The

Grand Unified Theory

of

Classical Physics

Dr. Randell L. Mills

Brilliant Light Power , Inc.
June 2015 493 Old Trenton Road
Cranbury, NJ 08512
609-490-1090
rmills@brilliantlightpower.com

Part 3:
Cosmology
 Maxwell's Equations and Special
Relativity
Maxwell's equations and special relativity are based on the law of
propagation of a electromagnetic wave front in the form


1 ∂ ω ∂ ω ∂ ω ∂ ω
2 2 2 2
− 2 + 2 + 2  =0
c ∂t  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
2 2

For any kind of wave advancing with limiting velocity and

capable of transmitting signals, the equation of front
propagation is the same as the equation for the front of a
light wave.

Thus, the equation

 ∂ 2ω 
1
(
 2  − grad 2ω = 0)
c2  ∂t 
acquires a general character; it is more general than Maxwell's
equations from which Maxwell originally derived it.
 The Classical Wave Equation Governs:

• The motion of bound electrons

• The propagation of any form of energy
• Measurements between inertial frames of reference such as time,
mass, momentum, and length (Minkowski tensor)
• A relativistic correction of spacetime due to particle production or
annihilation (Schwarzschild metric)
• Fundamental particle production and the conversion of matter to energy
• The expansion and contraction of the Universe
• The basis of the relationship between Maxwell’s equations, Planck’s
equation, the de Broglie equation, Newton’s laws, and special, and
general relativity
A Light-Pulse Clock at Rest on the Ground
As Seen by an Observer on the Ground

The dial represents a conventional clock on the ground.

 A Light-Pulse Clock in a Spacecraft As
Seen by an Observer on the Ground

The mirrors are parallel to the direction of the motion of the spacecraft.
The dial represents a conventional clock on the ground.
Time Interval Relation Between Ticks t of
the Moving Clock and L 0 , the Vertical
Distance Between the Mirrors
2L0
2 2
 t  t t= c
 c  = L0 +  v 
2
2
 2  2 v
1− 2
c
But 2L0 is the time t 0 interval between ticks on the clock on the
c
ground, and so the
time dilation relationship based on the constant maximum
speed of light in any inertial frame is t = t0
v2
1− 2
wherein the parameters are:
c
t0 = time interval on clock at rest relative to an observer
t = time interval on clock in motion relative to an observer
v = speed of relative motion
c = speed of light
 Minkowski Tensorηµν
The Metric g for Euclidean Space Called the Minkowski Tensorηµν is
µν

 −1 0 0 0
 1 
 0 0 0
 c2 
ηµν = 0 1 
 0 0
c2

 0 1 
0 0 2 
 c 
µ
In this case, the separation of proper time between two events x and
µ µ
is x + dx
µ ν
dτ = − ηµν dx dx
2
 The Equivalence of the Gravitational Mass
and the Inertial Mass
mg
Experimentally, mass causes time dilation, and = universal constant
mi
which is predicted by Newton's Law of mechanics and gravitation.

The energy equation of Newtonian gravitation

1 GMm 1 2 GMm
E = mv 2 − = mv0 − = constant
2 r 2 r0
Since h , the angular momentum per unit mass, is
h = L / m = r × v = r0 v0 sin φ
Eccentricity e may be written as
 2 2GM  r02 v02 sin 2 φ 1/ 2
e = [1 +  v0 −  2 2
]
m is the inertial mass of a particle  r0  G M
v0 is the speed of the particle
r0 is the distance of the particle from a massive object
φ is the angle between the direction of motion of the particle and the radius vector
from the object
M is the total (including a particle) of mass of the object
 Classification of the Orbits
The eccentricity e given by Newton's differential equations of
motion in the case of the central field permits the classification of
the orbits.
According to the total energy E:

E<0, e<1 ellipse

E <0, e=0 circle (special case of ellipse)
E =0, e=1 parabolic orbit
E >0, e>1 hyperbolic obit
 Classification of the Orbits cont’d

According to the orbital velocity relative to the gravitational

velocity squared 2GM :
r0

2GM
v0 < e <1 ellipse
2

r0
2GM
v < e=0 circle (special case of ellipse)
2
0
r0

v0 =
2 2GM
e =1 parabolic orbit
r0

v >
2 2GM
e >1 hyperbolic orbit
0
r0
 Continuity Conditions for the Production
of a Particle From a Photon Traveling at
Light Speed
• A photon traveling at the speed of light gives rise to a particle
with an initial radius equal to its Compton wavelength bar

r = C =
mc
• The particle must have an orbital velocity equal to Newtonian
gravitational escape velocity vg of the antiparticle

2Gm 2Gm0
vg = =
r C
• The eccentricity is one
• The orbital energy is zero
• The particle production trajectory is a parabola relative to the center
of mass of the antiparticle
 A Gravitational Field As a Front Equivalent
to a Light Wave Front
The particle with a finite gravitational mass gives rise to a
gravitational field that travels out as a front equivalent to a light
wave front

