum develops from exploded follicle
N.
 Produces progesterone as well as estrogen
 Progesterone stimulates uterus to be ready for baby
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 If no pregnancy, corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans
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2. Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes:
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 Female have two fallopian tubes. It stretches from the uterus to the ovaries and measure
.
about 8 to 13 cm in length. It transport the secondary oocytes to the uterus.

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The open, funnel shaped portion of each tube is known as infundibulum, close to the
ovary.
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 At the end portion of infundibulum has finger like projection known as fimbria, which
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hold the ovary.

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 Widest and longest portion of the uterine tube is known as ampulla and short, narrow,
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thick walled portion known as isthmus that join the uterus.

TR
3. Uterus:
 The uterus is located inside the pelvis immediately dorsal (and usually somewhat rostral)
D.
to the urinary bladder and ventral to the rectum.

 The human uterus is pear-shaped and about 3 in. (7.6 cm) long, 4.5 cm broad (side to
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side) and 3.0 cm thick (anteroposterior).

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 A nonpregnant adult uterus weighs about 60 grams.

NA
 Layers of the uterus:

Perimetrium: it is the outer layer of the uterus.
.
Myometrium: It is the middle layer of the uterus.

DR
Endometrium: The lining of the uterine cavity is called the "endometrium".

 Parts of uterus:
Fundus: The dome shaped portion superior to the uterine tube known as fundus.
Body: The major tapering central portion is known as body.
Cervix: The inferior narrow portion opens in to the vagina known as cervix
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ED
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4. Vagina:
TR
 Vagina is the passage for the menstrual flow and child birth.
 It also receives semen from the penis during the sexual intercourse.
N.
 It is 10 cm in length, situated between the urinary bladder and the rectum.

A
The vaginal mucosa secret the acidic fluid as well as the mucosal cells of vagina has the
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antigen presenting cells (APCs) from where the HIV (AIDS) virus gets transmitted.
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 The next layer is muscularis is composed of an outer circular layer and inner longitudinal
layer of smooth muscle that can stretch considerably to receive the penis during sexual
.
intercourse and allow for birth of a fetus.

DR
The adventitia is the superficial layer of the vagina.
 At the end of vagina there is vaginal orifice covered by the mucosal membrane known as
&
hymen.
I

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Sometimes the hymen completely covers the orifice, a condition known as imperforated
hymen, which may require surgery to open the orifice and permit the discharge of the
IV
menstrual flow.
TR
5. Vulva:
D.
It is known as the external genital organ of the female reproductive system.

i) Mons pubis:
IK
Anterior to the vaginal and urethral opening portion is known as mons pubis. It is an
elevation of adipose tissue covered by the skin and hair.
IT
ii) Labia majora:

NA
From the mons pubis, two longitudinal folds of skin known as labia majora. It is
homologues to the scrotum and are covered by the pubic hair.
.
DR
iii) Labia minora:

Middle to the labia majora is to smaller folds of skin called the labia minora. But it
not consist the hair and fat. They have few sudoriferous (sweat) glands and
sebaceous (oil) gland.
iv) Clitoris:
It is the small, cylindrical mass of erectile tissue and nerve. It is located at the anterior
junction of the labia minora. It is homologues to the penis and capable of enlargement
upon tactile stimulation and it play important role in sexual excitement of the female.
I
ED
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v) Vestibules:
TR
The region between labia minora is known as the vestibules. Hymen, Vaginal orifice,
external vaginal orifice are located between the vestibules. The bulb of the vestibules
N.
consists of two elongated masses of erectile tissue, during the sexual intercourse it
narrowing the vaginal orifice and placing pressure on the penis. Anterior to the
A
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vaginal orifice and posterior to the clitoris is the external urethral orifice.
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vi) Perineum:
It is the diamond shaped area medial to the thigh and buttocks of both males and
.
females. That contains the external genital and anus.
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D.
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IT
NA
.
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6. Mammary glands:
TR
 Mammary gland is an organ in female mammals that produces milk to feed baby located
in to the breast.
N.
 Each breast has one pigmented projection known as nipple, it have closely spaced
opening known as lactiferous ducts from where milk emerges.
A
 The circular pigmented area of the skin surrounding the nipple known as areola. It
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appears rough because it contains modified sebaceous (oil) glands.
 Within each breast the memory glands consists 15 – 20 lobes separated by adipose tissue.
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 Each lobe have smaller compartment known as lobules composed of grapelike clusters of
milk secreting glands known as alveoli.
.
 Surrounding the alveoli are spindle shaped cells known as myoepithelial cells, whose

DR
contraction helps to propel milk towards the nipple.
Milk path: alveoli – secondary tubules – mammary ducts – lactiferous sinus – lactiferous
&
duct.
 Milk secretion is stimulated by the hormone prolactin as well as with the contribution of
I
ED
estrogen and progesterone.

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TR
D.
IK
IT
NA
.
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MENSTRUAL CYCLE:
TR
 The duration of the female reproductive cycle is 24 – 35 days.
 Menstrual cycle is divided in to three phases:
N.
i) Menstrual Phase ii) Preovulatory Phase iii) Postovulatory Phase
A
i) Menstrual Phase:
AM
This phase is also known as menstruation or menses phase, takes first 5 days of the cycle.
UP
a) Events in the ovaries:
 During the menstruation phase, about 20 so small secondary follicles try to being
.
enlarge.
DR
 In this phase, follicular fluid secret from the granulose cells and oozing from
blood capillaries and oocyte remain near the edge of the follicle.
&
b) Event in the uterus:
 In this phase, decrease the hormone level of estrogen and progesterone. Because
I
of this reason, produce contraction of uterine spiral arteries.

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 So the blood supply of the Endometrium cell gets interrupt and start to die. It start
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the menstruation flow consists about the volume of 50 – 150 ml of blood, tissue
fluid, mucus and epithelial cells derived from the Endometrium.
TR
ii) Preovulatory Phase:

D.
It is the second phase of the female reproductive cycle. It is the phase between the menstruation
and ovulation phase.
IK
If we consider 28 days menstrual cycle, it takes 6 to 13 days of period.

IT
a) Events in the ovaries:

 In this phase, the secretion of FSH produces effects on 20 secondary follicle and
NA
its grow secret estrogen and inhibin.

 Out of 20 secondary follicles, one follicle in one ovary has outgrown all others so
.
it is known as the dominant follicle.

DR
 Estrogen and inhibin secretion by the dominant follicle cell decrease the secretion
of FSH and this effect stop the development of other follicle cells.
 Dominant follicle cell produce the mature follicle about the size of 20 mm in
diameter and ready for the ovulation.
 In this phase the secretion of LH also increase the secretion of estrogen and start
the secretion of progesterone also.
b) Events in the uterus:
 In this phase, estrogen liberate in to the blood by growing ovarian follicle cell.
I
ED
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 It stimulates the repair of endometrium damage. It produces the
TR
neovascularization, cell proliferation and differentiation so increase the thickness
of endometrium, this phase is also known as the proliferative phase.
N.
Ovulation:
 In this phase, the mature follicle cell gets rupture and releases the secondary oocyte in to
A
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the pelvic cavity, usually occur in the day 14 of 28 dyas cycle.
 It generally takes 20 days (last 6 days of the previous cycle and first 14 days of the
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current cycle).
 During this phase, primary oocyte complete the meiosis – I and enter in to the meiosis –
.
II.
iii) Post ovulation phase: DR

&
It takes last 14 days, from days 15 to 28. It represent the time between ovulation and the onset of
the next menses. Corpus luteum formed in this phase and it increases the secretion of estrogen
I
and progesterone.
ED
a) Events in the ovary:

IV
 In this phase if the secondary oocyte get fertilize and begins to divide, the corpus
TR
luteum persists past its normal 2 week life span and it is maintained by the human
chronic gonadotropin (hCG).
 This hormone is produce by the chorion of the embryo after 8 – 12 days of
D.
fertilization.
 The hCG level in to the blood or urine confirm the pregnancy.
IK
 If the hCG will not release (because of no fertilization) than corpus letuem
decrease their secretion and produce scar known as corpus albican.
IT
 Decrease level of estrogen and progesterone again start the menstruation.

NA
b) Event in the uterus:

 Progesterone and estrogen secretion produce by the corpus luteum promote the
.
DR
growth and coiling of the endometrium gland, which begins to secret glycogen,
vascularization of the superficial endometrium, thickening of the endometrium
and increase the amount of tissue fluid.
I
ED
IV
TR
N.
A
AM
UP
.
DR
&
I
ED
IV
TR
D.
IK
IT
NA
.
DR
I
ED
IV
SPERMATOGENESIS:
TR
 At the age of puberty in male spermatogenesis process starts and it will continue till old
age.
N.
 Spermatogenesis process start in seminiferous tubules of male testis.
A
 In the wall of seminiferous tubules numerous germinal epithelial cells are situated which
AM
is known as spermatogonia,
UP
 In the first step of spermatogenesis, the spermatogonia cell undergo mitosis and produce
primary spermatocyte cells which contain 46 chromosomes (2n or diploid). Out of these
.
44 are autosomes and 2 are sex chromosomes, these are known as daughter cells A
DR
(remains a stem cell) or daughter B (undergone further division).
 In the second step Primary Spermatocytes (Daughter Cell B) by meiosis I generate two
&
secondary spermatocytes, each one of them contain 23 chromosomes (haploid, n) in
I
which 22 are autosomes and one is sex chromosomes.

ED
 Next in meiosis II chromosomes line up and chromatids of each chromosomes separates

IV
and produce four haploid (n) cells known as spermatids.

TR
 In the final stage of development spermatid develops into sperms.
Note: At the age of puberty Leyding Cells or interstitial which are lying between seminiferous
D.
tubules cells secret testosterone hormone which is responsible for the male
characteristics.
IK
IT
NA
.
DR
I
ED
IV
TR
N.
A
AM
UP
.
DR
&
I
ED
IV
TR
D.
IK
IT
NA
.
DR
PROCESS OF SPERMATOGENESIS
I
ED
IV
OOGENESIS:
TR
 Formation of female gametes (eggs) in the overies is called oogenesis.

N.
Oogenesis process starts in fetal period (embryonic development) at about 6-7 weeks of
fetal development.
A
 The primordial germ cell undergo mitosis (differentiation) process and produce anout 6-7
AM
million of oogonia at 20th week of fetal development in the mother uterus.
UP
 Some of the oogonia cells degenerate at the time of fetal development and this process is
known as atresia.
.
 Due to this effect at the time of girl child birth about 2 millions of oogonia cells are
available in each ovary.
DR
 During the embryonic development of girl child some of oogonia cells developed into
&
larger cells and these cells are known as primary oocytes.

I
 In, oogenesis process Meiosis – I start during the fetal development but further process
ED
get arrest until puberty.

IV
 At the age of puberty 60000 to 80000 primary oocytes are available in the each ovary.
TR
 Out of these number of primary oocytes only 400 primary oocytes get chance to enter
into the menstrual cycle during the reproductive life of female. (12-14 years to 46-52
D.
Years period, each month 1 menstrual cycle – near about 380 to 400 menstrual cycle
throughout life).
IK
 At the age of puberty, each primary oocyte is surrounded by a single layer of follicular
IT
cell and this structure is known as primordial follicle.

NA
 In the first maturation phase primary oocytes divide into two unequal haploid daughter
cells by meiotic division.
.
 The large cell known as secondary oocytes and smaller cell known as first polar body.
DR
 In, second maturation phase secondary oocytes again divide into two unequal haploid
daughter cells following the meiosis – II.
 During this process if sperm can enter into the secondary oocytes then it complete the
meiosis – II process and produce zygote (fertile cell) and it moves toward the uterus for
implantation.
 If sperm cannot penetrate into the secondary oocytes then without completion of meiosis
– II process secondary oocyte leave the uterus with menstrual flow.
I
ED
IV
TR
N.
A
AM
UP
.
DR
&
I
ED
IV
TR
D.
IK
IT
NA
.
DR
PROCESS OF OOGENESIS
I
ED
IV
PREGNANCY AND PARTURATION:
TR
Pregnancy:
 Sperm and secondary oocytes combine together form zygot.
N.
 In this phase if the secondary oocyte get fertilize and begins to divide, the corpus luteum
persists past its normal 2 week life span and it is maintained by the human chronic
A
AM
gonadotropin (hCG).
 This hormone is produce by the chorion of the embryo after 8 – 12 days of fertilization.
UP
 The hCG level in to the blood or urine confirm the pregnancy.
.
 If the hCG will not release (because of no fertilization) than corpus letuem decrease their

DR
secretion and produce scar known as corpus albican.
In pregnancy, estrogen from ovarian follicle, progesterone from corpus luteum and
&
human chronic gonadotropin (hCG) produce by fertilized ovum embedded in uterine wall
I
play important role.

