1

Extended Essay

Environmental Systems and Societies

Topic: Oil drilling environmental effects

Research question:

To what extent have oil drilling operations around Lago Agrio Sucumbíos in Ecuador

impacted the Indigenous community’s ecosystem since 1990?

Thesis:

Oil drilling has severely impacted the ecosystems of Indigenous communities,

encompassing ecological, social, and economic dimensions.

Candidate Number: Idx745

Word Count: 3540

 2

Table of contents

Introduction

1. Oil drilling operations in Lago Agrio

1.1 Overview of Oil Drilling in Lago Agrio

1.2 Oil spills and contamination.

1.3 General view of the significance of Lago Agrio’s ecosystem

2. Environmental Impact Assessment of oil drilling

2.1 Deforestation and Habitat destruction

2.2 Water pollution

2.3 Mitigation efforts

3. Method of Investigation

4. Data & analysis

5. Conclusion

6. References
 3

Introduction

Crude oil is a substance primarily composed of around 13% of the weight of hydrogen and

85% carbon. It may also contain nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and trace amounts of metals such as

iron, nickel, and copper, varying in color from black to brownish or amber (Andrew Turgeon,

2023). Furthermore, its molecular structure is dictated by the original components of the algae,

plants, or plankton that are subject to heat and pressure from five thousand to ten million years

(Andrew Turgeon, 2023).

During the last centuries, oil has been one of the main components of modern civilizations;

it has been mainly used for various applications (Andrew Turgeon, 2023). Moreover, fossil fuels

are the primary resources that come to mind when focusing on non-renewable energy sources.

Although they are critical raw materials for different applications, these supplies are not renewable

because of the limited quantities they form in ponds known as reservoirs.

Fossil fuels are the remains of extinct marine or terrestrial animals that undergo a formation

process of considerable length; this process can take up to ten million years, along with heat and

pressure, before being covered in sand, silt, and rock (Energy Information Administration, 2023).

Crude oil has been mostly used to manufacture oil-based products like aviation fuel, diesel, and

gasoline, which are used to power up vehicles for transporting people's goods and services

(Andrew Turgeon, 2023).

Oil can be classified into different types, each involving other extraction methods. Intermediate

oil, for example, is typically collected by drilling and pumping techniques (Andrew Turgeon, 2023).

Drilling is using a drill to create a hole, typically extracting oil and natural gas from the ground (Energy,

2024). Pumping, on the other hand, involves the rotation of an impeller to draw in fluid, followed by
 4

expelling it through the pump (Integrated Flow Solutions, 2019). Both processes have a hazard of oil

spillage during operations. (Energy, 2024).

Oil spills primarily occur during oil extraction and transportation via pipelines, ships, trucks

(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2020). The possible dangers pose threats to the

environment. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2020). They can lead to

environmental issues such as water and soil pollution that impact the surrounding ecosystems (National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2020). To prevent oil leaks, governments worldwide have

developed regulations, standards, and special procedures that companies such as Texaco, Odebrecht,

and other transnational oil-extracting companies need to accomplish to reduce potential accidents

during oil extraction or transportation (Energy Information Administration, 2022).

For instance, Enterprise Texaco, bought by Chevron in 2001, was indicted for not complying

with government regulations for oil drilling operations in Ecuador. According to the Ministry of

Foreign Affairs and Human Mobility, the transnational company Texaco, bought by Chevron in 2001,

operated in Ecuador from 1964 to 1990. It extracted millions of barrels of oil without using procedures

not specified in the exploitation contract for environmental protection, even though they stated that the

procedures, laws, and technologies employed would be the same as in the United States. Their failure

to fulfil the contract would have resulted in several environmental disasters that were never remedied

and have caused irreparable damage to the inhabitants of an area of the Ecuadorian Amazon that is

similar in size to the territory of El Salvador1 (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Movilidad

Humana, 2015).

