282 Answers

5 Number rods 000 to 499. Select 3-digit random numbers.

Ignore repeats and >499. Continue until 20 numbers selected.
Choose corresponding rods.
6 (a) No, because not all sets of 40 customers can be chosen.
(b) Number names 0000 to 8949. Select 4-digit random numbers.
Ignore repeats and >8949. Continue until 40 numbers selected.
Choose corresponding names.
7 No, because not all sets of 128 electors can be selected.

EXERCISE 2B
1 Prior knowledge is used to divide the population into strata. Samples are
taken from each of the strata in proportion to the size of each of the strata.
Advantage – ensures sample contains same proportion of each of the
strata as the population (unlike a random sample).
Disadvantage – more complicated to obtain (or needs relevant prior
knowledge).
2 Number males 00 to 11; choose two-digit random numbers; ignore
repeats and 11; continue until four obtained; select corresponding
males. Choose six of the 18 females in the same way.
3 (a) (i) Stratified sampling will ensure that the sample contains men
and women in the same proportion as the population. If there
is a difference in attitudes between genders this will ensure
the population is fairly represented.
(ii) The additional information needed and extra difficulty of
obtaining a stratified sample will be to no purpose if there is
no difference in attitude between genders.
(b) age, parent/not parent, employed/unemployed, etc.

EXERCISE 2C
1 Prior knowledge of the population is used to divide it into strata. Samples
from each of the strata (usually in proportion to the size of the strata) are
taken by any convenient method. Use when relevant prior knowledge is
available and random sampling is too difficult or too expensive.

2 Please distribute the questionnaire to nine sixth-form girls, seven sixth-

form boys, 19 girls who are not in the sixth form and 20 boys who are
not in the sixth form. Provided you stick to these numbers you may ask
the first pupils you see or use any other convenient method to select the
sample.
3 (a) (i) C, (ii) A random, B stratified;
(b) A equally likely, B equally likely, C not equally likely (or depends
on the ‘convenient method’ chosen);
(c) (i) no possibility of bias,
(ii) easier to carry out (also ensures all factories fairly represented);
(d) Both avoid the possibility of bias, but B ensures all factories are
fairly represented.

EXERCISE 2D
1 Population is divided into clusters (usually geographically). A sample of
clusters is selected at random and then all, or a random sample of,
individuals within the chosen clusters form the sample. For example, to
choose a sample of oil tanker drivers in UK, choose a random sample of
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oil distribution depots and then a random sample of drivers from the
chosen depots. This sample will be more geographically localised than a
random sample. It is likely to contain drivers with less varied views
(more homogeneous) than the population of all UK tanker drivers.
2 As Question 1. Use where the population can be divided naturally into
clusters and travelling or other difficulties make random or stratified
sampling impractical.
Cluster sampling eliminates the possibility of bias by using random
selection. Unlike quota sampling it does not ensure that different strata
in the population are fairly represented in the sample.
3 (a) Cluster;
(b) No, all branches would be equally likely to be selected and so
members in the smaller branches would have more chance of being
included;
(c) All the branches had an equal number of members.

EXERCISE 2E
1 The sample is taken at regular intervals, for example a local radio
reporter interviews every 200th person in a queue waiting to buy tickets
for a football match.
2 Number employees 0000 to 2699. Choose a starting point between 0000
and 0053. Select this employee and every 54th thereafter. For example,
if 0023 is chosen as the starting point choose employees numbered 0023,
0077, 0131, … , 2669.
3 (a) Systematic;
(b) Yes, all have a probability of 15 of being selected;
(c) Not all subsets of size 40 could be chosen. For example two friends
entering the library together could not both be included;
(d) Likely to provide a useful estimate. Only unsatisfactory if the
average number of books borrowed by customers who come early
in the day is different from the average for the population as a
whole or if the particular morning chosen is for some reason
untypical.

EXERCISE 2F
1 (a) Number part time students 00 to 11, select two-digit random
numbers; ignore repeats and 11; continue until four numbers
chosen; select corresponding students. Choose eight of the full-
time students in the same way.
(b)
x, there is a clearly a difference between the average age of part-
time and full-time students. The stratified sample will ensure that
the two strata are fairly represented in the sample. This might or
might not be the case for the random sample.

