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AP Calculus AB - Ultimate Guide Notes - Knowt
AP Calculus AB - Ultimate Guide Notes - Knowt
AP Calculus AB - Ultimate Guide Notes - Knowt
Algebraic Manipulation
You can factor the numerator and denominator, then cancel any removable
discontinuities
This is mostly useful if you get limits where the denominator is equal to 0
For example, (x+3)(x+2)/(x+3)(x-3)
(x+3) is able to be removed → removable discontinuity
Squeeze Theorem
Conditions
For all values of x in the interval that contains a, g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ h(x)
g and h have the same limit as x approaches a
lim g(x) = L, lim h(x) = L, therefore lim f(x) = L
Trig limits as x approaches 0:
lim [sin(x)/x] = 1
lim [(cos(x)-1)/x] = 0
lim [sin(ax)/x] = a
lim [sin(ax)/sin(bx)] = a/b
Continuity
Jump Discontinuity
Occurs when the curve “breaks” at a particular place and starts somewhere else
The limits from the left and the right will both exist, but they will not match
Essential/Infinite Discontinuity
The curve has a vertical asymptote
Removable Discontinuity
An otherwise continuous curve has a hole in it
“Removable” because one can remove the discontinuity by filling the hole
Continuity Conditions
For f(x) to be continuous when x=c:
f(c) exists
the limit as x→c exists
lim f(x) = f(c)
x→c
A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every point on that interval
Removing Discontinuities
You can remove a discontinuity by redefining the function without that point in the domain
This is frequently done by factoring out a common root between the numerator and
denominator
Vertical asymptote: a line that a function cannot cross because the function is undefined there
Horizontal asymptote: the end behavior of a function
A horizontal asymptote can be crossed
We can use the difference quotient to find the Average Rate of Change
The difference quotient is the rate of change over an interval of time
y y’ or dy/dx y”
Derivative Rules
Using the limit definition of the derivative is tedious, so we have rules that can make taking a
derivative easier!
Constant Rule: If f(x) = k where k is a constant then f’(x) = 0
Ex. f(x) = 10 so f’(x) = 0
Constant Multiple Rule: If you have a constant multiplied by a function, you can “pull the
constant out”
So [k * f(x)]’ would be the same as k * f’(x)
The Power Rule: If f(x) = x^n then f’(x) = nx^n-1
For example x^4 becomes 4x^3 and 2x^2 would be 4x
A good way to describe this rule is to “multiply down and decrease the power”
The power rule works for polynomials!
The Product Rule: If you have two polynomials multiplied by each other like (2x +7)(9x + 8)
you could multiply it out and then use the power rule, but this takes time, so we have
something called the product rule.
The product rule says that if f(x) = uv then f’(x) = (u)(dv/dx) + (v)(du/dx)
You take the first term and multiply it by the derivative of the second term (using the
power rule) then add that to the second term multiplied by the derivative of the first term
The way I learned it was “1d2 + 2d1” (first * derivative of second + second * derivative of
the first)
The Quotient Rule: If you need to take the derivative of a fraction, you have to use this rule
The Quotient Rule says that if f(x) = u/v then f’(x) = (v)(du/dx) - u(dv/dx) / v^2
You take the denominator and multiply it by the derivative of the numerator, then
subtract the numerator multiplied by the derivative of the denominator all over the
denominator squared
The way I learned it was “low d high - high d low/ low^2” (low * derivative of high - high
* derivative of low over low^2)
The last set of things that you have to know are “memory derivatives” or things that are easier
to memorize than to derive. These will be the derivatives of sinx, cosx, e^x, and lnx
In short, we can find the derivative at a particular point by taking the reciprocal of the derivative
at that point’s corresponding y value.
Say you want the derivative at the point (1,2) - you want g’(1). So find f’(2), then take the
reciprocal - this is the value of g’(1).
Our original point is (1,2) so our reciprocal will be (2,1)
The same goes for our slope, find the slope at f’(2) and then take the reciprocal
Remember, f’(x) is the same as the slope!
The AP test usually only has 1-2 of these questions so don’t stress too much! 👍
Inverse Trigonometry
This is going to be one that is easier to just memorize, but you can also find them by following
the formulas explained in implicit differentiation and using trigonometry rules.