1
La empresa transnacional Texaco, comprada por Chevron en el 2001, operó en el Ecuador de 1964 a 1990. Extrajo millones de barriles de
petróleo sin utilizar los métodos acordados en el contrato de explotación para la preservación de la naturaleza a pesar de que los patentaba y
utilizaba en EE. UU. Ocasionó graves desastres ambientales que nunca remedió y que han producido irreparables perjuicios a los habitantes de
una zona de la Amazonía ecuatoriana que tiene un tamaño similar al territorio de El Salvador. (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Movilidad
Humana, 2015)
 5

While reflecting on this situation, I felt deeply motivated to understand the ecological effect

of oil drilling operations in Lago Agrio Sucumbíos, Ecuador. Growing up in Ecuador gives me the

credentials to speak for all the landscapes and vibrant ecosystems that define my country and a

deep appreciation for the intrinsic beauty, cultural, and ecological richness. This study aims to

investigate whether the allegations against Chevron Texaco made by the government and local

communities are backed by evidence via examining the issue: Oil drilling has severely impacted

the ecosystems of indigenous communities, encompassing ecological, social, and economic

dimensions.

1. Oil drilling operations in Lago Agrio

1.1 Oil spills and contamination.

As mentioned above, drilling and pumping represent a potential hazard due to their

propensity to suffer from oil spillage during operations. (Energy, 2024). Oil spills can be regularly

found in various regions because of how common it is for tankers, pipelines, drilling rigs, or

refineries to have an oil leak (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2020). Most oil

spills can be caused because of people's flaws, equipment breakdowns, natural disasters, or faulty

equipment (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2020).

As reported by Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Movilidad Humana in 2015, Texaco-

Chevron spills were not an accident; the company deliberately chose to use obsolete equipment

different from the one agreed to in the contract to save 3 dollars per barrel, ending up contaminating

soil, groundwater, and surface streams (Yanza, 2004). Furthermore, this massive extraction created

a severe environmental impact, causing almost two spills per week (Morán, 2021). These spills

have been recorded at least 50 times per year between 2000 and 2010 (Morán, 2021). The Ministry
 6

of Environment continued to record these spills, showing that in the worst year, there were 248

spills, which equals almost five spills per week. This data was recorded until June 2021, showing

899 events starting from 2015 (Morán, 2021). Because of the inferior quality of the equipment,

Texaco-Chevron spilt no less than seventy-one million liters of petroleum residues and sixty-one

million liters of crude oil. However, as mentioned by Texaco-Chevron, the extraction technology

was standard and the same as the one used in oil extractors from the United States (Ministerio de

Relaciones Exteriores y Movilidad Humana, 2015).

Oil spills are very harmful to the ecosystem because of the negative impact they can create

on species such as marine birds, mammals, fish, and shellfish (National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, 2019). To illustrate, oil can spread extensively when spilt on water (National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2019).

Oil does not mix with water, leaving a very thin layer above water and contaminating more

spaces (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2019). When oil leaks into the

environment, it can kill animals living on the surface and other species approaching the water's

surface for either breathing or eating (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2019).

This becomes harmful to birds who land on water because oil prevents the insulating ability of

feathers, which birds try to clean with their beaks, ending up in some of the oil entering the bird's

body through their beak (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2019). These spills

also affect vegetation, which can contaminate food supplies over time (National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration, 2019). Oil may also affect nests of species that leave them on the

shores of rivers, ending up in the suffocation of hatched or unhatched babies. An example of a

long-term effect of oil occurred in the Gulf of Mexico. About 134-gal were spilt, and data showed

that after a decade of this tragedy, the impacts were worse than expected, being described as an
 7

injury to the entire ecosystem (Fisheries, 2020). As documented by research by the National

Research Council, the droplets started to sink into the sea's bottom (National Research Council,

2003). This affected sedimentation rates, which are an essential food source and habitat for most

sea species. A study was made on bottlenose dolphins, showing that the constant oil presence on

these species somehow affected their immune system for generations, which lowers their immune

system reaction to fight off infections and diseases. (Sylvain De Guise, 2021).

1.2 Overview of the significance of Lago Agrio’s ecosystem

Lago Agrio is a gifted region in the Ecuadorian Amazon with enormous ecological importance.

Lago Agrio stands for its diverse ecosystems, encompassing cultural traditions, folklore, plant life,

and wildlife (Presidencia de la República del Ecuador, 2021). The region's ecological importance

relies on the several ecosystems found in this Ecuadorian region, from rivers and wetlands to

tropical forests, possessing an exceptional biodiversity full of exotic species of flora and fauna.

Moreover, these ecosystems are home to a wide range of endangered and endemic species of both

flora and fauna functioning as environmental carbon sinks; in this way, these ecosystems are vital

in both regional and global environmental equilibrium because of the resources they provide

(Client Earth, 2020), including water and air purification, regulation of weather, and the

preservation of genetic diversity (NatureScot, 2023).