The form of the outgoing gravitational field front traveling at the

speed of light is
 r
f t − 
 c
and dτ 2 is given by

c
2 −1
[
dτ = f (r )dt − 2 f (r ) dr 2 + r 2 dθ 2 + r 2 sin 2 θdφ 2
1
]
 The Speed of Light
The speed of light as a constant maximum as well as phase
matching and continuity conditions of the electromagnetic and
gravitational waves require the following form of the squared
displacements:
(cτ ) + (vg t ) = (ct )
2 2 2

  vg 
2

2 
τ = t 1 − 
2

  c  
 
Thus,   vg 
2

f (r ) = 1 −   
  c  
 
In order that the wave front velocity does not exceed c in any
frame, spacetime must undergo time dilation and length
contraction due to the particle production event.
The derivation and result of spacetime time dilation is analogous to the
derivation and result of special relativistic tim e dilation wherein the
relative velocity of two inertial frames replaces the gravitational velocity.
 Quadratic Form Of The Infinitesimal
Squared Temporal Displacement
General form of the metric due to the relativistic effect on
spacetime due to mass m0
  v 2  2  −1 
1   v  2
dτ = 1 −    dt − 2 1−    dr + r dθ + r sin θdφ 
2 g 2 g 2 2 2 2 2

 c  c   c   
Gravitational radius, rg, of each atomic orbital of the particle
production event, each of mass m
2Gm
rg = 2
c
 rg  2 1  rg 
−1

dτ = 1 − dt − 2 1 −
2
 dr + r dθ + r sin θdφ 
2 2 2 2 2 2

 r  c 

r  
Masses and their effects on spacetime superimpose. The separation
µ µ
of proper time between two events and x is x + dx
µ

 2GM  1  2GM 
−1

dτ = 1 − 2 dt − 2 1 − 2  dr + r dθ + r sin θdφ 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

 c r  c  c r  
 The Origin of Gravity

The Schwarzschild metric gives the relationship whereby matter

causes relativistic corrections to spacetime that determines the
curvature of spacetime and is the origin of gravity.
The metric g µν for non-Euclidean space due to the relativistic effect
on spacetime due to mass m0 is
  2Gm0  
 −1 − 2  0 0 0 
  cr  
 1 2Gm0 
−1

 0 1 − 2  0 0 
gµν = c2  cr  
 1 2 
 0 0 2
r 0 
 c 
 1 2 2 
0 0 0 r sin θ 
 c 2 
 Particle Production Continuity Conditions

• The photon to particle event requires a transition state

that is continuous.

• The velocity of a transition state atomic orbital is the speed of light.

• The radius, rn , is the Compton wavelength bar,  C


C = = rα*
m0 c
• The Planck equation energy, the electric potential energy, and
the magnetic energy are equal to m0 c 2 .
 The Masses of Fundamental Particles

The Schwarzschild metric gives the relationship whereby

matter causes relativistic corrections to spacetime that
determines the masses of fundamental particles.

Substitution of r =  C ; dr = 0 ; dθ = 0 ; sin 2 θ = 1 into the

Schwarzschild metric gives
1
 2Gm0 v 2  2
dτ = dt 1 − 2 * − 2 
 c rα c 
with , v =c
2 2

2GM 2GM vg
τ = ti 2 * = ti 2 = ti
c rα c c c
 Relationship of the Equivalent Particle
Production Energies
When the atomic orbital velocity is the speed of light:
Continuity conditions based on the constant maximum speed of light
given by Maxwell's equations:
(Mass energy = Planck equation energy = electric potential energy =
magnetic energy = mass/spacetime metric energy)

mo c 2 = ω * = V = Emag = Espacetime
 2
e 2
πµ e 
2 2
αh  c 2
m0 c 2 = ω * = = α −1
= α −1 0
= C
m0  2C 4πε 0  C (2πm0 )  C 1 sec 2Gm
2 3
 Continuity Conditions Based on the
Constant Maximum Speed of Light Given
by the Schwarzschild Metric

proper time gravitational wave condition gravitational mass phase matching

= =
coordinate time electromagnetic wave condition charge/inertial mass phase matching

2Gm
proper time c 2 C vg
=i =i
coordinate time α αc
 Masses of Fundamental Particles
• Each of the Planck equation energy, electric energy, and
magnetic energy corresponds to a particle given by the
relationship between the proper time and the coordinate
time.
• The electron and antielectron correspond to the Planck
equation energy.
• The muon and antimuon correspond to the electric energy.
• The tau and antitau correspond to the magnetic energy.
• The particle must possess the escape velocity v g relative to the
antiparticle where v g < c .
• According to Newton's law of gravitation, the eccentricity is one
and the particle production trajectory is a parabola relative to the
center of mass of the antiparticle.
 The Electron-Antielectron Lepton Pair
A clock is defined in terms of a self-consistent system of units used
to measure the particle mass.