HINTS
When two terms are multiplied together, use product rule unless it’s easier to multiply it out
If you see a function within another function, you will almost certainly have to use chain rule
If there are x and y terms mixed together, we will need to use implicit differentiation
If you’re finding the derivative at a point, just plug it in and avoid the solving out
When evaluating derivatives at a point, look to see if the terms become one or zero
You can mentally take certain derivatives
If it is required to take a second derivative, simplify the first derivative before you start
Particles will speed up when the sign of velocity and acceleration match
The must both be negative or positive
For example, if a particle moves along a straight line with velocity function v(t) = 3t^2 - 4t + 2.
Find the acceleration of the particle at time t=2?
Solution: The acceleration of the particle is the derivative of its velocity function. Thus,
we take the derivative of v(t) with respect to t
a(t) = d/dt v(t) = 6t - 4
To find the acceleration at t=2, we substitute t=2 into the expression for a(t):
a(2) = 6(2) - 4 = 8
Non-Motion Changes
The derivative can also tell us the change of something other than motion
For example, let’s say the volume of water in a pool is equal to V(t) = 8t^2 -32t +4
Where V is the volume in gallons and t is the time in hours
If we want to find the rate that the volume of water is increasing we take the derivative
dV/dt = 16t - 32 gallons per hour
At t=2 the volume isn’t changing (equation equals 0)
Therefore it is increasing for all values >0
Another example would be where temperature of a cup of coffee is given by the function x(t) =
70 + 50e^(-0.1t), where t is the time in minutes since the coffee was poured. And we need to
find the rate of change of the temperature with respect to time at t=5 minutes.
d/dt of x(t) = -5e^(-0.1t)
Evaluating this derivative at t=$ minutes, we get:
x’(5) = -5e^(-0.1(5)) ≈ -2.27
Related Rates
We just saw how the derivative can tell us the change of something but we can also have
problems where the change of one thing is related to another- Related Rates!
Let’s say that a pool of water is expanding at 16π square inches per second and we need to find
the rate of the radius expanding when the radius is 4 inches
We know that we can find the radius using A = πr^2
Now let’s relate our rates!
dA/dt = 2πr(dr/dt)
Notice how we had to follow r with dr/dt, this is because the change in R doesn’t match
the change in A (implicit differentiation)
Now we have the change of the area (dA/dt) and the change of the radius (dr/dt)
Now we can plug in and solve!
16π = 2π(4)dr/dt
dr/dt = 2
The radius is changing at a rate of 2 inches per second
Let’s say a spherical balloon is being inflated at a rate of 10 cubic inches per second. How fast is
the radius of the balloon increasing when the radius is 4 inches?
We know that the volume of a sphere is given by the formula V = (4/3)πr^3.
Differentiating both sides with respect to time t, we get:
dV/dt = 4πr^2 (dr/dt)
We are given that dV/dt = 10 cubic inches per second and r = 4 inches. Substituting
these values, we get:
10 = 4π(4^2)(dr/dt)
Simplifying, we get:
dr/dt = 10/(16π)
Therefore, the radius of the balloon is increasing at a rate of 10/(16π) inches per second when
the radius is 4 inches.
To solve related rates problems in calculus, follow these steps:
Read the problem carefully and identify all given information.
Draw a diagram if possible.
Determine what needs to be found and assign a variable to it.
Write an equation that relates the variables involved.
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to time.
Substitute in the given values and solve for the unknown rate.
Remember to always include units in your final answer and to check that your answer makes
sense in the context of the problem.
Linearization
Differentials are very small quantities that correspond to a change in a number. We use Δx to
denote a differential.
They can approximate the value of a function!
L’Hospital’s Rule
If a limit gives you 0/0 or ∞/∞, then it is called “indeterminate” and you can use
L’Hospital’s Rule to interpret it!
L’Hospital’s Rule says that we can take the derivative of the numerator and denominator and try
again
Let’s say we have the limit of 5x^3 -4x^2 +1/7x^3 +2x - 6 as it approaches infinity
This equals ∞/∞ so we can take the derivative of the top and bottom
Then we get 15x^2 -8x/21x^2 +2
This is still ∞/∞ so we take the derivative again
Then we get 30x -8/42x which is still ∞/∞
We take the derivative to get 30/42 or 5/7 which is our answer!