Due to their extraordinary ecological significance, the conservation of the Lago Agrio

ecosystems is crucial not only for the protection of biodiversity but also for the sustainability of

local communities and the welfare of the entire planet (Endangered Species Coalitions, 2020). On

this matter, the significance of conserving these ecosystems should not be neglected, as Samé

emphasizes that this phenomenon has had negative consequences on the planet, affecting the well-

being and safety of living beings, which is of great concern to humanity. For these reasons, the
 8

international community has developed various treaties and legal regulations, considering that

counteracting this phenomenon requires all countries' cooperation and participation through an

effective international response to their responsibilities regarding the damage caused to society

(Samé, 2018). Hence, the conservation of Lago Agrio is a local concern and a global commitment

to enhance environmental stability by preserving biodiversity. The fact that most of the Amazonian

Indigenous communities have a deep connection to the environment demonstrates the significance

of natural capital. Home to several eco-touristic sites and a mix of indigenous groups such as the

A'i Cofán, Siona, Secoya, Kichwa, Awua, and el Pueblo Afro, recognized for their kindness,

entrepreneurial spirit, and hard work (Pueblos mágicos Ecuador, 2021). Jandi Ayacu is one of

Lago Agrio's communities whose economy is predominantly driven by activities related to the

ecological richness of the region, such as waterfall visits, viewpoint hikes, engagement in

traditional activities, and the acquisition of handicrafts (e.g., fans, clay weavings, and basket

weaving) (Confeniae, 2024).

Some communities have other beliefs such as the Pacha Mama which is a goddess related to

Mother Earth (Life, 2024). Because of her and many other gods, nature is sacred for all

Indigenous communities, showing respect and complete protection by representing it with music,

dances, food, traditions, rituals, and sacred sites (Life, 2024).

2. Environmental Impact Assessment of Oil Drilling

2.1 Deforestation and Habitat Destruction

Lago Agrio and its many national parks and protected areas were created to prevent deforestation

and conserve ecosystems with thousands of species (Frontlines, 2022). However, because of the

massive amounts of oil deposits that have been found in this area, Lago Agrio became one of the most
 9

exploited lands for oil extraction, and most of the forests were cut down for the construction of oil-

extracting machines and roads (Frontlines, 2022). According to Amazon Frontlines, many oil fields

and pipelines were observed in what once was a mega-diverse rainforest.

For example, The Cayambe-Coca Park is one of Ecuador's most significant protected areas. Since

it contains a vast diversity of species, such as jaguars, spider monkeys, tapirs, and over 600 bird species.

These forests aim to keep these species protected from many factors, serving as shelter. Despite this,

deforestation leaves species more vulnerable to these factors. According to an A'i Cofan guard or a

land patrol, nobody would think it was a protected area if it were not for the GPS they used to show

that they were deep inside the national park. Around them, many acres were recently deforested for

cattle ranching, a maze of roads, new settlers' houses, and a recently built hydroelectric dam

(Frontlines, 2022). Thanks to satellite imagery taken by The University of Maryland, thousands of

acres of forests have been inside national parks for over a decade. This illustrates that the Ecuadorian

government, which created these protected areas, has not succeeded in blocking deforestation and road

construction (Frontlines, 2022).

In the 1970s, Lago Agrio had a massive deforestation of almost 370,000 acres around the first

oil wells that were dug, which also affected the view of the landscape in Sucumbíos and Orellana

(Frontlines, 2022). This caused the extermination of many species that were protected by the forest

and forced the movement of Indigenous people from their homes (Frontlines, 2022). After Texaco-

Chevron contaminated the region, Cofanes' territory started becoming smaller because of the expansion

of Texaco's deforested land (Sarliève, 2019). Although protected areas are meant to be untouched,

many trespassing have been registered for oil searches in the territory (Frontlines, 2022). For example,

when an A'I Cofán during scouting found cattle ranchers who destroyed almost twenty-five acres of

rainforest (Frontlines, 2022). This and many other trespassing have shown that people do not care
 10

about protected areas. This is shown by Satellite images that show acres of forests that have been cut

down in order of roads and oil searches in Figure 1 (Frontlines, 2022).

In an investigation made in 2001 by Jefferson Mecham, Ecuador had one of the world's highest

deforestation rates, having an estimate of over 300,000 hectares per year. Lago Agrio suffers from

severe soil erosion, and 1-2% of its original forest cover remains (Mecham, 2001). Furthermore, since

the 1970s, 30% of the Ecuadorian Amazon has been deforested and polluted, placing entire indigenous

cultures in danger of extinction, such as the A'i Cofan and Haorani (Mecham, 2001).