2 (a) Yes;
(b) No, not all subsets of size 50 could be chosen;
(c) Likely to be representative. Only unrepresentative if customers who
come early in the day have different eating habits, as a group, from
all customers or if, say, weekend customers had different eating
habits from weekday customers.
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3 (a) (i) A random, B systematic, C stratified,

(ii) A equally likely, B equally likely, C equally likely;
(b) No, not all subsets of size 128 of the population are possible;
(c) In a quota sample the names from each of the strata are selected
by any convenient method. This is much easier and quicker, in
practice, than selecting a random sample from each of the
strata;
(d) The stratification is clearly relevant to the question in that the
electors from the different strata are likely to have different views
on local authority housing. Stratified sampling ensures that all
strata are fairly represented in the sample and so is to be preferred
to random sampling which does not;
(e) It is not obvious that the different strata will have different attitudes
to the monarchy (although they may do). If there is no difference
then extra work involved in stratified sampling is to no purpose.
4 (a) (i) Yes, each house has probability of 14,
(ii) No, not all subsets of the population possible;
(b) Not all members of a household equally likely to answer the door,
not all subsets of electors possible or chosen houses are not a
random sample;
(c) Number residents 00 to 62; select two-digit random numbers;
ignore repeats and 62; continue until seven numbers obtained;
choose corresponding residents.
5 (a) C;
(b) A cluster, B stratified, D random;
(c) A no, B yes, C no (or depends on method of choosing sample), D
yes;
(d) (i) B ensures branches fairly represented in sample and avoids
possibility of bias,
(ii) C easier to carry out.
6 (a) • Number names of first class passengers 00 to 69
• Select 14 two-digit random numbers (ignoring numbers 69
and repeated numbers)
• Choose first class passengers corresponding to the random
numbers
• Number names of standard class passengers 000 to 179
• Select 36 three-digit random numbers (ignoring numbers 179
and repeated numbers)
• Choose standard class passengers corresponding to the random
numbers
(b) (i) Suggestion B random. For suggestion A, not all samples of 45
possible, e.g. passengers in sample could not all be sitting in
seats with different numbers.
45 5
(ii) All passengers have a probability of 
 of being
216 24
included in the sample for suggestion A.
7 (a) (i) Method 1 – stratified Method 2 – cluster,
1
(ii) Method 1 – all teachers have a probability of  of being
20
included.
Method 2 – teachers in schools with a small number of
teachers have more chance of being included than those in
schools with a large number of teachers;
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(b) (i) Not all samples of size 90 are possible, e.g. all males is not
possible.
(ii) Males and females as groups are likely to have different views
on maternity leave. This method ensures fair representation of
each group.
(iii) When there is no difference in views on maternity leave
between males and females.
(c) Advantage – easier and cheaper to carry out. Disadvantage – the
teachers come from only 10 schools, so their views are likely to be
more homogenous than those of all teachers in the authority.

3 Discrete probability distributions

EXERCISE 3A
1 1, 1, 1. 2 (a) 2.3, 8.41, 2.9; (b) 113.3.
3 (a) 0.1; (b) 1.5, 1.45, 1.20; (c) 37.3.
4 (a) 2, 1.41.
5 (a) 0, 1, 1; (b) 1, 1, 1, 2.
6 (a) 1.7, 1.18; (b) 4.76.
7 (a) 4, 2.83; (b) xP(X
) 0.5 5
.
P(X
x) 0.5 0.5
8 (a) 68.8, 21.6; (b) 0.0464.
9 (a) 1.34, 1.83; (b) (i) binomial, (ii) 1.25, 0.968;
(c) Means fairly similar but standard deviations very different.
Suggests distribution not binomial – applicants not guessing.
10 (a) 3.62, 1.95; (b) 1.82  3.5p, increase in sales if p  0.514.
11 (a) 0.55;
(b) (i) 1.84, (ii) 4.9, (iii) 1.23;
(c) 0.0967.
12 (a) (i) 1.745, (ii) 3.5825, (iii) 0.733;
(b) (i) 0.44, (ii) 1;
(c) (i) decrease – charge for children under 5 (zero) is less than for
any other status,
(ii) increase – distribution more spread.

4 Poisson distribution
Answers have been given to four decimal places. However three significant
figures is sufficient.

EXERCISE 4A
1 (a) 0.8472; (b) 0.8488; (c) 0.4457;
(d) 0.5928; (e) 0.1377.
2 (a) 0.2381; (b) 0.8893; (c) 0.1954;
(d) 0.7108; (e) 0.3712.