Human Transport

 Composition of Blood
Red Blood Cells Transport O2 around the body
White Blood Cells Prevent infections and fight pathogens
Platelets Blood clotting – prevent entry of pathogen and blood loss
Plasma Transport useful substances

 Plasma
- 55% of whole blood
- Least dense component
- Pale yellow liquid
- Transports:
- Food monomers from small intestine to all organs
- Carbon dioxide from respiring tissue to alveoli
- Urea from liver to kidneys
- Hormones from glands to all organs
- Heat energy

 Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

- 45% of whole blood
- Most dense component
- Has 4 atoms of Iron which gives it its colour
- Adaptations:
- Shape = biconcave – high SA : Vol ratio – high diffusion rate
- Shape = small – short diffusion distance
- Absence of nucleus = more volume available for haemoglobin to
carry more oxygen
- Haemoglobin = protein contains iron which binds reversibly to
oxygen to become oxyhaemoglobin
 White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
- Lymphocytes recognize antigen and release a specific antibody to target the antigen

- Lymphocytes produce plasma cells – produce the antibodies – and memory cells –
remember the antigen and can reproduce very fast if the same antigen enters the
body again

- Phagocytes – engulf pathogens:

1. Antigens on surface of pathogen bind to surface of phagocyte
2. The cell membrane wraps around pathogen and engulfs the pathogen
3. Enzymes digest the pathogen into molecular components
4. Phagocyte secretes the pathogen

Antigens are substances or molecules found on the surface of cells,

including bacteria and other pathogens

 Platelets
- Platelets prevent infection and prevent blood loss
- Platelets release chemicals that activate an enzyme called THROMBIN
- Thrombin activates FIBRINOGEN (soluble protein) to become FIBRIN (insoluble
protein)
- Fibrin then forms a solid mesh to solidify the plug

 Vaccines
- Inject a dead or weakened version of the pathogen so that your body develops
memory cells so that the second time you get infected, you have a stronger immune
response
- Prevent infection
- Long term prevention (<10 years)

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 How Heart Rate Changes During Exercise and Under the Influence of
Adrenaline
Why does heart rate need to change?
- Your muscles need more energy to contract and relax
- The rate of aerobic respiration needs to increase
- More oxygen and glucose are needed
- Heart rate increases in order to increase blood flow to supply oxygen and glucose
How does heart rate change?
- During intense exercise, oxygen levels will be used up
- Some anaerobic respiration will occur
- Lactic acid can accumulate in your muscles
- Heart rate stays high to supply extra oxygen which is used to break this lactic acid
down
- This is called OXYGEN DEBT

 The Heart

Structure and Functions:

- The heart is divided into a left side and a right side by a wall of muscle called the
septum
- The right ventricle pumps blood only to the lungs, while the left ventricle pumps
blood to all other parts of the body (this requires more pressure, which is why the
wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than that of the right ventricle)
- Valves ensure that blood can flow only in one direction through the heart

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 - The walls of the atria are thin (they can be stretched to receive blood as it returns to
the heart but can contract with enough force to push blood through the bicuspid and
tricuspid valves into the ventricles)
- The walls of the heart are made of cardiac muscle, which can contract and then relax
continuously without becoming fatigued
Cardiac Cycle:
1. Blood enters the atria. It cannot yet pass into the ventricle because the bicuspid and
tricuspid (atrioventricular) valves are closed.
2. The walls of the atria contract. This raises the pressure of blood in the atria which
forces open the AV valves. Blood passes through these valves into the ventricles.
3. When the ventricles are full, they contract. This increases the pressure of blood in
the ventricles which closes the AV valves again. Blood cannot return to the atria.
4. The ventricles continue to contract and the pressure continues to increase. This
forces open the semi-lunar valves at the base of the aorta and the pulmonary artery.
Blood is ejected into these two arteries. The pulmonary artery carries blood to the
lungs. The aorta has branches that carry blood to all other parts of the body.
5. As the ventricles empty, higher pressure in the aorta and pulmonary artery closes
the valves in these blood vessels. The cycle then begins again as the atria start to fill
with blood.

 How Factors may Increase the Risk of Developing Coronary Heart Disease
Factors:
- Hereditary – some people inherit a tendency to develop coronary heart disease
- High Blood Pressure – puts more strain on the heart
- Diet – eating large amounts of saturated fat is likely to raise cholesterol levels
- Smoking – raises blood pressure and makes blood clots more likely to form
- Lack of Exercise – regular exercise helps to reduce blood pressure and strengthens
the heart
How they increase the risk:
1. Fatty deposits form in arteries
2. Reduces blood flow to the heart
3. Reduces oxygen and glucose transport
4. Reduces aerobic respiration, increases anaerobic respiration
5. Increases lactic acid (heart burn or angina)
6. Enzymes denature so cells die

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 Arteries (carry blood away from heart, towards other organs)
- Tough outer layer – resists pressure
- Muscle layer – con contract and control the flow of blood
- Elastic layer – can stretch and recoil to maintain blood pressure
- Endothelium – smooth layer to prevent friction

 Capillaries (carry blood through organs, linking arteries and veins)

- No muscle
- No elastic
- No valves
- Thin layer of cells – short diffusion distance
- Numerous and highly branched – large SA : Vol ratio for diffusion
- Narrow diameter – keep all cells close by
- Narrow lumen – bring RBC close to cells = short diffusion distance
- Spaces between cells – allow WBC to escape

 Veins (carry blood towards heart, away from other organs)

- Thin muscle layer – cannot control flow to tissue
- Thin elastic layer – low pressure so no recoil action or risk of bursting
- Overall thickness small – no risk of bursting also allows them to be flattened
- Valves – prevent backflow

 The Circulation System

Double Circulatory System = blood is pumped from heart to gas exchange organ,
back to heart and then to rest of body

The Pulmonary Circulation:

- Deoxygenated blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary arteries
- It is circulated through the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated
- The oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins
The Systemic Circulation:
- Oxygenated blood leaves the heart through the aorta

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 - It is circulated through all other parts of the body, where it unloads the oxygen
- Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the vena cava