ED
i. Estrogen:
IV
- It develop secondary sexual characteristics like breast development, voice change at

TR
puberty in female.
- It thicken the uterine lining during proliferative phase of menstrual cycle.
D.
- It activate anterier pitutary gland for the secretion of FSH and LH in the first half of
cycle.
IK
ii. Progesterone:
IT
- It stimulate the neovascularization and thicken the uterin wall.

NA
iii. Human chronic gonadotropin (hCG):

- Act on corpus luteum and stimulate secretion of progesterone and estrogen for first 6
.
to 8 weeks of pregnancy.
DR
Pregnancy of women is generally takes 38-40 weeks of period for full development of baby. It is
divided in to three trimester each of consist 12 weeks.
i. First Trimester: (1 to 12 weeks)
 The first trimester is the earliest phase of pregnancy. Missing or stoppage of the
menstrual period is the first sign of pregnancy.
 The significant hormonal level changes are observed in the beginning of
pregnancy.
I
ED
IV
 It starts on the first day of your last period, before you are even actually pregnant
TR
and lasts until the end of the 12th week.
 Breast tenderness. Sore breasts are one of the earliest signs of pregnancy.
N.
 During pregnancy, high levels of the hormone progesterone slow down the
muscle contractions and adding extra iron and vitamin for development of baby
A
AM
leads constipation and gas that can keep you feeling bloated throughout the
UP
pregnancy.
 Mood swing, headache, craving or distaste for certain foods are the common sign
.
of pregnancy.

DR
At the 4th week of embryonic development brain, spinal cord and heart being to
form and arms and legs appearance process starts but not fully visible. In this
&
stage the size of embryo is near about half inch.
I
 At 8th week the arm and leg grow longer and other external body structure being
ED
to start development. Sex organ formation process arises in this stage but you
IV
cannot identify the gender in this stage. Eye spot appear on the face.
TR
 At 10th week beating of heart is observed by the ultrasonography. Baby grow near
about 1 inch in this stage.
D.
 At 12th week muscle and nerve coordination and movement develops. As well as
male and female external sex organ are clearly differentiated by ultrasonography
IK
so its easy to judge baby’s gender. And here the size of fetus is near about 3
IT
inches long.
NA
ii. Second Trimester (13 to 28 weeks)

 In the second trimester some of the symptoms of first trimester disappeared.
.
 During the second trimester of pregnancy, you might experience physical

DR
changes, including:
 Darkening of skin around nipples, swelling of ankles, finger and face are the
common sign of pregnancy.
 In the later phase of this trimester the movement of baby shall be noticed.
 At the 13 to 16th week bones and muscles start to form skeletal structure. Skin
being start to form and baby try to sucking motion by mouth. In this stage
embryo is near about 6-6 inches in their size.
I
ED
IV
 At the 18th to 20th week eyebrow, hair, eyelashes, finger nails start to appear.
TR
 At 23rd to 24th week blood cell start to form from the bone marrow. Footprint and
finger prints are formed. Lings start to develop for the breath. In this phase male
N.
embryo’s testicle move towards the abdominal and female embryo start to
develop uterus and ovaries. Embryo start their sleep cycle and its size is about 12
A
AM
inches.
UP
iii. Third Trimester (29 to 40 weeks)
 In 3rd trimester, urination frequency getting increase, mother feel difficulty in
.
breathing, swelling of ankle and face are the commonly observed signs.


DR
Mother can feel the movement of baby, baby can kick easily in this phase.
The fetus can see and hear inside the uterus.
&
 The brain continues to develop.
I
 The kidneys and lungs continue to mature.

ED
 At 32 weeks bones of the baby fully get developed but still its soft.
IV
 At this stage size of the baby is near about 15-16 inches.

TR
 At the 39th weeks full growth of baby has to be considered and baby take head
down position for the birth.
D.
 During the time of birth the normal baby length is 19-20 inches with 2 to 2.3 kg
weight is observed.
IK
IT
NA
.
DR
I
ED
IV
TR
N.
A
AM
UP
.
DR
&
I
ED
IV
TR
Parturation:
D.
 The process through which baby comes in the world and the phase of pregnancy get ends
known as parturition.
IK
 When pregnancy reach to the full term nearly at 38-39 week, it’s time for the baby to be
IT
born.
 There are several hormonal changes observed during the process of parturition.
NA
 At 37th weeks progesterone level getting down, but the level of estrogen still high. So
.
higher ration of the estrogen to progesterone may activate the pituitary gland to secrete
DR
oxytocin.
 Oxytocin try to contract uterine contraction. Some of the women feels weak contraction
in uterine due to decreasing the level of progesterone, this contraction is known as false
contraction which is not actual the labor pain and it’s also known as brackston Hicks
Contractions.
 Mother when reach to full term fetus start to drop lower in the uterus. So placenta secret
relaxin hormone. Which produce two effects:
I
ED
IV
i. It loosen the pelvic bones so it comes apart slightly and support the enlarging of
TR
uterus
ii. It also loosen the pubic symphysis
N.
 These process dilate the cervix and help in labor.
 Labor contractions force baby’s head or body into birth canal.
A
AM
 It produces effect on control condition and increases distention of cervix of uterus.

UP
It activates the stretch receptors of cervix and send input message to control center via
sensory nerve impulse.
.
 Actually labor is divided into three main stages:
i.
ii.
Cervical dilation
Expulsion of baby
DR
&
iii. After birth
I
 In first stage of cervical dilation, Control center activates the hypothalamus and pituitary
ED
gland and send the output message to increase oxytocin secretion in blood.
IV
 Oxytocin produces their effect on to the effector (cervix of uterus) and cause distention of
TR
cervix of uterus than the normal value to push the baby further into birth canal. This
effect secret prostaglandins and cause more uterine contraction and release more
D.
prostaglandins due to the positive feedback cycle, this effect called true labor contraction.
 In the true labor contraction mucus lug and amniotic fluid get secret which is the sign of
IK
true labor contraction.

IT
 Uterine contraction at upper side cause dilation of cervix and push the fetus towards the
NA
cervix, so cervix dilate at 10 cm size for the expulsion of baby.

 2nd Phase expulsion start when baby head comes near the birth canal, uterus rhythmically
.
get contract.
DR
 Once baby heads crown, it’s easy to accessible the other body for doctor.
 Once the baby out the umbilical cord connected with the placenta gets cut and baby gets
clean now.
 Final stage of labor is delivery of placenta and associated membrane called the after birth
stage.
 After the birth of baby uterine get contract continue so placenta detached from the uterus
and eject out of the vagina.
I
ED
IV
Note:
TR
- Baby head come first is known as vertex presentation and it cause normal delivery
in most of cases.
N.
- Buttocks or legs come first is known as breech presentation need caesarian section
( C- Section) through the cut from abdominal cavity.
A
AM
UP
.
DR
&
I
ED
IV
TR
D.
IK
IT
NA
.
DR
I
ED
IV
INTRODUCTION TO GENETICS:
TR
DNA and RNA:
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
N.
 It is a Macromolecule
 Made of Subunits – nucleotides
A
AM
- Base + sugar form nucleoside
UP
- Adenine + deoxyribose = Deoxyadenosine form DNA
- Example: Adenine + ribose = Adenosine form RNA
.
- Base + sugar + phosphate(s)  nucleotide
-
-
Example
Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
DR
&
- Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
I
- Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

ED
IV
TR
D.
IK
IT
NA
.
DR
I
ED
IV
 DNA -double-stranded helix is 2 nm thick
TR
 Nucleosome - 11 nm thick
 30nm chromatin fibre - 30 nm thick
N.
 Chromatin loops - 300 nm thick
 Condensed chromatin - 700 nm thick
A
AM
 Chromosome (mitotic) - 1400 nm thick
o DNA is wrapped or looped using a protein matrix
UP
Gene:
.
 Segment of DNA that has the information (the code) for a protein.

DR
A single molecule of DNA has thousands of genes.
Chromosomes
&
 Chromosomes are the form DNA becomes in the nucleus when the cell is preparing to
I
ED
divide.

IV
Humans have 46 chromosomes.

 One set of 23 chromosomes from mom.
TR
 One set of 23 chromosomes from dad.

Chromatid
D.
 Two exact copies of a chromosome that are connected together.

IK
 The point where they are connected near the middle is called the centromere.

IT
Chromatids are made when new cells are going to be made.

NA
.
DR
I
ED
IV
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
TR
Cells are basically protein factories that constantly synthesize large number of diverse protein.
N.
The, protein determine the physical and chemical characteristics of cells and therefore of
organisms.
A
AM
Some proteins are structural to form plasma membranes, microfilaments, microtubules,
Centriols, mitochondria and other parts of cells.
UP
Other proteins serve as hormones, antibodies and contractile elements in muscle tissue also it act
.
as enzyme.
DR
&
I
ED
IV
TR
D.
IK
IT
NA
This process can be divided into two parts:

.
1. Transcription
DR
 Before the synthesis of a protein begins, the corresponding RNA molecule is produced by
RNA transcription.
Three forms of RNA are made from the DNA template,
a) messenger RNA (mRNA) which direct synthesis of a polypeptide chain,

b) transfer RNA (tRNA) which bind to amino acid during translation and
I
ED
IV
c) ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which comes together with ribosomal protein to make up
TR
ribosomes.
In protein synthesis, one strand of the DNA double helix is used as a template by the RNA
N.
polymerase to synthesize a messenger RNA (mRNA) this strand refer as sense strand and the
other strand that not transcribed known as antisense strand, during the transcription the changes
A
AM
in to the nitrogen base are as under;
UP
DNA RNA
.
A U
T DR A
&
G C
I
ED
C G
IV
A U
TR
T A
D.
Template DNA base sequence Complementary RNA sequence
Within DNA are region known as intron that do not synthesis of part of protein and intron are
IK
located between regions called exons that do code for proteins.

IT
Initially mRNA transcript include both introns and exons then RNA region corresponding to
NA
DNA introns are deleted (cut out) and the exon are spliced (rejoined) and finally mRNA migrates
.
from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, this process is known as mRNA splicing.
DR
In the cytoplasm, the start the next step which is translation
2. Translation
 It is the process where the nucleotide sequence in a molecule of mRNA specifies the
amino acid sequence for protein molecules.
 In the mRNA molecules, each set of three consecutive nucleotide bases is called codon
and specifies one amino acid.
I
ED
IV
 Most mRNA molecules contain 300-3000 nucleotides so it form 100 to 1000 amino acid
TR
because three nucleotide code for one amino acids.
Translation process following steps;
N.
Initiation:
A
AM
a) In the cytoplasm, the small ribosomal subunit binds to one end of the mRNA molecules
and finds the start codon, a sequence where translation will begin. Then the large
UP
ribosomal subunit joins in the process.
.
b) In the cytosol, tRNA binds to one kind of amino acid and brings it to the ribosomes. One
DR
end of the tRNA carries amino acid and another part of each tRNA has a triplet of
nucleotides called as anticodon. This anticodon of the tRNA attach to complementary
&
codon on mRNA.
I
c) Eg.: if the mRNA codon is AUG then tRNA have the anticodon UAC would attach.
ED
d) In the starting of this process tRNA brings methionine amino acid.