 2Gm 2
2π = sec
mc 2
cα 2 
1 1
 hα   c  2 4
− 31
me =     = 9 . 1097 X 10 kg
 sec c   2G 
2

me experimental = 9.1095 X 10 −31 kg

 The Muon-Antimuon Lepton Pair

 2Gmeα m 2
2π = 2π sec
mc 2
c
The mass of the muon/antimuon is
1

  1 

3
− 28
mµ = = 1. 8902 X 10 kg
 2 
c  2Gme (α sec ) 

mµ experimental = 1.8836 ×10 −28 kg

 The Tau-Antitau Lepton Pair

 2Gme (2π ) 2 α 4 m
2π = 2 sec
mc 2
c
The mass of the tau/antitau is
1 2
 1  3
 1  3
mτ =    2
= 3. 17 X 10 − 27
kg
c  2Gme   2 sec α 

mτ experimental = 3.17 X 10 −27 kg

 Down-Down-Up Neutron (DDU)
2
 mN  1 α 
2G   −  
2π  3  2π 2π 
2π = sec
mN  1 α  2 3c(2π ) 2 
 −  c
3  2π 2π 
The neutron mass is
1 1
 1  2πh   2π (3)ch 
2 4
mN calculated = (3)(2π )  2   
 1 − α  sec c   2G 
−27
= 1.6744 X 10 kg
mN experimental = 1.6749 X 10 −27 kg
 Strange-Strange-Charmed Neutron (SSC)
m  1 α 
2Gα 2 mddu  ssc  −
2π  3  2π 2π  
2π = 2π sec
mssc  1 α  2 3c(2π ) 2 
 −  c
3  2π 2π 
The strange-strange-charmed neutron mass is
2 1

 1  h  3  2π (3)ch  3
mssc calculated = (3)(2π )  2 
 
2 
 1 − α  sec c   2mddu Gα 
mssc calculated = 4.89 X 10 −27 kg = 2.74 GeV / c 2
The observed mass of the Ω − hyperon that contains three strange
quarks (sss) is

Ω−
m = 1673 MeV / c 2
 Strange-Strange-Charmed Neutron (SSC)
cont’d
Thus, an estimate for the dynamical mass of the strange quark, m s , is
mΩ − 1673 MeV / c2
ms = = = 558 MeV / c
2

3 3
The dynamical mass of the charmed quark, mc , has been determined by
fitting quarkonia spectra; and from the observed masses of the charmed
pseudoscalar mesons D (1865) and D (1869).
0 +

mc = 1.580 GeV / c
2

Thus,

mssc experimental = 2ms + mc = 2(558 MeV / c ) + 1580 MeV / c

2 2

mssc experimental = 2.70 GeV / c 2

 Bottom-Bottom-Top Neutron (BBT)

 mbbt  1 α 
2Gα mddu 
4
 −  
2π  3  2π 2π 
2π = 2 sec
mbbt  1 α  2 3c 2(2π ) 2 
 −  c
3  2π 2π 
The bottom-bottom-top neutron mass is 2 1

 1  2πh  3  2π (3)ch  3
mbbt = (3)(2π )  2 
 
4 
 1 − α  2 sec c   mddu Gα 
calculated

mbbt calculated = 3.48 X 10 −25 kg = 195 GeV / c 2

The dynamical mass of the bottom quark, MB, has been determined by
fitting quarkonia spectra; and from the observed masses of the bottom
pseudoscalar mesons B0 (5275) and B+ (5271) .
mb = 4.580 GeV / c 2
 Bottom-Bottom-Top Neutron (BBT) cont’d

Thus, the predicted dynamical mass of the top quark based on the
dynamical mass of the bottom quark is
mt calculated = mbbt calculated − 2mb = 195 GeV / c 2 − 2(4.580 GeV / c 2 )

mt calculated = 187 GeV / c 2

Considering all jets, the CDF collaboration determined the mass of the
top quark to be
186 ± 13 GeV / c 2
 Relations Between Fundamental Particles
The relations between the lepton masses and neutron to electron mass ratio which are
independent of the definition of the imaginary time ruler ti including the contribution of
the fields due to charge production are given in terms of the dimensionless fine structure
constant α only:

2 1 + 2π
α2 

m µ  α − 2  3  2 
=  = 206.76828 (206.76827)
me  2π   α 
1 + 
 2

 α
2
1 + 
mτ  α −1  3
 2
=   = 16.817
mµ  2  (
1 − 4πα 2 ) (16.817)

 α2 
2 1 + 2π 
mτ  α −3  3
 2  = 3477.2
=  (3477.3)
me  4π  ( 1 − 4πα )
2

 α2 
1 + 2π 
m N 12π 2 3 2  = 1838.67
= (1838.68)
me 1 − α α  α2 
1 − 2π 
 2 
Relations Between Fundamental Particles
cont’d
The relations between the masses of members of the neutron family which are
independent of the definition of the imaginary time ruler ti are given in terms of
the dimensionless fine structure constant α only:

1
mssc mssc 1 1−α  3
= =  2  = 2.926
mddu mN 2π  3α 

1
mbbt  2π 2  3
=  2  = 71.8
mssc  α 
1
mbbt mbbt  1 − α  3
= = 4 
= 210
mddu mN  12πα 
 Intermediate Vector and Higgs Bosons
Particle energies in collisions may exceed the particle production energies and
consequently exceed the corresponding spacetime resonance frequencies during particle
production and decay reactions. The relationship between proper and coordinate time
has higher order or over-energy resonances due to the same principles regarding the
relationship between proper and coordinate time that is the basis of production of the
fundamental particles.
Specifically, using the spatial dimensions and the velocity at the electron production
event, the scaling factor between the proper and coordinate time is given by:
2π  C 2π  C
= = iα −1 sec
2Gme vg
C
wherein the latter is imaginary because energy transitions are spacelike due to spacetime
expansion from matter to energy conversion and vg is Newtonian gravitational velocity.
The resonance coupling factor gC for the muon that is a lepton arising from a resonance
involving the electron is
gC = 2πα −1

Applying the resonance coupling factor gC to the muon production mass having its
inherent lepton member, the electron, gives an over-energy resonance EZ 0 at
1
−1   1 3
=
EZ 0 g=m 2πα = 2πα −1 ( 0.10587 G=
eV ) 91.16 GeV
c  2Gme (α sec) 2 
C µ

Experimentally, the event excess called the intermediate vector boson Z 0 occurs at
91.1876 GeV.
Intermediate Vector and Higgs Bosons cont’d
Similarly, an over-energy absolute spacetime resonance of the electrically neutral neutron
EH0 due to the relationship between proper and coordinate time is predicted at
1 1
 1  2π h   2π (3)ch 
 α ( 0.93956536 GeV ) 128.75 GeV
2 4
EH 0 α=
= −1
mn α −1 (3)(2π )   2  
= −1
=
 1 − α  sec c   2G 

High-energy proton-proton collisions that produce neutron-antineutron pairs decay to two

gamma ray photons or correspondingly two pairs of electron-positron or muon-antimuon
pairs. Such an excess of events at 126 GeV has recently been announced by CERN as
the discovery the Higgs boson H 0.
A proton is formed via beta decay of the neutron. This requires the initial step of the
conversion of a down quark to an up quark having charges -2/3 and +1/3, respectively,
with the concomitant formation of an electron of the lepton family having a charge of –1.
By considering the corresponding resonance coupling factor gC and mass-energy
corrections to the neutron mass, an over-energy resonance EW - corresponding to EZ 0 is
predicted at 1
  1 −2    3   1 −2  
( ) ( )
2 2
   1 
EW= gC mµ 1 −  1 + ( 2π )  =
−  2πα
−1
 2  
1 −  1 + ( 2π )  
  3   c  2Gme (α sec)    3  
  1 −2  
( )
2

= 2πα ( 0.10587 GeV ) 1 −=
−1
 3 1 + ( 2π )   80.51 GeV
 
Then, by the symmetry of antiparticles, the positron decay of the antineutron
corresponds to W +. Experimentally, the event excess called the intermediate vector
bosons W ± occurs at 80.423 GeV.
 Gravitational Potential Energy

A Fourth Family?
The gravitational radius, α G or rG , of an atomic orbital of mass m0
is defined as
Gm0
α G = rG = 2
c
When the rG = rα =  C , the gravitational potential energy equals
*

m0 c 2
Gm0 
2
= c =
c m0 c
Gm02 Gm02
= * = ω * = m0 c 2
C rα
 Gravitational Potential Energy cont’d
The mass m o is the Planck mass, mU ,

GmU2
mU c 2 = ω * = V = Emag = *
C
c
mU = m0 =
G

The corresponding gravitational velocity, vG , is defined as

Gm0 Gmu
vG = =
C C
 Relationship of the Equivalent Planck
Mass Particle Production Energies
(Mass energy = Planck equation energy = electric potential energy =
magnetic Energy = gravitational potential energy = mass/spacetime metric
energy) 2
mo c = ω = V = Emag = E grav = Espacetime
*

 2
e 2
πµ e 
2 2
µ e 2 2
c Gm c αh  c 2
m0c 2 = ω * = = α −1
= α −1 0
= α −1 0 0
= C
m0 2C 4πε 0 C (2πm0 )2  3C 2h  C G 1 sec 2Gm
Equivalent energies give the particle masses in terms of the
gravitational velocity, vG, and the Planck mass, m U
Gm0
−1 µ 0 e c
2
C −1 µ 0 e c
2
Gm0 −1 µ 0 e c vG
2
vG
m0 = α mu = α mu = α mu = mu
2h c 2h c  C2
2h c c
 Planck Mass Particles

• A pair of particles each of the Planck mass corresponding to the

gravitational potential energy is not observed since the
velocity of each transition state atomic orbital is the gravitational
velocity vG that in this case is the speed of light; whereas, the
Newtonian gravitational escape velocity vg is 2 the speed
of light.
• In this case, an electromagnetic wave of mass energy equivalent to
the Planck mass travels in a circular orbit about the center of
mass of another electromagnetic wave of mass energy equivalent
to the Planck mass wherein the eccentricity is equal to zero
and the escape velocity can never be reached.
 Planck Mass Particles cont’d

• The Planck mass is a "measuring stick." The extraordinarily high

Planck mass (
c
= 2.18 X 10 −8 kg ) is the unobtainable mass
G
bound imposed by the angular momentum and speed of the photon
relative to the gravitational constant.

