Sustainable Development Goals A - Katarzyna Cichos Jarosaw A. Sob

Sustainable Development Goals and the
Catholic Church
This book identifies both the consistencies and disparities between Catholic
Social Teaching and the United Nation’s (UN) Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs). With Pope Francis’ Laudato Si’ encyclical, Catholicism seems
to be engaging more than ever with environmental and developmental
concerns. However, there remains the question of how these theological
statements will be put into practice.
The ongoing involvement of the Catholic Church in social matters makes
it a significant potential partner in issues around development. Therefore,
with the use of the comparative method, this book brings together authors
from multiple disciplines to assess how the political and legal aspects of each
of the UN’s 17 SDGs are addressed by Catholic Social Teaching. Chapters
answer the question of how the Catholic Church evaluates the concept of
sustainable development as defined by the Agenda 2030 Goals, as well as
assessing how and if it can contribute to shaping the contemporary concept
of global development.
Examining the potential level of cooperation between the international
community and the Catholic Church in the implementation of the Agenda
2030 Goals, this volume will be of keen interest to scholars of Catholic
studies, religious studies and the sociology of religion, as well as
environmental studies and development studies.
Katarzyna Cichos works as Researcher and Lecturer at the Cardinal Stefan
Wyszyński University (CSWU) in Warsaw. Her research interests focus on
public international law, with a specific emphasis on the legal and
institutional aspects of the Sustainable Development Goals and good
governance. She is also an active member of local community initiatives
connected to good governance and sustainable development. She holds a
PhD in Law.
Jarosław A. Sobkowiak is Associate Dean of the Department of Theology

and a lecturer in the Institute of Media, Education and Journalism at the
CSWU. He is also a board member of the Moral Theologians Association
and the Head of the Social and Digital Communication Centre of CSWU. He
is the Chief Editor of the scientific half-yearly magazine Studia Theologica
Varsaviensia.
Radosław Zenderowski is Professor at CSWU (since 1999), Head of Chair

of International Relations and European Studies, and Director of Institute of
Political Science and Public Administration. He is a member of the Scientific
Board for PhD Studies in Silesian University in Opava (Czech Republic), a
member of the Scientific Board of Polish Association of European Studies,
and a member of the Committee on Political Science, Polish Academy of
Sciences. He is the author of several books and articles on national identities
in Central Eastern Europe (CEE), relations between nationalism and religion,
ethnic conflicts, especially in the Balkan region, ethic policies of CEE states,
and public diplomacy in the cross-border regions.
Ryszard F. Sadowski is Head of Department of Ecophilosophy at CSWU.

He is also an editor-in-chief of the scientific journal Studia Ecologiae et
Bioethicae, published by the Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University Press.
His main research interests focus on environmental philosophy,
environmental anthropology, ecophilosophical reflection on environmental
crisis, and the role of religions in causing and overcoming the crisis.
Beata Zbarachewicz is Lecturer at the Department of Informatics Law and
the Faculty of Law and Administration at CSWU. She is also a member of
the University Council.
Stanisław Dziekoński, is Professor, has been Rector of UKSW since 2012, as

well as the Head of the Department of the Psychological and Pedagogical
Foundations of Catechetics. His other work includes acting as a consultant
for the Catholic Education Commission and the Scientific Council of the
Polish Bishops’ Conference and being an active member of scientific
councils for various theological and pedagogical magazines.
Sustainable Development Goals and
the Catholic Church
Catholic Social Teaching and the UN’s Agenda 2030
Edited by Katarzyna Cichos, Jarosław A.

Sobkowiak, Radosław Zenderowski, Ryszard F.
Sadowski, Beata Zbarachewicz and Stanisław
Dziekoński
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Cichos, Katarzyna, editor. | Sobkowiak, Jarosław A., editor. |
Zenderowski, Radosław, editor. | Sadowski, Ryszard F., editor. |
Zbarachewicz, Beata, editor. | Dziekoński, Stanisław, editor.
Title: Sustainable Development Goals and the Catholic Church : Catholic
social teaching and the UN’s Agenda 2030 / edited by Katarzyna Cichos,
Jarosław A. Sobkowiak, Radosław Zenderowski, Ryszard F. Sadowski,
Beata Zbarachewicz, and Stanisław Dziekoński.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2021. | Series:
Routledge new critical thinking in religion, theology and biblical studies |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020034316 (print) | LCCN 2020034317 (ebook) | ISBN
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Subjects: LCSH: Sustainable Development Goals. | Catholic Church. Pope
(2013– : Francis). Laudato si’. | Sustainable development—Religious
aspects—Catholic Church. | Human ecology—Religious aspects—Catholic
Church. | Christian sociology—Catholic Church.
Classification: LCC BX1795.S87 S87 2021 (print) | LCC BX1795.S87 (ebook) |
DDC 261.8088/282—dc23
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ISBN: 978-0-367-50635-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-003-05362-0 (ebk)
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Contents
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1 Poverty prevention as a challenge for the international community

in the context of Catholic social teaching
RADOSŁAW MĘDRZYCKI, TOMASZ SZYSZKA AND PIOTR BRODA-WYSOCKI
2 The issue of hunger in the context of food security in Catholic

social teaching
WALDEMAR CISŁO, KATARZYNA GÓRALCZYK AND MARIUSZ SULKOWSKI
3 Health care as a personal and social asset