IV
Elongation:
TR
e) Once the first tRNA attach to mRNA, the ribosomes moves exactly three nucleotides
along the mRNA and the tRNA carry its amino acid on that particular nucleotides or
D.
codon.
IK
f) When the second tRNA brings the next amino acid first tRNA again goes back in to the
cytoplasm. The proper amino acids are brought into line, one by one peptide bonds form
IT
between them and protein progressively lengthens.

NA
g) Each time the ribosome moves one codon along mRNA and empty tRNA is eject. The
released tRNA can pick up another amino acid.
.
DR
Termination:
h) When the specified protein is complete, synthesis is terminated by a special stop codon.
i) Then assemble protein is then released from the ribosomes.
j) After protein synthesis small and large ribosomal subunits separate.
“Prayer without study would be empty. Study without prayer would

be blind.
5. LYMPH AND LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
!!JAY AMBE!!
I
ED
5. LYMPH
IV
AND
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM TR
I
&
ED
PREPARED BY
D
IV
M. PHARM, PH. D
IK
TR
IT
Mobile: +91 - 9924567864

E-mail: mastermindnaitik@gmail.com N.
NA
&

A
M. PHARM, PH. D
.

AM
DR

CENTRE, DHARMAJ.
UP
.
DR
!!JAY AMBE!!
LYMPHATIC SYSTEMS
I
ED
DEFINITION: “Lymph is a thin, watery, clear, modified tissue fluid formed by the passage
of substance from the blood capillaries into the tissue space (interstitial space) and enters in
to the closed system of lymphatic capillaries to lymphatic vessels and lymphatic sinus known
as lymphatic system.”
IV
 In short the lymphatic system consists the fluid is known as lymphatic fluid.
 Interstitial fluid and lymphatic fluid are basically same, only the different in their
location. When it is located between tissue spaces it is known as interstitial fluid and
TR
when it goes in to lymphatic vessels it known as lymph.
I
&
ED
D
IV
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
A
.
FORMATION, COMPOSITION AND FLOW OF LYMPH:

AM
DR
A) Formation:
The blood consist manly two composition blood plasma and formed elements in which blood
plasma freely filter through the capillary walls to interstitial space and known as interstitial
UP
fluid.
Most of fluids get reabsorb by the blood capillaries but the excess or remain fluid enter in to
the lymphatic vessels known as lymph.
This excess fluid is about 3 liters/day and form lymph.
.
DR
B) Composition:
I
LYMPH
ED
Cellular Part Non Cellular Part
Lymphocytes Water (94 %) Solid (6%)

(1000-20,000 cmm)
IV
T- Cells B-Cells
TR
I
&
Proteins Fats Carbohydrate Urea Non Protein Creatinine Inorganic
Nitrogenous substance Substance
ED
C) Flow of lymph:
Arteries (Blood Plasma) --- Blood Capillaries (Blood Plasma) --- Interstitial Space
D
(Interstitial Fluid) --- Lymphatic Capillaries (Lymph) --- Lymphatic Vessels (Lymph) ---
Lymphatic Nodes (Lymph) --- lymphatic Trunks (Lymph) --- Lymphatic Ducts (Lymph) ---
IV
Subclavian Veins (Blood Plasma).
IK
TR
IT
N.
NA
A
.
AM
DR
 LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES:
UP
 Lymphatic Capillaries are larger in diameter than blood capillaries.

 It is found throughout the body except in:
 Avascular Tissue
 The Central Nervous System
 Splenic Pulp
.
 Bone Marrow.
 It consist specialized valve which permit the fluid flow in one and unique
DR
direction means that permits interstitial fluid to flow into them but not out.
 Lymphatic capillaries are made up by the endothelial cells.
 When the pressure in to the interstitial fluid is greater that time it make force
on lymphatic valve and open it and enter in to the lymphatic capillary after the
I
normalization of pressure again it get closed in such a direction that lymph
may not go back to interstitial space.
ED
 At the right angle to the lymphatic capillary are structures called anchoring
filaments.
 These filaments are made up by the fine collagen fibrils and adhere to the
lymphatic endothelial cell to surrounding tissue.
IV
 LYMPH TRUNKS:
 Lymph passes from lymphatic capillaries into lymphatic vessels through

TR
lymph nodes.
I
&
 Than the same group of lymphatic vessels or different groups of lymphatic
vessels unite to form lymph trunks.
ED
 The principle trunks are:
D
a) Lumber Trunks: Drains lymph from lower limbs, pelvis, kidneys,

adrenal glands, abdominal walls.
IV
b) Intestinal Trunk: Drain lymph from stomach, intestine, pancreas,
spleen & part of lever.
IK
c) Bronchomediastinal: Drain lymph from the thoracic wall, lungs and
TR
heart.
d) Subclavin trunk: Drain lymph from upper limbs.
e) Jugular Trunks: Drain lymph from head & neck.
IT
 LYMPH DUCTS: N.

NA
Lymph passes from lymphatic trunks to two main lymphatic ducts;

a) Thoracic duct (Left Lymphatic Duct)
b) Right Lymphatic Duct
A
.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
a) Thoracic duct (Left Lymphatic Duct):

 It is 38-45 cm long and begins as dilation part near the limbic region called cisterna
I
chyli.
 Cicterna chyli receive lymph from:
ED
 Left and right lumber trunk
 Intestinal trunk.
 In the neck, thoracic duct also receives lymph from:
 Left jugular trunk,
IV
 Left subclavin trunk
 Left bronchomediastinal trunk.
 In short thoracic duct receives lymph from left part of body.
 That’s why it is also called as left lymphatic duct.
TR
 Finally, it drains the lymph in to left subclavin vein and left jugular vein.
I
&
b) Right Lymphatic Duct:
ED
 It is 1.2 cm long and receives lymph from:
 Right jugular trunk
D
 Right subclavin trunk

 Right bronchomediastinal trunk
IV
 It receives lymph from right side of the body part that’s why it is known as Right
Lymphatic Duct.
IK
 It drains lymph in to right subclavin vein and right jugular vein.
TR
 LYMPHATIC TISSUES AND ORGANS:
IT
N.
NA
A
.
Lymphatic tissues and organs are classified in to two types:

AM
DR
1) Primary lymphatic organs:

UP
 The primary lymphatic organs are:

 Red bone marrow and
 Thymus gland.
 They are primary lymphatic organs because they produce B and T Cells.
 The B-lymphocyte cells and T-lymphocyte cells are the important cell for
immune response.
.
 The hemopoietic stem cells in red bone marrow produce B-Cells and Pre-T
Cells.
DR
 The Pre T cells than migrate to the thymus gland and become mature T-Cells.
 Thymus Gland:
I
ED
IV
TR
I
&
ED
Location:
 It is bilobed lymphatic organs and located in the mediastinum posterior to the
D
sternum and between the lungs
IV
Anatomy:
IK
 Thymus gland is large in infants and it reaches its maximum size at 10 – 12

years with 40 gms of weight.
TR
 Thymus gland consist two lobs and each lobes are covered by the connective
tissue layer known as capsule.
IT
 The extended part of the capsule layer inside the lobes is known as trabeculae
which divides the lobes in to lobules.
 The lobule consist outer dark and inner light region.
N.
 The dark region is known as cortex and it is composed by tightly packed
NA
lymphocytes, epithelial cells and macrophages.

 In the cortex the migrated Pre T cells from the red bone marrow get mature
here.
 The inner lighter region medulla consist epithelial cells and more widely
scattered (dotted, spotted) lymphocytes.
A
 Here, the epithelial cell secret the thymic hormone which gives their help in to
.
the maturation of Pre T cells but the exact functions are not known.
AM
DR
UP
.
DR
2) Secondary lymphatic organs:
I
 The secondary lymphatic organs are:
 Lymph nodes and
ED
 Spleen.
 These organs are covered by the capsule layer.
 The lymphatic nodules are not categorized as secondary lymphatic organs
because it is not surrounded by the capsule layer and it is a cluster of
IV
lymphocyte which guards the all mucous membrane (Gastrointestinal tract,
Respiratory passage, Urinary tract and reproductive tract) against the harmful
pathogens.
 Lymph Nodes:
TR
I
&
Location: along the length of lymphatic vessels.
ED
Anatomy:
D
 It is oval or bean shaped and 1 to 25 mm in length.

 Each node is covered by a capsule of dense connective tissue.
IV
 Same as thymus gland the extended capsular part is known as trabeculae.
 It also consist the cortex and medulla region.
IK
 The outer cortex consist follicles and its inner part consist packed lymphocytes
TR
resemble as lymphatic nodule.
 The outer region of follicle contains T – cells, macrophages and follicular
dendrites cells.
IT
 In the center areas of the follicles contain B-cells which secrets antibody.
 The inner region is known as medulla it consist macrophages and plasma cells.
N.
NA
A
.
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Flow of Lymph in nodes:

 In the nodes the lymph get enter by afferent lymphatic vessels and out by the
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efferent lymphatic vessels.
 The afferent lymphatic vessels consist valve at the opening part and the valve
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is open in such a direction that once lymph can enter in to the afferent vessels
in not go back from that also efferent lymphatic vessels consist valve at the
end of their part and the here also the valve is located in same manner of
afferent vessels.
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 The efferent lymphatic vessels have wider diameters than the afferent
lymphatic vessels.
 The main function of lymph nodes is filtration of lymph.
 It filters the foreign substances which are harmful for us because the
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macrophages, T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes of nodes destroy them.
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 Spleen:
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Location:
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 The spleen is located in the upper left abdominal cavity, just beneath the
diaphragm, and posterior to the stomach.
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Anatomy:
 It is similar to a lymph node in shape and structure but it is much larger about
12 cm in long.

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The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ in the body.

 It is surrounded by a connective tissue capsule, which extends inward to
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divide the organ into lobules.

 The spleen consists of two types of tissue:
 White pulp
 Red pulp.
 The white pulp is lymphatic tissue consisting mainly of lymphocytes ( B cell)

around arteries.
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 The red pulp consists of venous sinuses filled with blood and cords of
lymphatic cells, such as lymphocytes and macrophages.
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 Blood enters the spleen through the splenic artery, moves through the sinuses
where it is filtered, then leaves through the splenic vein.
 It does not filter the lymph because it has no afferent artery.
Function:
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 Lymphocytes in the spleen react to pathogens in the blood and attempt to
destroy them. Macrophages then engulf the resulting debris, the damaged
cells, and the other large particles.
 The spleen, along with the liver, removes old and damaged erythrocytes from
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the circulating blood. Like other lymphatic tissue, it produces lymphocytes,
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especially in response to invading pathogens.
 The sinuses in the spleen are a reservoir for blood. In emergencies such as
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hemorrhage, smooth muscle in the vessel walls and in the capsule of the
spleen contracts. This squeezes the blood out of the spleen into the general
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circulation.
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 FUNCTION OF LYMPH:
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Fluid and Protein Balance:
 When the blood circulates throughout the body, lot of fluid filtered by the capillaries
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gets trapped in the tissues of the body.

 This trapped fluid, also called as interstitial fluid, comprises about 10% (1-2 liters) of
the total fluid. The loss of this fluid is substantial as it is rich in several vital proteins
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that are required by the body.

 The lymphatic system prevents this loss by collecting this fluid in the lymphatic
vessels and returns it to the circulatory system.
Transportation of Nutrients:
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 Lymphatic system works in collaboration with the circulatory system to transport

various essential nutrients in the body.
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 It carry lipids and lipid soluble vitamins (A, D, E & K) absorbed by the
gastrointestinal tract to the blood.
 Lymphatic system delivers oxygen, hormones and other essential nutrients through
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the blood, to the body cells.
Digestion:
 Lymphatic system also assists the digestive system in various ways.

 The lymphatic vessels that are located in the gastrointestinal lining help in the
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absorption of fats from the food that we eat.

 Lymphatic system is required for proper assimilation of fats in the body. Failure on
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the part of lymphatic system may result in serious malnutrition.