• It is analogous to the unattainable bound of the speed of light for a

particle possessing finite rest mass imposed by the Minkowski tensor.
 Astrophysical Implications
of Planck Mass Particles

• The limiting speed of light eliminates the singularity problem

of Einstein's equation that arises as the radius of a black hole
equals the Schwarzschild radius.

• When the gravitational potential energy density of a

massive body such as a blackhole equals that of a particle
having the Planck mass, the matter may transition to
photons of the Planck mass/energy.

• Even light from a black hole will escape when the decay rate of
the trapped matter with the concomitant spacetime expansion is
greater than the effects of gravity which oppose this expansion.
Astrophysical Implications of Planck Mass
Particles cont’d
• Gamma-ray bursts are the most energetic phenomenon
known that can release an explosion of gamma-rays packing
100 times more energy than a Supernova explosion.
• The annihilation of a black hole may be the source of γ -ray
bursts.
• The source may be due to conversion of matter to
photons of the Planck mass/energy, which may also
give rise to cosmic rays.
• According to the GZK cutoff, the cosmic spectrum cannot
extend beyond 5 X 10 eV, but AGASA, the world's largest air
19

shower array, has shown that the spectrum is extending

beyond 10 eV without any clear sign of cutoff. Photons
20

each of the Planck mass may be the source of these

inexplicably energetic cosmic rays.
 The Schwarzschild Metric Gives the
Relationship Whereby Matter Causes
Relativistic Corrections to Spacetime
• The limiting velocity c results in the contraction of spacetime
due to particle production. The contraction is given by 2π rg
where rg is the gravitational radius of the particle. This has
implications for the expansion of spacetime when matter converts
to energy
• Q The mass/energy to expansion/contraction quotient of
spacetime is given by the ratio of the mass of a particle at
production divided by T the period of production.
m0 m0 m0 c3 34 kg
Q= =2 = = = 3.22 X 10
π rg 2Gm0 4π G
T 2π 2
sec
c c
c
• The gravitational equations with the equivalence of the particle
production energies permit the conservation of
c3 kg
mass/energy ( E = mc 2 ) and spacetime ( 4 πG
= 3.22 X 1034
sec ).
 Cosmological Consequences
The Universe is closed (it is finite but with no boundary ).

The Universe is a 3-sphere Universe-Riemannian three dimensional

hyperspace plus time of constant positive curvature at each r-sphere.

• The Universe is oscillatory in

matter/ energy and spacetime
with a finite minimum radius, the Expanding Expansion and
gravitational radius. Spacetime Contraction
Click images above to view animations online
Spacetime expands as mass is released as energy which provides the
basis of the atomic, thermodynamic, and cosmological arrows of
time.

Different regions of space are isothermal even though they are

separated by greater distances than that over which light could travel
during the time of the expansion of the Universe.
 Cosmological Consequences cont’d

• Presently, stars and celestial bodies exist which are older than
the elapsed time of the present expansion as stellar and large
scale evolution also occurred during the contraction phase.

• Observations beyond the beginning of the expansion phase are

not possible since the Universe is entirely matter filled.

• The maximum power radiated by the Universe which occurs at the

beginning of the expansion phase is

51

Photo Courtesy of NASA, ESA, S. Beck with STCcl and the HUDF Team
 The Period of Oscillation Based on Closed
Propagation of Light
• Conservation of mass/energy during harmonic expansion and
contraction

• The gravitational potential energy Egrav

GmU2
Egrav =
r
is equal to mUc2 when the radius of the Universe r is the
gravitational radius rG.

• The gravitational velocity vG is the speed of light in a circular orbit

wherein the eccentricity is equal to zero and the escape velocity
from the Universe can never be reached.

• The period of the oscillation of the Universe and the period for light
to transverse the Universe corresponding to the gravitational radius
rG must be equal.
 The Period of Oscillation Based on Closed
Propagation of Light cont’d
• The harmonic oscillation period, T, is
2π rG 2πGmU 2π G(2 X 10 kg)
54

T= = = = 3.10 X 10 19
sec = 9.83 X 1011
years
c c3 c3
where the mass of the Universe, mU, is approximately 2 X 10 kg
54

(The initial mass of the Universe of 2 X 1054 kg is based on

internal consistency with the size, age, Hubble constant,
temperature, density of matter, and power spectrum of the
Universe.)
• Thus, the observed Universe will expand as mass is released
as photons for 4.92 X 1011 years. At this point in its world line,
the Universe will obtain its maximum size and begin to
contract.
The Differential Equation of the Radius of
the Universe
• Simple harmonic oscillator having a restoring force, F,
which is proportional to the radius.