Figure 1

Map of Lago Agrio showing the loss of forests that have occurred in the region within its protected

areas.

Note: The areas in purple are where the loss of forest has been most evident. Meanwhile, the green areas correspond

to national parks or protected areas. Hansen/UMD/Google/USGS/NASA 2020, MAATE 2022, and satellite imagery

by ESRI.
 11

Figure 1. The map above shows Lago Agrio's protected areas, including national parks and the

extent of deforestation from 2000 to 2020. Principally due to the impact of human activity in the

region over the past two decades. Additionally, Lago Agrio has many national parks that are

protected areas that are also being affected, some of which are Cofan Bermejo, Cayambe Coca,

Sumaco Napo-Galeras, Yasuní, Limoncocha, and Cuyabeno, as seen in Figure 1.

2.2 Water pollution

In 2011, during a trial, it was stated that there were not less than 880 waste pools found in

Texaco-Chevron’s operation zone, which was approximately 450,000 hectares (Sarliève, 2019).

These pools were full of crude oil, and some had pipelines in the river. This was made to make

some type of draining system, which started the spread through rivers and contaminated the ground

and water of the whole region (Sarliève, 2019). Most Indigenous communities that live or formerly

lived in Lago Agrio entirely depended on their environment to survive (Sarliève, 2019). According

to one of the oldest survivors from the Cofanes community, her community entirely depended on

the ecosystem since all their needs could be covered by naturally exploiting the Amazon region

(Sarliève, 2019). They did not need to work or get money because they resorted to rivers, fauna,

and flora when they needed water, food, or medicine (Sarliève, 2019). Additionally, when fish got

scarce, they would change their fishing spots to let the old fishing region renew resources; this

way, they maintained sustainability. Polluted waters forced most Indigenous communities to adapt

to new lifestyles by avoiding fishing in rivers and only eating fish grown in artificial pools. Some

communities reported that since the water was polluted, many infections and rates of cancer started

increasing in their factions (Sarliève, 2019).

 12

2.3 Mitigation efforts

Oil spillages can be contained in many ways. One famous method is Booms, which are

floating plastic barriers that slow the spread of oil while keeping it contained in a particular area;

these are anchored across an ocean to prevent it from spreading to other land, such as shellfish

beds or beaches. Booms can be separated into three types. Intricate blooms are plastic barrels

containing oil that can redirect in a different direction. Sorbent bloom is used to absorb oil inside

it. Its structure is a long cylinder, and this boom cannot contain oil inside for too long (National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2023). Fire booms contain a specific sector of water,

and oil is burned in a controlled area. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2023).

As outlined by Chevron's official page, they acknowledge that oil extraction impacts the

environment and are committed to protecting the environment by enhancing environmental

performance. They are constantly preventing and mitigating the consequences of accidental oil

leaks to conserve and protect water and biodiversity. To retire idle assets and reclaim sites with

residual environmental impacts. This includes the release of ERMP, which will have many

functions, such as identifying, assessing, and mitigating environmental risks (Chevron, 2024).

However, a report published by The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Migration of Ecuador

stated that in 1995, Texaco signed a contract compromising to mitigate the damage by cleaning up

264 pools out of the thousands identified. Besides this claim, no actual remediation has been made

by the North American company, and not even 162 of the pools were claimed to have been cleaned

up. According to this section from the magazine, it is said that in the way of "remediation," the

company hid hundreds of toxic waste ponds by covering them with a superficial layer of organic

matter, leaving them in the same polluting state without cleaning them. Those pools nowadays
 13

contaminate the soil and waters from the Ecuadorian Amazon, which can be seen perfectly every

time it rains or by digging a couple of centimeters in the dirt.

The lack of mitigation efforts needed to be made by Texaco-Chevron has impacted many

communities until the present (Morán, 2021). Since no remediation has been made, spills are

recorded in the communities' perimeter. To illustrate this, Fernando Agila, president of the 18 de

Noviembre cooperative, says that official reports try to deny the impacts of the spills that affected

farms dedicated to agriculture because of water contamination (Morán, 2021). Lago Agrio

communities have been affected by visual contamination and the loss of market value because of

the product's origin. consumers prefer not to buy products from Amazon because "it is

contaminated" (Morán, 2021)

3. Method of Investigation

For my investigation, these sites were used:

1. Cancillería del Ecuador. Most of the information that was taken for this essay came from

this webpage, which is the official government webpage where all of the articles made by

the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Human Mobility (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores

y Movilidad Humana), it is responsible for the coordination of international policy and as

a response to interests for people. This data was used for quoting and as a base for most

information since the government documents contain accurate information from the case.