 Lymphatic system prevents obesity which results due to accumulation of 'bad' fat in
the body.
Excretion
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 Lymphatic system removes dead blood cells, excess fluid, waste, debris, etc. from the
body, thereby assisting in excretion of waste materials from the body.
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 Lymphatic system also removes pathogens, toxins and cancer cells from the body
cells as well as inters cellular spaces.
Protections:
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 Lymphatic system consist B-Cells and T-Cells.
 These cells provide us protection against the harmful pathogens like bacteria, toxins,

virus etc. TR
When pathogens enter in to the cells they get activated and fight against it.
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 First they identify the pathogen and if it is harmful for us then they kill it by cell
mediated immunity ( T-Lymphocyte mediated) or humeral immunity (B Lymphocyte
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mediated) and protect us from harmful diseases.
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GLOSSARY
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Antibodies:
 Chemicals produced by white blood cells to fight bacteria, viruses, and other foreign
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substances
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Immunoblasts:
 Lymphocytes that becomes stimulated and enlarged when they encounter foreign
substances
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Interstitial fluid:
 Fluid that leaks out of capillaries (the tiniest blood vessels) and bathes body tissues
Lymph vessels:
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 Channels or ducts that contain and convey lymph; also called lymphatics
Lymph:
 It is a fluid that bathes the body tissues, passes into lymphatic vessels, and is
discharged into the blood by way of the thoracic duct; it consists of a liquid
resembling blood plasma and contains white blood cells
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Lymph nodes:
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 Organized masses of lymphoid tissue that are distributed along the branching system
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of lymphatic vessels; they contain numerous lymphocytes and other cells that filter
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bacteria, dead tissue, and foreign matter from the lymph that flows through them
Lymphocytes:
 White blood cells ( B- Cell & T- Cell)
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Macrophages:
 White blood cells that remove damaged cells from the bloodstream
spleen: organ found on the left side of the abdomen; it helps control the amount of
blood and blood cells that circulate through the body and helps destroy damaged cells
Thoracic duct:
 Major lymphatic vessel, which begins near the lower part of the spine and collects
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lymph from the lower limbs, pelvis, abdomen, and lower chest; lymph flowing
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through the duct eventually empties into a large vein in the upper chest and returns to
the bloodstream.
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1. What if lymph? Write down the flow of lymph.
2. Write a brief note on lymphatic organs.
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3. Explain the primary organs of lymphatic system.
4. Explain the secondary organ of lymphatic system.
5. Write down the function of lymph.
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“The hope, the struggle and the hard work towards a goal is part of the rewards.
Achieving goal itself is not the whole reward”
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4. HAEMOPOITIC SYSTEM (BLOOD)
!!JAY AMBE!!
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4. HAEMOPOIETIC SYSTEM
BLOOD TR
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PREPARED BY
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M. PHARM, PH. D
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Mobile: +91 - 9924567864

E-mail: mastermindnaitik@gmail.com N.
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M. PHARM, PH. D
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CENTRE, DHARMAJ.
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!! JAY AMBE !!
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HAEMOPOIETIC SYSTEM
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BLOOD: “It is a liquid connective tissue”. Which consist WBCs, RBCS, Platelets and other
dissolved solutes and protein.
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD:
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1. Transports:
 Dissolved gases (e.g. oxygen from the lung to the cell of body and carbon dioxide
from the cell to the lung)
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 Waste products of metabolism (e.g. water, urea)
 Hormones from endocrine glands to other body cells.
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 Enzymes
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 Nutrients (such as glucose, amino acids, micro-nutrients (vitamins & minerals), fatty
acids, glycerol from gastro intestinal tract to the cell of body)
 Plasma proteins (associated with defense, such as blood-clotting and anti-bodies);
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 Blood cells (includes white blood cells 'leucocytes', and red blood cells 'erythrocytes').
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2. Maintains Body Temperature:
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 It has the heat absorbing and cooling properties because of its water contain.
 Blood flows through out the body so heat can be lost from body to environment by
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help of skin.
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3. Controls pH
 The pH of blood must remain in the range 7.3 to 7.4, otherwise it begins to damage
cells so it maintain the pH by help of buffer system. N.
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4. Removes toxins from the body

 The kidneys filter all of the blood in the body.
 Toxins removed from the blood to the kidneys and kidney leaves it in to urine.
5. Protection:
 The clotting mechanism protects us from blood loss.
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 White blood cells of the blood protect us from harmful agents like bacteria, virus, and
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toxin by forming antigen antibody reaction.

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PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOODS:

 Blood is heavier, thicker and more viscous than water so it flows more slowly than
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water.
 Its sticky appearance fills during the touching.
 The temperature of blood is about 38o C which is slightly higher than normal body
temperature (37 ± 0.5O C).
 It has slightly alkaline pH of about 7.35-7.40.
 Blood occupy 8% of the total body weight.
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 According to average size, adult male contains 5-6 liters of blood while adult female
contains 4-5 liters of blood.
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COMPONENTS OF BLOODS
Blood occupy 8% of the total body weight and it consist many components (constituents).
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These include:
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1) 55% Plasma:
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 Plasma is the fluid portion of the blood.

 It constitutes about 5% of the body weight.
 If blood is allowed to clot, then a clear, straw colored fluid oozes out. This is the
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serum.
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 It is similar to plasma, except that serum does not have clotting factors.
 It contains all the vital substances, except oxygen, which must be transported
through the body.
 These vital substances include digested food, salts, hormones, enzymes,
substances essential for clotting of blood, and antibodies, which are important for
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defense.
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 It consists:
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91 % water.
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7% proteins like 58% Albumin: Important in regulation of water movement
between tissues and blood, 38% Globulins: Immune system or transport
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molecules and 4% Fibrinogen: Responsible for formation of blood clots

- 2 % other solutes like electrolytes, nutrients, gases, waste products, vitamins
and regulatory substances.
2) 45% Components of formed elements which are 'Blood Cells':
 99% are erythrocytes (red blood cells) and

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1% are leucocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (blood platelets).

 White blood cells (leukocytes) have two types out of 1% it consist:
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a) Granulocytes: b) Agranulocytes
- 60-70% Neutrophils - 20-25% Lymphocytes
- 2-4% Eosinophils - 3-8% Monocytes
- 0.5-1.0% Basophils
FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS

 Hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis is the Process of blood cell production
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 About 0.05-0.1% of red bone marrow cells are known as hemopoetic Stem cells or
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hemopoetic cells produce five different blast cells.
– Proerythroblasts: Develop into red blood cells (erythrocytes)
– Myeloblasts: Develop into basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils
– Lymphoblasts: Develop into lymphocytes
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– Monoblasts: Develop into monocytes.
– Megakaryoblasts: Develop into platelets.
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1) ERYTHROCYTES (RED BLOOD CELLS):

 RBC anatomy:
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 The average normal RBC count is
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- For men 5.4 million/uL
- For women 4.8 million/uL.
 They are tiny (7.5u in diameter, 2u thick) biconcave and anucleate.
 They survive for about 120 days.
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 About 5 X 1011 RBCs are destroyed everyday, in the liver and spleen.
 Hemoglobin is the most important component of red blood cells. It is composed of a
protein called heme, which binds oxygen. In the lungs, oxygen is exchanged for
carbon dioxide. Abnormalities of an individual's hemoglobin value can indicate
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defects in red blood cell balance. Both low and high values can indicate disease states.
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 RBC Physiology:
 Hemoglobin is the molecules which are present in to the RBC.

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 In Hemoglobin protein part is known as globin and non protein part is known as
heme.
Globin molecules: Transport carbon dioxide and nitric oxide
Heme molecules: Transport oxygen.
 Globin composed by four polypeptide chain 2α and 2β.

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Each hemes are associated with one polypeptide chain and iron ion (Fe+2) that can
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combine reversibly with oxygen.

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 Each hemoglobin has the capacity to carry four molecules of O2 which release in to
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interstitial fluid from there in to cells.

 Each (RBC) one contains about 280 million hemoglobin molecules.
 It has no nucleolus because all space is available for oxygen transport.
 As well as RBC has no mitochondria so it generates ATP by anaerobically so they do

not use O2 which they transport.
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 RBCs life cycle:
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 RBCs live only about 120 days.
 In the RBC wear and tear by blood capillary cause constriction of RBCs plasma
membrane and produce damage on it.
 Without the nucleus and other organelles RBC cannot synthesize new component to
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replace damage.
 So the plasma membrane becomes more breakable with age and finally they become
burst or rupture.
 Burst or rupture RBCs are removed from circulation and destroyed by fixed
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phagocytic macrophages in the spleen and liver and the break down product recycle
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as follows:
– Macrophages in the spleen, liver or red bone marrow rupture RBCs by
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phagocytosis.
– So the globin and heme portion is split apart.
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– Globin is broke down in to amino acid which can be re used to synthesize

protein.
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– Iron removes from the heme portion as Fe+3 form which bind with plasma
protein transferrin and it transport Fe+3 in to blood stream.
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– In muscles fibers, liver cells and macrophages of spleen and liver separates the
Fe+3 and transferrin.
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– The separated Fe+3 and transferrin bind with the protein known as ferritin and
hemosiderin where it get stored.
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– Upon release from storage site or absorption by gastro intestinal tract again
Fe+3 reattached with transferrin and transported towards the bone marrow
where Fe+3 is take up by receptor mediated endocytosis for the production of
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new hemoglobin.
– Fe+3, globin molecules of hemoglobin and erythropoietin form the new RBCs
by help of vitamin B12 which is known as erythropoiesis in red bone marrow.
– At the same time heme the other molecules of hemoglobin or non iron (Fe+3)
portion molecules is converted to billiverdin a green pigment then convert in
to bilirubin an orange pigment.
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– Bilirubin enters in to the blood and transported to the liver.

– Within the liver bilirubin it is secreted by liver cells as bile which passes in to
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the small intestine.

– In the large intestine it is converted in to urobilinogen.
– Some urobilinogen is absorbed back in to the blood and convert to a yellow
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pigment which is filter by the kidney and excreted in urine.

– Most urobilinogen is eliminated in feces in the form of a brown pigment
known as stercobilin which gives their color to feces.
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 Production of RBCs (Erythropoiesis):
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The process of erythrocyte formation is known as erythropoiesis.
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It starts in red bone marrow with a proerythroblast. (rubriblast)
The proerythroblast gives rise to a basophilic erythroblast (prorubricyte) known as early

Erythroblast
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Then develop in to a polychromatophilic erythroblast (Rubricyte) known as late
Erythroblast, the first cell in the sequence that being to synthesize hemoglobin.
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Polychromatophilic erythroblast produces acidophilic erythroblast known as Normoblast,
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in which hemoglobin synthesis at maximum.
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In the next stage the acidophilic erythroblast ejects its nucleus and form reticulocytes. Loss
of the nucleus gives biconcave shape.
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Reticulocytes contain about 34% hemoglobin and retain some mitochondria, reticulum and
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ribosomes.
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They pass from red bon marrow to blood stream and develop into erythrocyte or mature
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blood cells.
Normally they develop into erythrocyte or mature red blood cells 1-2 days after their
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release from red bone marrow.

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Regulation of the erythropoiesis:

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2) WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUKOCYTE):

 WBC anatomy and types:
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 Leukocyte is also known as White blood cells it contains the nucleus.
 It is divided in to two groups:
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1) Granular leukocyte:
 It develops from myeloblast.
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 It contains protein which is known as major histocompatiblity (MHC) antigen.
 It contains the clear granules in cytoplasm that can be seen under light microscope.
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 It s further divided in to three types:
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a) Eosinophils:
 It is 10-14 μm in diameter.
 Its granules produce red or orange stain with acidic dyes.
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 The nucleus of eosinophils has two lobes connected by thin or thick fiber.
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 The granules are large and uniform in size that are present in group in
cytoplasm but do not cover the nucleus.
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b) Basophils:
 Its granules give Blue-purple stain with basic dyes. N.
 Its nucleus is in irregular shape often in form of letter S.
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 The cytoplasmic granules are round and variable in size.

c) Neutrophils:
 Its granules known as neutral because it produces pale lilac stain with mixture
of acidic and basic dye.
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 Their nucleuses contain two to five lobes connected by very thin fibers of
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chromatin.
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 Older neutrophils known as polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs),

polymorphs or polys because it has many different shaped nuclei.
 Younger neutrophils are known as bands because their nucleus is rod shaped.
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2) Agranular leukocyte:
 It has the granules but do not seen under the light microscope because of their small
size so it is known as agranular.
 It is further classified in to two types:
a) Lymphocytes:
 Small lymphocytes are 6-9 μm in diameter and large lymphocytes are 10-14
.
μm in diameter.
 It is devolve from lymphoblast.
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 Their nucleus is in round shaped and produce dark stain.