• The proportionality constant, k, is given in terms of the

potential energy, E, gained as the radius decreases from
the maximum expansion to the minimum contraction.
E
2 = k
ℵ
• The gravitational potential energy Eg ra v
GmU2
Egrav =
r
• Is equal to mUc 2 when the radius of the Universe r is the
gravitational radius rG.
mU c 2 mU c 2
F = −kℵ = − 2 ℵ = − 2 ℵ
rG  GmU 
 2 
 c 
The Differential Equation of the Radius of
the Universe ℵ , Is

••
mU c 2
mU ℵ+ 2
ℵ= 0
rG
•• mU c 2
mU ℵ+ 2
ℵ= 0
 GmU 
 
 c 
2
 The M ax im um Radius of the Universe

The Maximum Radius of the Universe, the amplitude, r0 , of the time

harmonic variation in the radius of the Universe, is given by the
quotient of the total mass of the Universe mU and the mass/energy
to expansion/contraction quotient Q.

mU mU
r0 = =
Q c3
4π G

2 X 10 54 kg
r0 = 3 = 1.97 X 10 12
light years
c
4πG
 The M inim um Radius
The M inim um Radius corresponds to the gravitational
radius 2Gm
rg = U
c2
rg =
(
2G 2 X 1054 kg
= 3
)
.12 X 1011
light years
2
c
When the gravitational radius rg is the radius of the Universe, the
proper time is equal to the coordinate time by
2GM 2GM vg
τ = ti 2 * = ti 2 = ti
c rα c c c
And the gravitational escape velocity vg of the Universe is the
speed of light.
The Radius of the Universe As a Function
of Time
 
 cmU  cmU  2πt 
ℵ =  rg +  − cos 
 Q  Q  2πrG 
 
 c 
   
   2πt 
2Gm cm cm
ℵ =  2 U + 3U  − 3U cos 
 c c  c  2πGmU 
   
 4πG  4πG  c 3


 2πt 
ℵ = 2.28 X 10 − 1.97 X 10 cos
12 12
11
 light years
 9.83 X 10 yrs 
The Radius of the Universe as a Function
of Time
 .
The Expansion/Contraction Rate, ℵ
 
•  2πt  km
ℵ = 4πc X 10 −3 sin  
 2πGmU  sec
 
 c3 
•  2πt  km
ℵ = 3.77 X 10 sin 
6
11

 9.83 X 10 yrs  sec
The Expansion/Contraction Rate of the
Universe As a Function of Time
 The Hubble Constant
The Hubble Constant is given by the ratio of the expansion rate
km
given in units of divided by the radius of the expansion in Mpc.
sec
The radius of expansion is equivalent to the radius of the light
sphere with an origin at the time point when the Universe stopped
contracting and started to expand. The radius is the time of
expansion ct(Mpc).
 
 2πt  km
4πc × 10 sin 
−3

•  2πGmU  sec
ℵ  
H = =  c 3

ct ct ( Mpc)

 2πt  km
3.77 × 106 sin 
• 
ℵ  9.83 ×10 yrs  sec
11
H= =
ct ct ( Mpc)
 The Hubble Constant cont’d
For t = 1010 light years; ct = 3.069 × 103 Mpc, the Hubble, H0,
constant is
km
H 0 = 78.6 .
sec⋅ Mpc

The experimental value is

km
H 0 = 80 ± 17 .
sec⋅ Mpc
The Hubble Constant of the Universe As a
Function of Time
The Density of the Universe As a Function of Time
•The density of the Universe as a function of time ρU ( t ) is given by the ratio of the
mass as a function of time and the volume as a function of time.
  
mU 
  2π t  
1 + cos  2πGm  
2    U 

mU (t ) mU (t )   c3  
ρU (t ) = =4 =
V (t )     3
π ℵ(t )3

3 4   2GmU cmU  cmU
  2πt  
π   2 + 3  − 3 cos  2π Gm  
3  c c c  U 
  
  4π G  4πG  c
3

  2πt 

1 X 10  1 + cos 
57
  g
  9.83 X 10 yrs  
11

ρU (t ) =
4   2πt   3

π  2.16 X 10 30 − 1.86 X 1030 cos   cm

3   9.83 X 10 yrs  
11

• For t = 10 light years = 3.069 X 10 Mpc

10 3
−32
ρU = 1.7 X 10 g/ cm
3

• The density of luminous matter of stars and gas of galaxies is about

ρU = 2 X 10−31 g / cm 3
The Density of the Universe As a Function
of Time
 The Power of the Universe As a Function
of Time, PU (t )
  
c5 
  2π t  
PU (t ) = 1 + cos  
8πG   2π rG  
 
  c 

  2πt  

PU (t ) = 1.45 X 10 1+ cos  
51 
   W
 9.83 X 10 yrs 
11


t = 10 light years
10
For

PU (t ) = 2.88 X 10 W
51

The observed power is consistent with that predicted.