2. BBC News. A public operational business for broadcasting news from Britain, which

gathers information from around the globe to broadcast news without being influenced by

commercial or political control, entirely based on its independence.

 14

3. Justice info. An independent website that publishes stories in which justice initiatives are

involved with territories that face abuse, such as war crimes, crimes against humanity, and

the environment. That aims for environmental justice and human society. This page was

used for many testimonies by a reporter who talked about lifestyles, contamination, and

justice for Lago Agrio.

4. Global Forest Watch, an online platform that gives data and helps with tools for forest

monitoring, allowed for many data and satellite images to be analyzed.

4. Data & Analysis

Figure 2:

Graph from 2002 to 2022 of total tree cover loss in Lago Agrio

Source: Global Forest Watch. Lago Agrio, Sucumbíos statistics

https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/country/ECU/22/4/?location=WyJjb3VudHJ5IiwiRUNVIiwiMjIiLCI0Il0%3D&map=eyJjZW50Z

XIiOnsibGF0IjotMC4wMDM0MDAyMjA2MTEyMzMwNDE0LCJsbmciOi03Ni42MDE3NTAwMDAwMjA5Nn0sInpvb20iOjUuNTg0ODYx

MDA0MDQ0NjU3LCJjYW5Cb3VuZCI6dHJ1ZSwiZGF0YXNldHMiOlt7ImRhdGFzZXQiOiJwb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyIsImxheWV

ycyI6WyJkaXNwdXRlZC1wb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyIsInBvbGl0aWNhbC1ib3VuZGFyaWVzIl0sImJvdW5kYXJ5Ijp0cnVlLCJvcGFj

aXR5IjoxLCJ2aXNpYmlsaXR5Ijp0cnVlfSx7ImRhdGFzZXQiOiJ0cmVlLWNvdmVyLWxvc3MiLCJsYXllcnMiOlsidHJlZS1jb3Zlci1sb3NzIl0sI

m9wYWNpdHkiOjEsInZpc2liaWxpdHkiOnRydWUsInRpbWVsaW5lUGFyYW1zIjp7InN0YXJ0RGF0ZSI6IjIwMDEtMDEtMDEiLCJlbmREY

XRlIjoiMjAyMC0xMi0zMSIsInRyaW1FbmREYXRlIjoiMjAyMC0xMi0zMSJ9LCJwYXJhbXMiOnsidGhyZXNob2xkIjozMCwidmlzaWJpbGl

0eSI6dHJ1ZX19XX0%3D
 15

Table 1.

Simplified forest loss graph that shows the number of tree loss per year.

Year (2002-2022) Total tree cover loss (in hectares)

2002 503
2003 461
2004 481
2005 652
2006 656
2007 608
2008 1020
2009 653
2010 928
2011 1,310
2012 1,080
2013 994
2014 401
2015 813
2016 930
2017 1,920
2018 869
2019 1,370
2020 2010
2021 1,230
2022 1,870
Note: Made by the student with Microsoft Excel. Showing forest loss from 2002 to 2022.

Table 1. above shows data gained from Global Forest Watch's previous graph transformed

into a data table specifying each year's data. In the diagram, different data was collected by the

GFW platform, showing statistics from hectares cut down yearly. We can notice a significant
 16

increase between 2006 and 2008, showing an increase of 64 %. Another increase from 2018 to

2020 showed an increase of 43%. Showing a trend that keeps increasing over time (Ecuanomica,

2013).

Figure 4:

GDP increases in Ecuador from 1961 to 2009

Source: Ecuanomica. Petróleo su influencia sobre el PIB y el Desarrollo Económico en Ecuador.

Ecuanomica. https://ecuanomica.blogspot.com/2013/08/petroleo-su-influencia-sobre-el-pib-y.html
 17

Table 2.

GDP per capita a

Years (1972 to 1982) GDP per capita at constant prices

1972 1,850.00
1973 1,900.00
1974 2,150.00
1975 2,500.00
1976 2,950.00
1977 3,050.00
1978 2,975.00
1979 3,100.00
1980 3,150.00
1981 3,300.00
1982 3,200.00
Note: Made by the student with Microsoft Excel Showing GDP growth throughout 1972 to 1982.