 The cytoplasm produce border around the nucleus and it produce sky blue
stain.
b) Monocytes:
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 It is develop from monoblast.
 Their nucleus is in kidney shaped.
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 Its cytoplasm has foamy appearance and produce blue grey stain.
 Monocytes migrate from blood to tissue where they enlarge their size and
differentiated in to macrophages.
 Some are known as fixed macrophages because they are fixed on particular
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tissue such as alveolar macrophages, spleen macrophages etc.
 Other are known as free or wandering macrophages which travel tissue to
tissue at inflammation or infection site for to repair it.
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 WBC Physiology and function:
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 In healthy body some WBC especially lymphocytes live for several months or years
and most lives for few days.
 During infection phagocytic WBCs may live only few hours.
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 Our body contains 5000-10000 WBCs per cubic millimeter of blood.

 The ratio of RBCs:WBCs are 700:1.
 The more number of WBCs than normal range in our body is known as leukocytosis
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and less number of WBCs than normal range is known as leucopenia.

 WBCs kill or inhibit the growth of infective agents such as bacteria, virus etc by
phagocytosis or immune response.
 Many WBCs leaves the blood stream during the photogenic infection (Harmful agent)
for to fight against it, in which granulocytes and monocytes after leaving the blood
stream never come back in to blood but the lymphocyte continuously recirculate from
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blood to interstitial space of tissue to lymphatic fluid and back to blood.

 So only 2% population of lymphocytes are present in blood at given time rest are
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present in lymphatic fluid or organ such as skin, lungs, lymph nodes and spleen.
Functions of Neutrophils:
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a) Emigration:
 WBCs leaves the blood stream is known as Emigration.
 In this process:
They slow down their speed in blood
.
Roll on endothelial
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Finally stop rolling
Squeeze between the endothelial cells.
 The molecules which slow down the speed of WBCs and gives help for to stick on
endothelial is known as adhesion molecules.
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 There are mainly two types of adhesion molecules selectins and integrins which are
release during the injury or inflammation in to blood stream and stick on the surface
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of neutrophils and slow down their speeds and stick the neutrophils on endothelial
surface.
b) Phagocytosis:
 Phagocytosis means engulfing of bacteria, toxin, virus or any harmful pathogen.
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 This process is mainly held by neutrophils and macrophages.
 In this process:
Bacteria, microbes or inflamed tissue release several chemicals
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It attract the phagocyte (neutrophils, macrophages etc)
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This process is known as chemotaxis
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Neutrophils and macrophages engulf the pathogen (Harmful agent)
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Release lysosomes, strong oxidant such as super oxide (O-),
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Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hypochlorite anion (OCl-)
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Destroy or digest the pathogen
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c) Antibiotic activity:
 Neutrophils also contain the defensins protein that has the antibiotic activity against
bacteria, fungi and virus.
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 Defensins produce hole on to the microbe membrane and leak the membrane and kill
the microbes. N.
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Functions of Monocytes:
 Monocytes take a long time to reach at a site of infection than neutrophils.
 But they attack in large number and kill the more microbes.
Functions of Eosinophils:
 It gives fight against the parasitic infection and allergic reaction.
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 The more amounts of Eosinophils found in a blood it indicates the allergic condition
or parasitic infection.
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 It also takes part in antigen-antibody reaction.

During the injury or in inflammation
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Eosinophil leaves the blood capillary and enters in to tissue
It release the enzyme such as histaminase
Gives fight against the histamine and other inflammatory mediators

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Functions of Basophils:
 It also involved in to inflammatory and allergic reaction.
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They leave the blood capillary
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Enter in to the tissue
Develop in to mast cells
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Mast cells liberate heparin, histamine and serotonin
These substance produce the hypersensitivity reaction and

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Functions of lymphocytes:
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 There are mainly three types of lymphocytes
– B-lymphocytes (B cell)
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– T-lymphocytes (T cell)
– Natural killer cells
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 B cells are partially effective in destroying bacteria and inactivating their toxin.
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 Activation of B cells and kill the bacteria are known as humeral immunity.
 T cells attack on viruses, fungi, transplanted cells, cancer cells and some bacteria.
 T cell mediated activity is known as cell mediated immunity.
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 Natural killer cells attack a wide verity of infectious microbes and certain
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spontaneously arising tumors.
Differentiate white blood cells count:
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 An increase in the number of circulating WBCs usually indicates inflammation or

infection.
 White blood cells count identify that the person is healthy or unhealthy.
N.
 For the diagnosis of patients it is essential to check the percentage of each types of
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white blood cells.

 Normal range is:
– Neutrophils: 60-70%
– Lymphocytes: 20-25%
– Monocytes: 3-8%
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– Eosinophils: 2-4%
– Basophils: 0 -1%.
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 A high neutrophils count might be cause by the infection of any bacteria, burns, stress
or inflammation and a low neutrophils count might be cause by radiation reaction,
vitamin B12 deficiency and systemic lupus erythematosus.
 A high eosinophils count indicate allergic reaction, parasitic infection, auto immune
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disease and a low eosinophils could be cause by drugs, stress or causing syndromes.
 A high basophils count might be cause by allergic response, leukemias,
hypothyroidism and decrease basophils count might be cause by hyperthyroidism,
stress during pregnancy.
 A high lymphocytes count indicate infection, immune disease and some leukemias
.
and a low lymphocytes count indicate high steroid levels, chronic illness and
immunosuppression.
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 A high monocytes count result from viral or fungal infection, tuberculosis, some
leukemias and chronic diseases and a low monocytes count than the normal value is
rarely occurs.
3) PLATELETS
 Platelets have short life span, just 5-9 days.
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 They are disc shaped.
 They have two types of granules in their cytoplasm
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– Alpha granules
– Dense granules
 Their granules release several chemical mediators which promote blood clots.
 In each cubic millimeter blood contains 2,50,000 to 4,00,000 platelets.
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 Platelets stop blood loss from damaged blood vessels by forming platelet plug.
 The formation process of platelets are:
Hemopoietic stem cells (Derived from Red bone marrow)
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It form metamegakaryocetes by help of hormone thrombopoietin
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Metamegakaryocetes breaks in to 2000-3000 fragments
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Each fragments covered by cell membrane and enter in to blood circulation
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In the blood circulation membrane covered fragments known as platelets
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HEMOSTASIS:
“Hemostasis means stoppage of bleeding.”
It is well described by three mechanisms:
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1) Vascular Spasm
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2) Platelet Plug Formation

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3) Clotting (Coagulation)
1) Vascular Spasm:
 During the damage of arteries or arterioles their circulatory muscles in their walls
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contracts immediately known as vascular spasm.

 It reduces blood loss for several minute to several hours.
 During this time other homeostasis mechanism starts their operation.
2) Platelet Plug Formation:
 Platelets plug formation means aggregation of platelets at damage site for prevention
of excessive blood loss.
.
 Platelets consist two types of granules in their cytoplasma.

1) Alpha granules:
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 It contains clotting factors and platelets derived growth factors.

 This can cause proliferation of endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscles
fibers and fibroblast to help the repair.
2) Dense granules:
 It contains ATP, ADP, Ca+2 and serotonin.
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 It also contains thromboxan A2, prostaglandins, fibrin stabilizing factors,
lysosomes, and mitochondria provides help in blood clots.
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The process for platelets plug formation occurs as follows:
During the damage of blood vessels
Platelets stick on endothelial cells by help of collagen
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Known as platelet adhesion
Due to adhesion the distance between platelets increase

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So the adhesion platelets release thromboxan A2, serotonin, ADP etc
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Produce vasoconstriction
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Which decrease the blood flows
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That’s why more platelets stick on injured site
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This type of gathering of platelets known as platelets aggregation
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Accumulation and attachment of large number of platelets form a mass
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It is known as platelets plug formation

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They prevent blood loss in small vessels.
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3) Clotting (Coagulation):
Definition: “A set of reactions in which blood is transformed from a liquid to a gel is known
as clotting or coagulation.”
 Clotting process is well described by three main pathways which are:
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a) Extrinsic pathway b) Intrinsic pathway and c) Common pathways

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a) Extrinsic pathways:
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 It has fewer steps than the intrinsic pathway.

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 It s a fast process than the intrinsic pathway usually takes few seconds.
During the injury
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Endothelial cells which lines the blood capillary get damaged
So Factor VII leaves the circulation and comes into contact with tissue factor (TF)
It activate the clotting factor VII

.
Which combine with the factor X and activate factor X

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It combines with factor V in the presence of Ca++
Which form the active enzyme prothrombinase
 Tissue factor (TF) is a complex mixture of lipoprotein and phospholipids, It release from the
surface of damaged cells.
I
b) Intrinsic pathways:
 It is a more complex process than the extrinsic pathway.
ED
 It is a slow process than the extrinsic pathway usually required several minutes
During the injury
Endothelial cells which lines the blood capillary get damaged
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Blood come with contact of collagen in the surrounding basal lamina (Junction between
Endothelial tissue and Connective tissue)
TR Activate the clotting factor XII
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Clotting factor XII activates factor XI
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Factor XI activates the factor IX which is also activate by extrinsic pathway factor VII
D
Factor IX by the help of factor VIII and platelet phospholipids activate factor X
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Activated factor X combine with factor V and Ca++ (same as extrinsic pathway processes)
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Which form the active enzyme prothrombinase
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c) Common pathway:
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 Once prothrombinase is form it start the common pathway.

 It this pathway:
Prothrombinase convert in to thrombin by the help of Ca++
N.
NA
Thrombin activate factor XIII as well as convert in to Fibrinogen in the presence of Ca++
Fibrinogen converts into soluble fibrin
Soluble fibrin converts in to insoluble fibrin by the help of activated factor XIII
A
.
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I
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IV
TR
I
&
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IV
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TR
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Fibrinolysis:
 Once repair s over, the fibrinolysis system is activate. This process inhibit the clot
formation in blood because in clot formation soluble fibrin is convert in insoluble
N.
NA
while in fibrinolysis insoluble fibrin convert in to soluble fibrin.

A
.
Factor Name(s)
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Prekallikrein (PK) Fletcher factor

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High molecular weight

contact activation cofactor; Fitzgerald, Flaujeac Williams factor
kininogen (HMWK)
I Fibrinogen
II Prothrombin
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III Tissue Factor

IV Calcium
V Proaccelerin, labile factor, accelerator (Ac-) globulin
VI (same as Va) Accelerin
Proconvertin, serum prothrombin conversion accelerator (SPCA),
VII
cothromboplastin
VIII Antihemophiliac factor A, antihemophilic globulin (AHG)
.
Christmas Factor, antihemophilic factor B,plasma thromboplastin component

IX
(PTC)
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X Stuart-Prower Factor
XI Plasma thromboplastin antecedent (PTA)
XII Hageman Factor
XIII Protransglutaminase, fibrin stabilizing factor (FSF), fibrinoligase
BLOOD GROUPS AND BLOOD TYPES
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 The surface of the erythrocyte contains some glycoprotein and glycolipids that can act
as antigen
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 These antigens are known as isoantigens or agglutinogens.
 Based on the presence or absence of various isoantigens blood is categorized in to
different blood groups.
 More than 100 isoantigens that can be detected on the surface of red blood cells and
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according to that total of 35 human blood group systems are now recognized by
the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT).
 The two most important ones are:
ABO and the RhD antigen; they determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB and O,
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with +, − or Null denoting RhD status).
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 ABO blood groups:
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 The ABO blood groups is based on two glycolipids isoantigens called A and B.
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 The person’s RBCs contain only antigen A have type A blood group.
 The person’s RBCs contain only antigen B have type B blood group.
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 The person’s RBCs contain both antigen A and antigen B have type AB blood group.
 The person’s RBCs contain neither antigen A nor antigen B have type O blood group.
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 The above four ABO bloods types results from the inheritance of various combination
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of three different genes known as I gene:
a) IA codes for the A antigen
b) IB codes for the B antigen.
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c) i codes for neither A nor B antigen.
 Each inherits two I-genes alleles, one from mother side and one from father side.