The Power of the Universe As a Function
of Time
  

The Temperature of

 
 
 
the Universe as a 





Function of Time 





Follows from the TU (t ) = 
1 X
   
    
2πt  
Stefan-Boltzman
 GmU 
1 + cos  
 2   2π GmU   
   
1 +   c3  
Law 




2  2GmU cm U 


cmU

 2π t





c + − cos 
1   c2 3  3
 2π GmU  
    PU (t )  4  
c

c   
  1      4π G  4 π G  c
3
 
   RU (t ) 4    4πℵ(t ) 
2
1 1
TU (t ) =     = 1

 1 + Gm U (t )   e σ   GmU (t )   e σ 









4

  1+  
5
c   2πt   
 c 2ℵ(t )   c 2ℵ(t )     1 + cos  2πrG   
 8π G    
   c  
    
2 
     

π   2GmU + cmU  − cm U cos  2πt  
 4   c2  
c   2πGmU
3 3
  c   

  4π G  4πG  c3  
 
 eσ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The 



 
Temperature  
 
of the 
TU (t ) = 
1 
X
Universe As 


0.74 X 1027 1 + cos
 2πt  

  m 
 
a Function of
11
  9.83 X 10 yrs  
1+ 

   2πt   
Time – −  
28 28
  2 . 16 X 10 1 . 86 X 10 cos 9.83 X 10 yrs 
11
m  
    
cont’d     
1
 
 2π t 
4

 1 . 45 X 10 51 

1 + cos 
 11
 W
  
 
  9.83 X 10 yrs 

   
2
 2 πt 
 4π 2.16 X 10 − 1.86 X 10 cos
28 28
  m 
   9.83 X 10 yrs   
11

 −8 −2 −4 
 5 . 67 X 10 Wm K 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Temperature of the Universe As a
Function of Time During the Expansion Phase
 ••
The Expansion/ Contraction Acceleration, ℵ
 
•• c4  2π t 
ℵ = 2π 
cos πGm 
GmU 2 
 U
sec 
 c3 
••  2π t  km

ℵ = Ho = 78.7 cos  

 3.01 X 10 Mpc sec⋅ Mpc
5

•The differential in the radius of the Universe ∆ℵ due to its acceleration is given by
 t 2
∆ℵ = 1 / 2ℵ
• The differential in expanded radius for the elapsed time of expansion,
t = 1010 light years = 3.069 X 103 Mpccorresponds to a decease in brightness of a
supernovae standard candle of about an order of magnitude of that expected where
the distance is taken as ∆ℵ. This result based on the predicted rate of
acceleration of the expansion is consistent with the experimental
observation

• The microwave background radiation image obtained by the BOOMERANG

telescope was consistent with a Universe of nearly flat geometry since the
commencement of its expansion. The data is consistent with a large offset
radius of the Universe with a fractional increase in size since the
commencement of expansion about 10 billion years ago.
 The Differential Expansion of the Light
Sphere Due to the Acceleration of the
Expansion of the Cosmos As a Function of
Time
 Power Spectrum of the Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation (CMBR)
The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) corresponds to an average temperature of 2.725 K, with
deviations of 30 µK or so in different parts of the sky representing slight variations in the density of matter.

The Universe is a 3-sphere hyperspace of constant positive curvature that expands and contracts cyclically in all
directions relative to an embedded space-time observer at his r-sphere.

The harmonic oscillation of the radius of the Universe and thus its volume gives rise to delays and advances to light
spheres of the continuum of r-spheres of the Universe.

The gravitational field fronts from particle production would otherwise propagate at relative velocity c.

However, as the radius of the initially entirely uniform radiation-filled Universe decreases gravity fronts are
advanced or delayed as the distance between r-spheres changes such that constructive interference of fronts
occur.

The resulting slight variations in the density of matter are observed from our present r-sphere as spherical
harmonics corresponding to the spherical contraction and expansion in all directions.

For each r-sphere, the angular variation in density corresponds to an angular distribution of the power of the
Universe and thus the temperature of the Universe according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
CONFIDENTIAL
CMBR Continued
Color scale temperature variations and
temperature variations of the E-mode
and B-mode polarization of the CMBR
of the Universe in degrees µ K .
Courtesy of NASA, G. Hinshaw, et al.
 CMBR Continued
The temperature variation ∆T is given by the spacetime Fourier transform of TU t ()
in three dimensions in spherical coordinates plus time over the oscillatory period
starting at matter formation at the initial time of contraction through the initiation of
expansion to the present time in the expansion cycle, r = 14.02 X 109 light years .
sphere

∆T ( s, Θ, Φ, ω ) =
 1 
∞ 2π π ∞ 
TU ( t ) 2
δ ( r − rsphere ) 
rsphere
CTsphere ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫   r 2 sin θ drdθ dφ dt
  −i 2π sr[cos Θ cos θ  
 exp ( −iωt ) 
0 0 0 0
exp 
  + sin Θ sin θ cos( φ − Φ )]  
 π
= 77sinc  (  −  0 )  µ K
 140 
 π
= 77sinc  (  − 197 )  µ K
 140 
π
 > 0 , Fourier wavenumber s is the multipole moment  = 2π , is substituted for
−2 θ  sphere
 ct 
rsphere ,  sphere = 140 is ℵo / rsphere , CTsphere = (197 ) , the phase shift due relative
−2
=  
 ℵ0 
ℵ0
position of rsphere to ℵo is =
0 = 197 .
ct
 CMBR Continued
Polarized light is produced by Thompson scattering of the CMBR by stellar and interstellar medium plasma
electrons (essentially ionized hydrogen) over the half period of contraction TU / 2 = 4.92 X 10 years plus
11

the time of expansion t = 10 years . The phase shift corresponds to an opposite sign of the shift
10