Table 2. shows how the time between 1972 and 1981, known as the "Boom Petrolero" has been

recorded as one of the most significant economic growths imposed by the development of Oil

extractor companies that started their operations during 1970. This period helped Ecuador's

economy because of oil production, which can be seen in the graph by the huge increase in GDP

(gross domestic product). As declared by Ecuanomica, the average annual rate of productivity

growth was 4.05%.

5. Conclusion

To conclude, this extended essay has shown evidence of how Texaco Chevron has

influenced Lago Agrio. By looking at different points of view and data, it was concluded that

Chevron's oil drilling activities have significantly affected the Indigenous communities. This
 18

impact can be seen by the data retrieved on the pollution of the environment, which has harmed

the community's tourism by affecting the ecosystem in Lago Agrio though the analysis of various

impacts to Indigenous communities, by inspecting ecological, social and some economic

dimensions, it has been evident that oil drilling caused many negative impacts by creating a lack

of balance on the ecosystem, by altering lives of Indigenous communities and in other various

forms, including deforestation, and water pollution. This leads to disruption of natural habitats by

the loss of biodiversity, endangering multiple species, ranging from flora to fauna. Moreover, the

contamination that was spread to water compromised the health of aquatic ecosystems and posed

serious health risks to human populations who relied on these resources to sustain their daily

activities, which must be addressed to lower the environmental degradation that oil drilling

activities have done in the Amazon. Moreover, the contamination extended to communities’

lifestyles by creating displacement of community’s project, compromising with prosperity and

development of Indigenous communities as well as failing to give tangible benefits to the

communities in Lago Agrio. Furthermore, the impact on wildlife and soil has resulted in crop

damage and ecosystem deterioration caused by deforestation for equipment installation. Primary

water source pollution has forced many communities to change their lifestyles to avoid consuming

food from the environment. Additionally, oil spills made by Texaco have polluted rivers and land,

leading to the loss of species. These consequences have shown how clear it is that Chevron has

harmed many communities' well-being and impacted the environment.

6. References

1. Andrew Turgeon, E. M. (2023, February 9). Petroleum. National Geographic:

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/petroleum/
 19

2. Arriols, E. (2023, August 28). Tipos de ecosistemas: qué son y qué importancia tienen para

la vida. dkv: https://dkv.es/corporativo/blog

360/medioambiente/naturaleza/conservarecosistemas#:~:text=La%20conservaci%C3%B

3n%20de%20los%20ecosistemas,domin%C3%B3%20de%20terribles%20consecuencias

%20ambientales.

3. BBC. (2011, February 15). En fotos: el caso Chevron-Lago Agrio. BBC:

https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2011/02/110215_galeria_ecuador_petroleo_mz

4. Chevron. (2024.). environmental risk management. Chevron:

https://www.chevron.com/who-we-are/culture/operational-excellence/environmentalrisk-

management.

5. Confeniae. (2024.). Turismo Comunitario Jandiayaku. confeniae:

https://confeniae.net/emprendimiento/turismo-comunitario-jandiayaku/

6. Ecuador Pueblos Magicos. (2021). LAGO AGRIO Guía del destino. Viaja Ecuador:

https://www.viajaecuador.com.ec/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Guia-PM-LAGO-

AGRIO.pdf

7. Endangered Species Coalitions. (2020). Importance Of The Endangered Species Act.

Endangered Species Coalitions: https://www.endangered.org/importance-of-the-

endangered-species-

act/#:~:text=Healthy%20ecosystems%20depend%20on%20plant,ecosystems%20to%20p

urify%20our%20environment.

8. Energy Information Administration. (2022, August 1). Oil and petroleum products

explained. EIA: https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/oil-and-petroleum-products/oil-

and-the-
 20

environment.php#:~:text=Oil%20spills%20contaminate%20soil%20and,up%20spills%20

when%20they%20occur.