N.
NA
The six possible combinations genes of mother and father produce four blood types:
i) IA IA or IAi produces type A blood.
ii) IB IB or IBi produces type B blood.
iii) IA IB Produce type AB blood.
iv) ii produce type O blood.
A
.
CHILD BLOOD TYPE ESTIMATE TABLE

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Father's Blood Type
A B AB O
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Mother's A A/O A/B/AB/O A/B/AB A/O

Blood
B A/B/AB/O B/O A/B/AB B/O
Type
AB A/B/AB A/B/AB A/B/AB A/B
O A/O B/O A/B O
.
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PARENT BLOOD TYPE ESTIMATE TABLE:
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Child's Blood Type
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A B AB O
One A A/B/AB/O B/AB B/AB A/B/O
Parent's
B A/AB/O A/B/AB/O A/AB A/B/O
Blood
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Type AB A/B/AB/O A/B/AB/O A/B/AB Impossible
O A/AB B/AB Impossible A/B/O
 TR
In addition to isoantigens of RBCs our blood plasma usually contains naturally
occurring isoantibodies or agglutinins.
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&
– The persons RBCs contain antigen A that blood plasma contain anti-B
antibodies.
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– The persons RBCs contain antigen B that blood plasma contain anti-A
antibodies.
D
– The persons RBCs contain both antigen A and antigen B that blood plasma
contains neither anti-A antibodies nor anti-B antibodies.
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IT
N.
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A
.
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
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When we transfuse the blood have same blood groups antigen and antibody it does
not produce antigen-antibody reaction.
 But when we transfuse the different kind of blood it produces antigen-antibody
reaction.
Example:
.
1) If the person (Receiver) blood group is type A that means it’s RBCs have antigen A
and its blood plasma has anti-B antibodies. If the person (Donor) blood type B that
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means it have Antigen B and anti-A antibodies.

It produces two possible reactions:
a) The anti-B antibodies in the b) The anti-A antibodies in the

recipients’s plasma can bind to donor’s plasma can bind to the
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the antigen B on the donors antigen A on the recepient’s
erythrocytes cause hemolysis of erythrocytes but it not cause
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RBCs. hemolysis so these reaction is not
serious.
2) People blood type AB do not have anti-A or Anti-B antibody so they known as
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universal receipients.
3) People blood type O have anti-A and Anti-B antibody so they known as universal
acceptor. TR
GROUPS ON RED CELLS IN PLASMA CAN RECEIVE FROM
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A A anti B A O
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B B anti A B O
AB AB none All
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anti A
O None O
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anti B
 Rh Blood groups:
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 Rh antigen first find out in to Rhesus monkey so it is known as Rh blood groups.
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 The alleles of three genes C, D and E may code for Rh antigen.
 People whose blood have Rh antigen is known as Rh positive (+).
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 People whose blood have not Rh antigen is known as Rh negative (-).

 According to Rh positive and Rh negative ABO blood group further divided in to
eight types: N.
a) A+ve blood group e) AB+ve blood group
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b) A-ve blood group f) AB-ve blood group

c) B+ve blood group g) O+ve blood group
d) B-ve blood group h) O-ve blood group
 If Rh- person receive Rh+ blood, their immune system start to make anti-Rh
antibodies that will remains in the blood and during the second transfusion the
A
previous formed anti-Rh antibodies will cause hemolysis of donated blood and cause
.
severe reaction.
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Example:
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BLOOD TYPE COMPATIBILITY:
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Red Blood Cell (RBC):
Donor Blood Type
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A+ A- B+ B- AB+ AB- O+ O-
Recipient A+ √ √ X X X X √ √
Blood
A- X √ X X X X X √
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Type
B+ X X √ √ X X √ √
B- X X X √ X X X √
AB+ √
TR √ √ √ √ √ √ √
AB- X √ X √ X √ X √
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O+ X X X X X X √ √
O- X X X X X X X √
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PLASMA:
D
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Donor Blood Type
A B AB O
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Recipient A √ X √ X
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Blood
B X √ √ X
Type
AB X X √ X
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O √ √ √ √
BLOOD DISORDERS
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1) ANEMIA:
Anemia is the condition in which the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is reduced.
Our blood contains RBCs
A
RBCs contains Hb
.
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Hb contains the iron

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Iron transfer the oxygen in body

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Oxygen is useful for production of ATP and Heat
ATP provide energy

In the anemia the total number of RBCs decreases so indirectly decreases the oxygen level so
decrease the production of ATP and energy.
.
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 Types of anemia
a) Iron deficiency anemia:
I
 It is cause by excessive loss of iron or inadequate absorption of iron.
 It is most often in female than male.
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b) Pernicious anemia:
 It is cause by insufficient of hemopoiesis.
 In this condition stomach decreases the production of intrinsic factors because they
decrease the absorption of vitamin B12.
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c) Hemorrhagic anemia:
 An excessive lose of RBCs through bleeding is known as hemorrhagic anemia.
 It cause by large wound, chronic ulcer, heavy menstrual bleeding etc.
d) Hemolytic anemia: TRPlasma membrane of RBCs ruptures
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So their hemoglobin gets out from the plasma
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It is known as hemolytic anemia
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 It is an inherited disease.
 Thalassemia is also the hemolytic anemia in which hemoglobin production is
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decreased.
 The RBCs are small, pale and short lived.
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 It required the blood transfusion for life.

 Hemolytic disease of the newborn Rh+ antibodies of a sensitized Rh– mother cross the
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placenta and attack and destroy the RBCs of an Rh+ baby.
 Rh– mother becomes sensitized when exposure to Rh+ blood causes her body to
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synthesize Rh+ antibodies.

 The drug RhoGAM can prevent the Rh– mother from becoming sensitized
e) Aplastic anemia:
 Destruction of red bone marrow is known as aplastic anemia.
N.
NA
 In this condition it is essential to replace the bone marrow.

 Immunosuppressive drugs are given before the few days ago of bone marrow
replacements.
f) Sickle cell anemia:
 Formation of abnormal hemoglobin is known as sickle cell anemia.
A
.
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2) LEUKEMIA:
 It is also known as blood cancer.
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 It is divided in to two types:
a) Acute leukemia:
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 It is a malignant disease of blood.
 In this condition production and accumulation of immature leukocytes (WBCs) are
increased.
 It produces excessive bleeding like condition and some time cause hemorrhage
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especially cerebral hemorrhage.
b) Chronic leukemias:
 It is a condition in which accumulation of mature leukocytes take place because they
do not die at the end of their normal life cycle.
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 X-ray therapy and anti leukemic drugs may reduce accumulation of leukocytes.
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3) HEMOPHILIAS:
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 Hereditary bleeding disorders caused by lack of clotting factors
 Hemophilia A – most common type (83% of all cases) due to a deficiency of factor
D
VIII
 Hemophilia B – due to a deficiency of factor IX
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 Hemophilia C – mild type, due to a deficiency of factor XI
 Symptoms include prolonged bleeding and painful and disabled joints
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 Treatment is with blood transfusions and the injection of missing factors
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IT
1. Define blood and explain compositions and functions of the blood.

2. Explain the process of RBCs life cycle.
N.
NA
3. Write short note on Erythropoiesis.

4. Classify the WBCs (Leucocytes). Explain their functions.
5. Enlist the three steps for hemostasis mechanism. Explain blood clotting mechanism.
6. Write down short note on ABO system.
7. Enlist the types of anemia and describe it.
A
.
“IF THE FACT DON’T FIT IN THE THEORY,

CHANGE THE THEORY”
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UP
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6. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM - HEART
!!JAY AMBE!!
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ED
6. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
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HEART
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PREPARED BY
ED
D

M. PHARM, PH. D
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Mobile: +91 - 9924567864
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& N.
NA

M. PHARM, PH. D
A
.

CENTRE, DHARMAJ.
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!! JAY AMBE!!
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CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
ED
INTRODUCTION:
Cardiovascular is the system which includes the study of the heart, blood vessels and blood.
These system is some time known as circularly system because it circulate or transport the
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nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and essential molecules from environment to cells and
cells to environment. It is involuntary in nature and gives continuous work. The heart
propelling or impelling blood around 100,000 km of blood vessels and it pumps 14000 liters
blood in day and 10 million liters in year.
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LOCATION OF HEART:
&
 Cone shaped heart is relatively small, about the same size of closed fist of person.
 It is 12 cm (5 in.) long, 9 cm (3.5 in.) wide and 6 cm (2.5 in.) thick.
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 In an adult, average weight of heart is 300gm.
 The heart consist four chambers:
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a) Two atria or atrium
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b) Two ventricles
 It is located near to the middle of thoracic cavity in the mediastinum (the space
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between the lungs) and it rest on to the diaphragm.

 About two third of the mass of the heart lies to the left of the body’s midline.
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 Pointed end portion which is formed by the tip of left ventricle is known as apex and
opposite to apex the wide superior and posterior margin is known as base.
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N.
NA
A
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LAYER OF THE HEART:

 Heart layer is formed by pericardium ("around the heart") which is triple-layered
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fluid-filled sac that surrounds and protects the heart.

 The pericardium consist of two principle portion
Layer of Heart (Pericardium)
Fibrous Pericardium Serous Pericardium

.
DR
Parietal Layer (Outer Layer) Visceral Layer (Inner Layer)

(Epicardium)
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a) Fibrous pericardium:
 It is a strong layer of dense connective tissue.
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&
 It adheres to the diaphragm inferiorly, and superiorly it is fused to the roots of
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the great vessels that leave and enter the heart.
 The fibrous pericardium acts as a tough outer coat that holds the heart in place
and keeps it from overfilling with blood.
D
 It prevents overstretching of the heart, provides protection and fix the heart in
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mediastinum.
b) Serous pericardium:
 It is a Deep to the fibrous pericardium and form double layer around the heart.
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 The outer layer is known as parietal layer which is fused to the fibrous
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pericardium.
 The inner layer is known as visceral layer also known as epicardium.
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 Between the outer layer (parietal layer) and inner layer (visceral layer) is gap
known as pericardial cavity filled by fluid is known as pericardial fluid.
 This fluid ac as lubricant and reduces friction between the layer during
N.
contraction and relaxation.
NA
WALL OF THE HEART:

 The wall of the heart is formed by three layers:
a) Epicardium (External layer):
 It is also known as the visceral layer of the serous pericardium.
A
 It is composed of mesothelium and delicated connective tissue.

.
 It is the outer or external wall of the heart.