There must be some point in the interval where the slope of the tangent line equals the slope
of the secant line (that connects the endpoints)
Rolle’s Theorem is a special case of the MVT
It means that a continuous, differentiable curve has a horizontal tangent between any two
points
Relative Extrema
The first derivative also tells us relative maxima and minima of a function
When the first derivative shifts from positive to negative there will be a relative maximum
When the first derivative shifts from negative to positive there will be a relative maximum
For example, our function above has a relative maximum at x=1 because our derivative
changes from positive to negative
Function Concavity
The first derivative tells us if the function is increasing or decreasing
The second derivative tells us if this is happening at an increasing or decreasing rate
This is given to us by something called concavity
For all the values that f”(x) > 0, the function is concave up
For all the values that f”(x) < 0, the function is concave down
1. Take the second derivative of the function
2. Set it equal to zero to find your points of inflection
1. Points of inflection are where the second derivative changes sign
3. Plug in a number above the critical point and below the critical point to find the sign of f”(x)
Suppose we have a function f(x) = x^3 - 6x^2 + 9x + 2. Find the intervals where the function is
concave up or concave down using the second derivative test.
To find the intervals where the function is concave up or down, we need to take the
second derivative of f(x).
f(x) = x^3 - 6x^2 + 9x + 2
f'(x) = 3x^2 - 12x + 9
f''(x) = 6x - 12
To find the critical points, we set f''(x) = 0:
6x - 12 = 0
x=2
Now we can use the second derivative test to determine the intervals of concavity:
When x < 2, f''(x) < 0, so the function is concave down.
When x > 2, f''(x) > 0, so the function is concave up.
Therefore, the function is concave down on the interval (-∞, 2) and concave up on the
interval (2, ∞).
Let’s say we have a function that is shaped like that (or any function at all), if the definite
integral needs us to get the area under the function, how would we do that?
Because this is a shape that we have no formula for, we can estimate it using shapes
that we do know
We can split this area up into rectangles!
We can take a Riemann Sum from the left, or from the right!
The formulas are the same for any rectangle, base * height!
Take the width of your rectangle and multiply it by the height of the rectangle!
Do this for each rectangle you have and add them all together
To get these rectangles even more accurate, we can use a midpoint sum
We still use the formula for a rectangle, but we use the value for the height in between!
A shape that would more closely fit the shape of the curve is a trapezoid
Therefore, we can use trapezoidal sums!
Most of the time you are given a table to take a Riemann Sum from!
0 2 4 7
1 6 10 15
Years:(t) 2 3 5 7 10
Height:H(t) 1.5 2 6 11 15
The two numbers at the top and bottom of the integral means that it is a definite or bounded
integral
It means we are trying to find the area below 2 and 3
Because we have a function, we don’t have to graph it out, instead we have something called
the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
(8 chapters in and you’re just now learning about the thing fundamental to calculus huh)
Let’s say that we had ∫2x from before (from x=2 to x=3), according to the first fundamental
theorem it is equal to (3)^2 - (2)^2
Advanced Integration
Sometimes, getting an integral into power rule format is nearly impossible, in those cases there
are other techniques we can do!
If your integral contains trigonometry, the best thing to do is just memorize the derivative of
trig functions, and the integral will be the opposite
Ex. d/dx sinx = cosx
Therefore, ∫cosx = sinx
You can manually derive these but because this is a timed AP exam it’s more efficient to
memorize these!
Your other option is U-substitution!
Slope fields show us what the slopes look like at points on a graph
The AP exam might also require you to sketch a solution curve given a slope field!
All you have to do is “flow” with the slopes
Make sure you don’t cross abruptly or draw a line that doesn’t follow the slope
Because this is by hand, it doesn’t have to be exact, just try and go with the tangent lines!
Differential Equations
If you’re given a differential equation where the derivative of a function is equal to some other
function, you have to solve for the original! You can do this by taking the integral
(antiderivative) of both sides!
A good memory trick is that differential equation problems will be SIPPY problems
S: separate (dy and dx on separate sides)
I: integrate (remove the derivative)
P: Plus C (add your c value to your integral)
P: Plug in your initial condition
Y: Y equals (solve to find what y is)
Example: If dy/dx = 4x/y and y(0) = 5 we need to solve for y
Start by separating → ydy = 4xdx
Then integrate → ∫ydy = ∫4xdx → y^2/2 = 2x^2 + C
(Make sure you add C!)
Plug in → (5)^2/2 = 2(0)^2 + C
C = 25/2
Now set y equals → y = 2x^2 + 25/2
Displacement ∫v(t)
Velocity ∫a(t)
Remember that the FTC still applies, for example velocity will be equal to ∫a(t) from a to b
which is: ∫a(t) = v(b) - v(a)