9. Energy Information Administration. (2023, June 12). Oil and petroleum products

explained. Energy Information Administration: https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/oil-

and-petroleum-products/

10. Energy, S. (2024.). Drilling. Student Energy:

https://studentenergy.org/production/drilling/#:~:text=Drilling%20is%20a%20process%2

0whereby,exploration%20purposes%20in%20new%20areas

11. Fisheries, N. O. (2020, April 13). Deepwater Horizon 10 Years Later: 10 Questions.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries:

https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/news/deepwater-horizon-10-years-later-10-questions

12. Frontlines, A. (2022, August). Deforestation Inside Conservation Areas: Ecuador's failure

to protect the Amazon. Amazon Frontlines:

https://amazonfrontlines.org/chronicles/deforestation-inside-conservation-areas-ecuador-

amazon/#:~:text=Satellite%20imagery%20shows%20that%20over,first%20oil%20wells

%20were%20dug.

13. IFS. (2019, June 25). Types of Pumps in Oil and Gas Industry – Upstream, Midstream,

Downstream. IFS solutions: https://ifsolutions.com/types-of-pumps-in-oil-and-gas-

industry/

14. Life, A. (2024.). History and Culture of Ecuador. Adventure Life: https://www.adventure-

life.com/ecuador/articles/history-and-culture-of-

ecuador#:~:text=The%20predominant%20religion%20is%20Roman,Earth)%20and%20t

he%20Virgin%20Mary.
 21

15. Mecham, J. (May de 2001). Causes and consequences of deforestation in Ecuador.

Rainforest Info: https://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/projects/jefferson.htm.

16. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Movilidad Humana del Ecuador. (2014, April). La

Mano Sucia de Chevron. Cancillería del Ecuador: https://www.cancilleria.gob.ec/wp-

content/uploads/2015/06/La-Mano-Sucia-de-Chevron.pdf

17. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Movilidad Humana del Ecuador. (2015, April). El

caso Chevron / Texaco en Ecuador Una lucha por la justicia ambiental y social. Cancillería

del Gobierno: https://www.cancilleria.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Expediente-

Caso-Chevron-abril-2015.pdf

18. Morán, S. (2021, July 7). TWO OIL SPILLS OCCUR EVERY WEEK IN ECUADOR.

PlanV: https://www.planv.com.ec/two-oil-spills-occur-every-week-ecuador

19. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2019, February 5). How Do Spills

Happen? National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:

https://response.restoration.noaa.gov/training-and-education/education-students-and-

teachers/how-do-spills-

happen.html#:~:text=Oil%20spills%20into%20rivers%2C%20bays,drilling%20rigs%2C

%20and%20storage%20facilities.

20. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2020, August 1). Oil Spills. National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-

collections/ocean-coasts/oil-spills

21. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2023, May 17). Spill Containment

Methods. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:

https://response.restoration.noaa.gov/oil-and-chemical-spills/oil-spills/spill-containment-

methods.html
 22

22. National Research Council. (2003). National Library of Medicine. Oil in the Sea III:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK220703/#_ncbi_dlg_cpyrght_NBK220703

23. NatureScot. (2023, 07 11). Ecosystem services - nature’s benefits. NatureScot:

https://www.nature.scot/scotlands-biodiversity/scottish-biodiversity-strategy-and-

cop15/ecosystem-approach/ecosystem-services-natures-benefits

24. Presidencia de la Republica del Ecuador. (2024.). Los recursos petroleros bien invertidos

consiguieron la nueva planta de agua de Nueva Loja. Presidencia de la República del

Ecuador: https://www.presidencia.gob.ec/los-recursos-petroleros-bien-invertidos-

consiguieron-la-nueva-planta-de-agua-de-nueva-loja/

25. Samé, L. R. (2018). EL CAMBIO CLIMÁTICO: SUS EFECTOS A NIVEL MUNDIAL.

Centro informatico científico de Andalucía:

https://huespedes.cica.es/gimadus/33/03_el_cambio_climatico.html

26. Sarliève, M. (2019, March 14). ECUADOR: TOXIC JUSTICE AND TOURISM BY

TEXACO WASTE POOLS. Justice Info: https://www.justiceinfo.net/en/40565-ecuador-

toxic-justice-and-tourism-by-texaco-waste-pools.html

27. Sylvain De Guise, M. L. (2021, February 17). Long-Term Immunological Alterations in

Bottlenose Dolphin a Decade after the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill in the Northern Gulf

of Mexico: Potential for Multigenerational Effects. Society of Environmental Toxicology

and Chemistry: https://setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/etc.4980

28. Yanza, L. (2004, October). El juicio a Chevron Texaco. Las apuestas para el Ecuador.

https://biblio.flacsoandes.edu.ec/libros/digital/50508.pdf