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b) Myocardium (Middle layer):

 Myo means muscles so it is made up by cardiac muscles tissue.
 It provides the bulkiness to the heart and it is responsible for the pumping
action of heart.
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c) Endocardium (Inner layer):

 The endocardium is an innermost, thin, smooth layer of epithelial tissue that
lines the inner surface of the heart chambers and valves.
.
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INTERIOR OF THE HEART:

 The heart is divided in to right and left side by partition known as the septum which is
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made up by myocardium covered by epithelium
a) Chamber of heart:
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 Heart consists of four chambers;
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i) Two atria:
 The two superior chambers are known as right atrium and left atrium.
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 The posterior wall of the atrium is smooth surface while the anterior wall of
the atrium is rough surface.
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 On the surface of the atrium is wrinkle pouch like structure is known as auricle
because it resemble like dog ear.
ii) Two ventricles
N.
 The two inferior are known as right ventricle and left ventricles.
NA
 On the surface of heart grooves like structures known as coronary sulcus which
separate the atria to ventricle.
 The thickness of the wall of the four chambers varies according to their function.
 Example: The wall of the atria is thin and it pumps blood in to ventricles & the
ventricle wall is thick in which right ventricle pumps blood in to lungs and
A
.
left ventricle pumps blood in to aorta so the work load on left ventricle is
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high because of that the wall of left ventricle is two to four times thicker
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than right ventricle.
b) Valve of the heart:

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 In the heart blood passes from various compartment and finally it enter in to the
artery.
 During these circulations for the prevention of back flow of blood there is special type
of structure in heart which is known as valve.
 These special types of structures or valves are composed by dense connective tissue
which is covered by endocardium.
.
 Valves are opened and closed in response to the contraction or relaxation of heart.
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N.
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.
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It is mainly classified in to two types:

.
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a) Atrioventricular valves (AV valve):

 Its names indicate the location of valves that means these valves located between
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the atria and ventricle or it moves blood from atrium to ventricle..
 Inner surface of the ventricle contain the papillary muscles which is connected
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with the end or tip part of valve.
 Blood moves atrium to ventricle when the pressure in to the ventricle is lower than
the atrium that time valves get opened and papillary muscles are in relaxed
condition.
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 When the AV valve is open the point end of the valve project in to the ventricle.
 So pressure in to the ventricle get increased at a same time ventricles start to
contraction due to this contraction blood produce pressure on to the cups of valve
and they move upward until their edge meet and close the opening.
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 During the ventricle contraction blood may not goes from ventricle to atrium
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because valve have special type of opening and closing structure and during the
closing time papillary muscles are also contracted so it prevents the back flow of
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blood from ventricles to atrium.
 It is mainly subdivided in to two types:
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i) Tricuspid Valves:
 This valve located between the right atrium and right ventricle.
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 It consist three cups that’s why it is known as tricuspid valves.
ii) Bicuspid Valves (mitral valve):
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 This valve located between the left atrium and left ventricle.
 It consist two cups so it is known as bicuspid valves also known as mitral valve.
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N.
NA
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b) Semilunar Valves:
 These valves consist three Semilunar (half moon like) cups.
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 It is further subdivided in to:
i) Pulmonary Semilunar valve:
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 It passes the blood from right ventricle to lungs during opening stage.
ii) Aortic Semilunar valve:
 It passes the blood from left ventricle to aorta during opening condition.
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CIRCULATRY SYSTEM OF BLOOD THROUGH HEART:
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1) Pulmonary circulation:
 In the body system cells receive O2 from blood and give CO2 in to blood so blood
become deoxygenate.
N.
 These Deoxygenated blood by the help of Superior venacava, Inferior venacava and
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coronary sinus transfer in to the right atrium.

 Right atrium flow this deoxygenated blood in to right ventricle with the help of
tricuspid valves.
 Right ventricle pumps blood in to pulmonary trunk via pulmonary Semilunar valve.
 The pulmonary trunk divided in to right pulmonary artery and left pulmonary artery,
A
.
the right pulmonary artery gives blood to right lungs and left pulmonary artery gives
blood to left lungs.
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2) Systemic Circulation:
 In the lungs blood become oxygenated means it gain O2 and loss CO2.
 Now, the oxygenated blood returns in to heart through pulmonary veins.
 Then pulmonary veins pass blood in to left atrium which pumps blood in to left
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ventricle with the help of bicuspid valve.

 Then, left ventricle through blood enters in to aorta with the help aortic valve.
 Finally, bloods flows in systemic circulation from aorta and reach near to each and
every cells of the body and gives O2 and take CO2.
 Again the deoxygenated blood flow trough pulmonary circulation.
.
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3) Coronary Circulation:
a) Coronary arteries:
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 It supplies the oxygenated blood to the heart.
 It arises from the ascending aorta and divided in to left and right coronary
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branches.
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i) The left coronary artery:
 The left coronary artery pass inferior to left auricle and divided in to the
anterior interventricular and circumflex branches.
IT
 The anterior interventricular branch or left anterior descending (LAD)

arteries enter in to the anterior interventricular sulcus and supplies
oxygenated blood to the walls of both ventricles and the interventricular
N.
NA
septum.
 The circumflex branch lies in the coronary sulcus and distributes
oxygenated blood to the walls of the left ventricle and left atrium.
ii) The right coronary artery:
 The right coronary arteries branches supply blood to the right atrium.
 It continues inferior to the right auricle and divided in to the posterior
A
.
interventricular and marginal branches.

 The posterior interventricular branches enter in to the posterior
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interventricular sulcus and supply the oxygenated blood in to two

ventricles and the interventricular septum.
 The marginal branch in the coronary sulcus transports oxygenated blood to
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the myocardium of the right ventricle.

.
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b) Coronary Vein:
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N.
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 After delivering the oxygen and nutrients to the heart, the blood receives waste
and carbon dioxide.
 It then drains in to a large vascular sinus or coronary sinus on the posterior surface
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.
of the heart.
 Coronary sinus empties deoxygenated bloods into the right atrium.
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HEART CONDUCTION SYSTEM:
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 The Sinoatrial node (SAN), located within the wall of the right atrium (RA) just
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inferior to the opening of the superior vena cava, normally generates electrical
impulses (Action Potential) that are carried by special conducting tissue of both atria
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to the atrioventricular node (AVN).

 Upon reaching the AVN, located between the atria and ventricles, the electrical
impulse is relayed down conducting tissue (Bundle of HIS) that branches into
N.
pathways that supply the right and left ventricles. These paths are called the right
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bundle branch (RBBB) and left bundle branch (LBBB) respectively that course
through the interventricular septum towards the apex of the heart. The left bundle
branch further divides into two sub branches (called fascicles).
 Finally, large diameter conduction myofibers (Purkinje Fibers) passes electrical
current to the apex of the ventricular myocardium and then upward to the remainder
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.
of the ventricular myocardium.

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SA-node AV-node AV bundle Right & Left Bundle braches Purkinje

fibers
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 Electrical impulses generated in the SAN cause the right and left atria to contract first.
Depolarization (heart muscle contraction caused by electrical stimulation) occurs
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nearly simultaneously in the right and left ventricles 1-2 tenths of a second after atrial
depolarization. The entire sequence of depolarization, from beginning to end (for one
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heart beat), takes 2-3 tenths of a second.


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All heart cells muscle and conducting tissue are capable of generating electrical
impulses that can trigger the heart to beat. Under normal circumstances all parts of the
heart conducting system can conduct over 140-200 signals (and corresponding heart
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beats) per minute.

 The SAN is known as the "heart's pacemaker" because electrical impulses are
normally generated here. At rest the SAN usually produces 60-70 signals a minute. It
N.
is the SAN that increases its' rate due to stimuli such as exercise, stimulant drugs, or
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fever.
 Should the SAN fail to produce impulses the AVN can take over. The resting rate of
the AVN is slower, generating 40-60 beats a minute. The AVN and remaining parts of
the conducting system are less capable of increasing heart rate due to stimuli
previously mentioned than the SAN.
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.
 The Bundle of HIS can generate 30-40 signals a minute. Ventricular muscle cells may
generate 20-30 signals a minute.
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 Heart rates below 35-40 beats a minute for a prolonged period usually cause problems
due to not enough blood flow to vital organs.
 Problems with signal conduction, due to disease or abnormalities of the conducting
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system, can occur anyplace along the heart's conduction pathway. Abnormally
conducted signals, resulting in alterations of the heart's normal beating, are called
arrhythmias or dysrrythmia.
 By analyzing an EKG a doctor is often able to tell if there are problems with specific
parts of the conducting system or if certain areas of heart muscle may be injured.
.
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ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY:
 Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG from the German Elektrokardiogramm) is a
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transthoracic interpretation of the electrical activity of the heart over time captured
and externally recorded by skin electrodes.
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 It is a noninvasive recording produced by an electrocardiographic device.
 The ECG works mostly by detecting and amplifying the tiny electrical changes on the
skin that are caused when the heart muscle "depolarizes" during each heart beat.
 At rest, each heart muscle cell has a charge across its outer wall, or cell membrane.
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Reducing this charge towards zero is called de-polarization, which activates the
mechanisms in the cell that cause it to contract.
 During each heartbeat a healthy heart will have an orderly progression of a wave of
depolarization that is triggered by the cells in the sinoatrial node, spreads out through
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the atrium, passes through "intrinsic conduction pathways" and then spreads all over
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&
the ventricles. This is detected as tiny rises and falls in the voltage between two
electrodes placed either side of the heart which is displayed as a wavy line either on a
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screen or on paper. This display indicates the overall rhythm of the heart and
weaknesses in different parts of the heart muscle.
D
 Usually more than 2 electrodes are used and they can be combined into a number of
pairs. (For example: Left arm (LA), right arm (RA) and left leg (LL) electrodes form
IV
the pairs: LA+RA, LA+LL, RA+LL) The output from each pair is known as a lead.
Each lead is said to look at the heart from a different angle.
IK
 Different types of ECGs can be referred to by the number of leads that are recorded,
TR
for example 3-lead, 5-lead or 12-lead ECGs (sometimes simply "a 12-lead").
 A 12-lead ECG is one in which 12 different electrical signals are recorded at
approximately the same time and will often be used as a one-off recording of an ECG,
IT
typically printed out as a paper copy. 3- and 5-lead ECGs tend to be monitored
continuously and viewed only on the screen of an appropriate monitoring device, for
example during an operation or whilst being transported in an ambulance.
N.
 There may, or may not be any permanent record of a 3- or 5-lead ECG depending on
NA
the equipment used.
 Placement of electrodes:
 Ten electrodes are used for a 12-lead ECG. The electrodes usually consist of a
conducting gel, embedded in the middle of a self-adhesive pad onto which cables
A
.
clip. Sometimes the gel also forms the adhesive. They are labeled and placed on
the patient's body as follows:
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UP
.
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Electrode Electrode placement

label (in
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the USA)
RA On the right arm, avoiding bony prominences.
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LA In the same location that RA was placed, but on the left arm this time.
RL On the right leg, avoiding bony prominences.
LL In the same location that RL was placed, but on the left leg this time.
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V1 In the fourth intercostal space (between ribs 4 & 5) just to the right of
the sternum (breastbone).
V2 In the fourth intercostal space (between ribs 4 & 5) just to the left of the
sternum. TR
V3 Between leads V2 and V4.
I
V4 In the fifth intercostal space (between ribs 5 & 6) in the mid-clavicular
&
line (the imaginary line that extends down from the midpoint of the
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clavicle (collarbone)).
V5 Horizontally even with V4, but in the anterior axillary line. (The anterior
axillary line is the imaginary line that runs down from the point midway
D
between the middle of the clavicle and the lateral end of the clavicle; the
IV
lateral end of the collarbone is the end closer to the arm.)
V6 Horizontally even with V4 and V5 in the midaxillary line. (The
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midaxillary line is the imaginary line that extends down from the middle
of the patient's armpit.)
TR
 Waves and intervals:
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 A typical ECG tracing of the cardiac cycle (heartbeat) consists of a P wave, a

QRS complex, a T wave, and a U wave which is normally visible in 50 to 75%
of ECGs. The baseline voltage of the electrocardiogram is known as the
N.
isoelectric line. Typically the isoelectric line is measured as the portion of the
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tracing following the T wave and preceding the next P wave.