 π
= ∆TE-mode ( ) CeffThompson 77sinc  (  + 197 )  µ K
 140 
 > 0 and Ceff is the Thompson polarization constant.
While propagating through accelerating expansion of spacetime, E-mode light experiences the same
spacetime gradients as in the case of gravitational lensing; consequently, E-mode is converted to B-mode

polarization. The B-mode radiation is shifted by

π relative to the E-mode radiation:
2
 π 
∆TB-mode ( ) r1/2CeffThompson 77sinc  (  + 197 + 70 )  µK
 140 
∆T ( B - mode ) ∆ℵ
= 1 / 2ℵ  t 2  4.02 X 109 light years 
=
>0 , r = =  =
1/2
 0.40
∆T ( E - mode ) ( ct ) 
10
10 light years 
 CMBR Continued
The temperature variations and temperature variations of the E-mode and B-mode polarization of the
CMBR of the Universe in degrees µ K as a function of multipole moment  .
 CMBR Continued
 (  + 1) C
The power spectrum comprising spherical harmonic coefficient  µ K 2 
2π
amplitudes as a function of multipole  for the temperature variations and temperature variations of the

E-mode and B-mode polarization of the CMBR of the Universe. The experimental data points of BICEP2
+0.07
for the E-mode peak at  = 140 and then the B-mode peak as  = 70 , r = 0.20 −0.05 are

superimposed. A. Plot over the range 0 ≤  ≤ 2500 . B. Plot over the range 0 ≤  ≤ 200 .
 CMBR Continued
The experimental power spectrum of WMAP with the data of SPT and ACT and best curve fit
 (  + 1) C
comprising spherical harmonic coefficient
2π
 µ K 2  amplitudes as a function of multipole 
for the temperature variations of the CMBR of the Universe. Courtesy of NASA, G. Hinshaw, et al.
 The Periods of Spacetime
Expansion/Contraction and Particle
Decay/Production for the Universe Are Equal

• The period of the expansion/contraction cycle of the radius of the Universe, T , is

2π GmU
T= 3 sec
c
• It follows from the Poynting power theorem with spherical radiation that the
transition lifetimes are given by the ratio of energy and the power of the transition.

τ=
energy
=
[ω] =
1  h  ε0 [(2l + 1)! !]2  2
l  l + 3  1
 2   
power  2πc  l + 1  2l +1  π  e  µ0 2π  l + 1  3  (krn ) ω
2l
2
 2  k Q + Q' 2
lm 
 [(2l + 1)! !]  l 
lm


• Exponential decay applies to electromagnetic energy decay.

2π
−
h(t ) = e u (t ) = e u (t )
t
−αt T
 The Coordinate Time Is Imaginary Because
Energy Transitions Are Spacelike Due to
Spacetime Expansion From Matter to
Energy Conversion
• For example, the mass of the electron (a fundamental particle) is given by
2π C 2π C
= = iα −1 sec
2Gme νg
C

where vg is Newtonian gravitational velocity.

• When the gravitational radius rg is the radius of the Universe, the proper time
is equal to the coordinate time by
2GM 2GM νg
τ = ti = ti = ti
c 2 rα* c 2 C c
and the gravitational escape velocity vg of the Universe is the speed of light.

• Replacement of the coordinate time, t , by the spacelike time, it , gives

 −i 2π T1 t  2π
h(t ) = Ree  = cos t
  T
where the period is T.
 Period Equivalents

The periods of spacetime expansion/contraction and particle

decay/production for the Universe are equal because only the
particles which satisfy Maxwell's equations and the relationship
between proper time and coordinate time imposed by the
Schwarzschild metric may exist.
Continuity conditions based on the constant maximum speed of light
(Maxwell's equations)
m0 c 2 = ω * = V = Emag = Espacetime

2 −1 πµ 0 e  αh  C c 2
2 2
e2
m0 c = ω =
2 *
=α −1
=α =
m0  2C 4πε 0  C (2πm0 ) 2  3C 1 sec 2Gm
Continuity conditions based on the constant maximum speed of light
(Schwarzschild metric)
proper time gravitational wave condition gravitational mass phase matching
= =
coordinate time eletromagnetic wave condition charge/inertial mass phase matching

2Gm
proper time c 2 C νg
=i =i
coordinate time α αc
 Wave Equation


1 ∂ ω
( )
2

2 

2 
− grad ω = 0
2

c  ∂t 
The equation of the radius of the Universe, ℵ , may be written as
   
   
 2Gm cm  cm 2 π  ℵ
ℵ=  2 U + 3U  − 3U cos   t −  m
c c c  2π GmU  c
   sec 
 4π G  4π G  c 3 

which is a solution to the wave equation.

 Conclusion

Maxwell’s equations, Planck’s equation,

the de Broglie equation, Newton’s laws,
and Special, and General Relativity are
Unified.
The Grand Unified Theory of
Classical Physics
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