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Feature Description Duration

RR interval The interval between an R wave and the next R wave is the 0.6 to
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inverse of the heart rate. Normal resting heart rate is between 50 1.2s
and 100 bpm
ED
P wave During normal atrial depolarization, the main electrical vector is 80ms
directed from the SA node towards the AV node, and spreads
from the right atrium to the left atrium. This turns into the P wave
on the ECG.
IV
PR interval The PR interval is measured from the beginning of the P wave to 120 to
the beginning of the QRS complex. The PR interval reflects the 200ms
time the electrical impulse takes to travel from the sinus node
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through the AV node and entering the ventricles. The PR interval
is therefore a good estimate of AV node function.
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&
PR segment The PR segment connects the P wave and the QRS complex. This 50 to
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coincides with the electrical conduction from the AV node to the 120ms
bundle of His to the bundle branches and then to the Purkinje
Fibers. This electrical activity does not produce a contraction
D
directly and is merely traveling down towards the ventricles and
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this shows up flat on the ECG. The PR interval is more clinically
relevant.
QRS The QRS complex reflects the rapid depolarization of the right 80 to
IK
complex and left ventricles. They have a large muscle mass compared to 120ms
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the atria and so the QRS complex usually has a much larger
amplitude than the P-wave.
IT
J-point The point at which the QRS complex finishes and the ST N/A
segment begins. Used to measure the degree of ST elevation or
depression present. N.
ST segment The ST segment connects the QRS complex and the T wave. The 80 to
NA
ST segment represents the period when the ventricles are 120ms

depolarized. It is isoelectric.
T wave The T wave represents the repolarization (or recovery) of the 160ms
ventricles. The interval from the beginning of the QRS complex
to the apex of the T wave is referred to as the absolute refractory
A
.
period. The last half of the T wave is referred to as the relative

refractory period (or vulnerable period).
AM
DR
ST interval The ST interval is measured from the J point to the end of the T 320ms
wave.
QT interval The QT interval is measured from the beginning of the QRS 300 to
complex to the end of the T wave. A prolonged QT interval is a 430ms
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risk factor for ventricular tachyarrhythmias and sudden death. It

varies with heart rate and for clinical relevance requires a
correction for this, giving the QTc.
U wave The U wave is not always seen. It is typically low amplitude, and,
by definition, follows the T wave.
.
J wave The J wave, elevated J-Point or Osborn Wave appears as a late

delta wave following the QRS or as a small secondary R wave. It
DR
is considered pathognomic of hypothermia or hypocalcemia.
 Some pathological entities which can be seen on the ECG:

Shortened QT Hypercalcemia, some drugs, certain genetic abnormalities.
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interval
Prolonged QT Hypocalcemia, some drugs, certain genetic abnormalities.
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interval
Elevated ST Myocardial infraction
segment
IV
Depressed ST The heart muscles receive insufficient oxygen
segment
Prolonged PQ Coronary artery disease, Rheumatic fever and Scar tissue may
intervals be form in the heart.
TR
Flattened or Coronary ischemia, left ventricular hypertrophy, digoxin effect,
I
inverted T Waves some drugs.
&
Hyper acute T Possibly the first manifestation of acute myocardial infarction.
ED
Waves
Prominent U Waves Hypokalemia.
D
Larger P Wave Indicate enlargement of an Atrium, as may occur in mitral

stenosis in which blood back up in to the left atrium.
IV
Enlarge Q Wave Indicates myocardium infrection.
Enlarge R Wave Indicates enlarged ventricles
IK
TR
The ECG cannot reliably measure the pumping ability of the heart, for which
ultrasound-based (echocardiography) or nuclear medicine tests are used. It is possible
to be in cardiac arrest with a normal ECG signal (a condition known as pulseless
IT
electrical activity).
CARDIAC CYCLES:
“A cardiac cycle include all the events associated within one heart beat”
N.
 The normal heart beats in healthy adult is 75 beats/min and cardiac cycle last for 0.8
NA
sec.
 In the cardiac cycle due to the pressure changes atria and ventricles alternately
contract and relax, and blood flows from areas of higher blood pressure to areas of
lower blood pressure.
 The term systole is used for the contraction and diastole used for the relaxation.
A
.
 In a normal cardiac cycle, the two atria contract while the two ventricles relax. Then,
while the two ventricle contract, the two atria relax.
AM
DR
 Cardiac cycle is described by the following phase:

1) Atrial systole
 In this phase Atrial contraction is begins which is last about 0.1 sec at same time
UP
ventricle are relaxed.

 So, the Right and Left AV valves are open and Atria send blood into the relaxed
ventricles.
 Atrial systole pushes 25 ml of blood in to ventricles which already contain 105 ml
blood so at the end of atrial systole means end of ventricle diastole Ventricles
contain maximum blood volume which is 130 ml known as end-diastolic volume
.
(EDV).
 In the ECG or EKG it is noted as P wave.
DR
2. Ventricular systole:
 In this phase ventricles begin contraction which is last for 0.3 sec.
I
 Pressure in ventricles rises due to contraction and shut the AV valves which is
heard by “Lubb” Sound.
ED
 For about 0.05 sec all four valve are closed which is known as isovolumetric
contraction.
 Ventricular contraction pushes blood out of the ventricles and opens the both
Semilunar valve and ejected 70 ml blood in to aorta and same amount of blood in
IV
to pulmonary trunk by respectively left and right ventricles so the 60 ml of blood
remains in the each ventricle out of 130 ml.
 This is known as ventricular ejection which last for 0.25 sec
Ventricular systole = isovolumetric contraction + ventricular ejection
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= (0.05) + (0.25)
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&
= 0.3 sec.
 The blood volume in the Ventricles at the end of ventricle systole is 60 ml known
ED
as end-systolic volume (ESV).
 The blood ejection per beat from each ventricle is known as stroke volume.
D
Stroke volume = EDV – ESV

= 130 ml – 60 ml
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= 70 ml
 It is noted as QRS wave in ECG or EKG.
IK
TR
3. Ventricular Diastole or Relaxation period:
 In this phase both ventricles and atria are in relaxation.
 Relaxation which is last for 0.4 sec.
IT
 Pressure in the ventricles drops so blood in the Pulmonary Trunk and aorta
backflows closing the Semilunar Valves.
 This is heard by “Dubb” sound.
N.
 In this period, ventricular pressure is higher than atrial pressure hence all heart
NA
valves are closed again and this period is known as isovolumetric.

 It is noted as T wave in ECG or EKG.
 Again the AV valves open and fill up the ventricle and complete the one Cardiac
cycle.
A
.
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UP
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I
ED
IV
TR
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&
ED
D
IV
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IT
N.
NA
CARDIAC OUTPUT:
 Cardiac output is the amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle (or the right
ventricle) in to the aorta (or pulmonary trunk) each minute and it is equal to the
product of stroke volume and heart rate.
A
.
AM
DR
UP
Thus,
.
Cardiac Output = Stroke volume (ml/beat) * Heart rate (beats/min)

= 70 ml/beat * 75 beats/min
DR
= 5250 ml/min or 5.25 liters/min.
Note: Stroke volume = EDV – ESV = 130 ml/beat – 60 ml/beat = 70 ml/beat
 Means the cardiac out put volume is close to the total blood volume, which is about 5
I
liters in the typical adult male. The entire blood volume thus flows through the
pulmonary and systemic circulations about once a minute.
ED
 When the demand of oxygen is increase or decrease, cardiac output changes to meet
the need by increasing or decreasing the stroke volume and heart rate.
 For example during the mild exercise demand of oxygen is increase so the stroke
volume may increase to 100 ml/beat and heart rate to 100 beats/min. cardiac output
IV
then would be 10 liters/min.
Factor affecting on Stroke volume:

 Three important factors regulate the stroke volume in different circumstances and
TR
ensure that the left and right ventricles pump equal volume of blood.
I
&
i) Preload:
 The blood supply to the ventricle is often referred to as preload. Technically, the
ED
definition of preload is the volume or pressure in the ventricle at the end of diastole or
refers as end-diastolic volume.
D
 According to Frank-Starling law of the heart, more the heart is filling during diastole,
the greater the force of contraction during systole.
IV
 The duration of ventricular diastole and venous pressure are the two key factors that
determine EDV.
IK
 When the heart rate is increase, the duration of diastole is shorter so it takes smaller
TR
filling times means smaller EDV.
 On the other hand, when venous pressure increase, a greater volume of blood is forced
into the ventricles and the EDV is increased.
IT
For example:
 When heart rate exceeds about 160 beats/min, stroke volumes usually decrease. At
such rapid heart rate decrease the ventricular filling time so decrease the EDV and
N.
NA
thus the preload is lower.

 People, who have slow resting heart rate, usually have large stroke volumes because
filling time is prolonged and preload thus is larger.
ii) Contractility:
 The second factor that influences stroke volume is myocardial contractility, which is
the strength of contraction at any given preload.
A
.
 Increases the contractility are called positive inotropic agents and decreases the
contractility are called negative inotropic agents.
AM
DR
 Thus, for a constant preload, stroke volume is larger when positive inotropic agent is
present and it promotes the forceful contraction.
iii) Afterload:
 The resistance to the ejection of blood by the ventricle is called afterload.
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For example:
 In the atherosclerosis condition arteries are narrowed so they resist the blood flow
from ventricles to out of heart and it decrease the stroke volume, and more blood
remains in the ventricles at the end of systole.
.
DR
I
ED
IV
TR
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&
ED
D
Factor affecting on stroke volume
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iv) Other factors are:
Sympathetic stimulation
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 Increase the Epinephrine (E) and Non Epinephrine (NE) level
TR
 Causes ventricles to contract with more force and increases ejection fraction and
decreases ESV and increase the stroke volume.
Parasympathetic activity
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 Increases the Acetylcholine (Ach) released by vagus nerves

 Reduces force of cardiac contractions N.
NA
1. Draw the neat and labeled diagram of heart.

2. Write short note on layer and wall of heart.
3. Write short note on cardiac cycle.
A
.
4. Explain the blood circulation through the heart/Circulatory systems.

AM
5. Write short note on ECG.

DR
6. Write short note on cardiac output.

7. Explain the valve of heart.
UP
A serious person can never be innocent, and one

who is innocent can never be serious.
.
DR

Anatomy and Physiology

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Anatomy and Physiology

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INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

PHARMACY, VALLABH VIDYANAGAR, ANAND.

DR. UPAMA N. TRIVEDI,

INDUBHAI PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY AND RESEARCH

(changes that occur during illness), and radiographic anatomy.

2. Microscopic anatomy is divided into two major divisions:

B. Histology, the study of tissues and their structures.

will use a systemic physiology approach in this class.

electrolyte balance & waste removal.

spinal cord) to cell/tissue/organ etc are travelled by motor neurons.

An example of negative feedback is the temperature thermostat in your home.

– It produces effect on control condition and increases distention of cervix of

message to increase oxytocin secretion in blood.

Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities

1. A superior thoracic cavity, containing the

2. Inferior abdominopelvic cavity, containing the

C. Pelvic cavity (inferior peritoneal) organs: intestine, bladder, reproductive organs

1. Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

 If body has 60% water, ICF is about 40% of your weight.

2. Extracellular compartment (ECF):

 The ECF is primarily a NaCl and NaHCO3 solution.

The ECF is further subdivided into three sub-compartments:

A. Interstitial Fluid (ISF)

 55% of the total blood volume.

It makes up about 1/4 of the ECF.

 Glucose  Carbon dioxide.

Plasma is the main medium for excretory product transportation.

– It contains Amino acids (transported by cilliary muscles), 98% water,

3. Joint fluid (Synovial fluid):

– It contains Normal 3–4 mg/ml hyaluronic acid, a polymer of disaccharides,

WBC, RBC and proteins

– Urine is a typically sterile liquid by product of the body secreted by

Try not to become a person of success, but rather try to become a

PROFESSOR & H.o.D.,

SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, BAKROL

DR. NAITIK D. TRIVEDI,

LECTURER AT GOVERNMENT AIDED,

A. R. COLLEGE OF PHARMACY & G. H. PATEL INSTITUTE OF

PHARMACY, VALLABH VIDYANAGAR, ANAND.

More info visit: www.drnaitiktrivedi.com 1

- It consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and

within the lungs.

2. The respiratory zone

There are 3 types of respiration:

lungs known as pulmonary ventilation.

More info visit: www.drnaitiktrivedi.com 2

- External nose also consist of hair inside the nostril.

- The external nose have three functions:

i. Warming, moistening, and ﬁltering incoming air;

ii. Detecting olfactory stimuli or identify the smell

The internal nose:

- The superior part of the nasal cavity is surrounded by bone.

More info visit: www.drnaitiktrivedi.com 3

DR - Its wall is composed of skeletal muscles

assists in deglutition (swallowing).

- The pharynx functions as a passageway for air and food.

participate in immunological reactions against foreign invaders.

 It extend behind mouth from soft palate to level of hyoid bone.

More info visit: www.drnaitiktrivedi.com 4

(true vocal cords).

More info visit: www.drnaitiktrivedi.com 5

- The trachea divides into a right and left primary bronchi.

which goes into the left lung.