KATARZYNA KUCHARSKA, JAN PRZYBYŁOWSKI AND SEBASTIAN SIKORSKI
4 The role of education and activities of the Catholic Church and the
need to promote sustainable development
BEATA ZBARACHEWICZ, JAROSŁAW MICHALSKI AND PIOTR TOMASIK
5 Combating legal and cultural forms of discrimination against

women from the point of view of Catholic social teaching
MAGDALENA WILCZEK-KARCZEWSKA, MAŁGORZATA PAWLUS AND ANDRZEJ
WALESZCZYŃSKI
6 Access to water as common good of humanity in the context of

Catholic social teaching
WOJCIECH KLUJ, MAŁGORZATA LASKOWSKA AND MAREK RZOTKIEWICZ
7 Prospects for sustainable development of the energy sector in the

times of global climate change and environmental threats
ZBIGNIEW ŁEPKO, MAREK NIEZGÓDKA, PIOTR BURGOŃSKI AND DOMINIKA
ŻUKOWSKA-GARDZIŃSKA
8 Decent work and economic growth from the perspective of

sustainable development and Catholic social teaching
KATARZYNA ROSZEWSKA, JAROSŁAW A. SOBKOWIAK AND ARTUR WYSOCKI
9 Development or revolution? Industrialisation in the perspective of

ANDRZEJ RUDOWSKI, MAREK ROBAK AND PIOTR ŁUCZUK
10 Reducing inequality (social inclusion, social capital and protection

of migrants in the context of Catholic social teaching)
ANNA FIDELUS, ELŻBIETA H. MORAWSKA AND ARTUR WYSOCKI
11 The Church vs. the issue of cultural heritage and social integration
in the context of the Agenda 2030
KATARZYNA FLADER-RZESZOWSKA, GRZEGORZ KęSIK AND HENRYK SKOROWSKI
12 Harmony, consumption and lifestyle in Catholic social teaching

MARIUSZ BOGUSZEWSKI, PIOTR BURGOŃSKI AND MAŁGORZATA STARZOMSKA-
ROMANOWSKA
13 Climate changes as a challenge in the Anthropocene in the context
of Catholic social teaching
DOMINIKA DZWONKOWSKA, IZABELLA OLEJNICZAK AND KAZIMIERZ PAWLIK
14 The protection of seas and oceans in light of international law and

KATARZYNA CICHOS, BARBARA STRZAŁKOWSKA, MONIKA M. BRZEZIŃSKA AND
KRZYSZTOF OPALIŃSKI
15 Land and soil sustainable management in SDG15 and in Catholic

social teaching
BARTOSZ ADAMCZEWSKI, KRASSIMIRA ILIEVA-MAKULEC, AGNIESZKA KLIMSKA
AND AGATA KOSIERADZKA-FEDERCZYK
16 Conditions for the effectiveness of guarantees of the individual’s

freedom in the modern state
IRENA LIPOWICZ, KRZYSZTOF CEBUL AND GRZEGORZ EMBROS
17 The role of the Catholic Church in the building of the partnership

for the implementation of sdgs
RYSZARD F. SADOWSKI, JANUSZ BALICKI AND RAFAŁ LEŚNICZAK
Conclusion
Index
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all authors and editors for their commitment, both
in terms of content and organisation.
We would also like to thank very warmly Prof. Ryszard Czekalski, Prof.
Marek Michalski and Prof. Adam Świeżyński for their help and kind support
for the project, Prof. Marek Rewizorski and Prof. Andrzej Szostek for their
reviews, as well as Ms. Ewa Rogozińska and Mr. Grzegorz Gaura for the
translation and proofreading of the chapters.
Introduction
On 25 September 2015, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030

Agenda) with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) was adopted by the
UN General Assembly Resolution in New York. In view of how critical the
problems addressed in the 2030 Agenda are and given that both developed
and developing countries declared their willingness to solve them, the
implementation of SDGs is a challenge for the entire international
community. Therefore, it seems that all affected parties should be involved
in the process.
The Catholic Church is undoubtedly one of such parties. Starting from
Pope Paul VI’s encyclical Populorum Progressio (1967), she has been
intensively involved in the debate on the concept of development. The broad
discussion on social reality was initiated in 1967 with the Pontifical
Commission “Iustitia et Pax” established by Pope Paul VI. In 1988, Pope John
Paul II upgraded the Commission to the Pontifical Council. On 1 January
2017, the Council was transformed into the Dicastery for Promoting Integral
Human Development. The involvement of the Catholic Church in social
issues is also clearly reflected in the socially oriented encyclicals of Pope
John Paul II, i.e., Laborem Exercens, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis and Centessimus
Annus (the latter announced on the 100th anniversary of Pope Leo XIII’s
encyclical Rerum Novarum), and the Compendium of the Social Doctrine of
the Church, which serves as a kind of catechism of the Catholic Church in
social matters. The commitment of the Catholic Church to shaping a vision
of global development undoubtedly finds its culmination in the concept of
integral ecology proposed by Pope Francis in his encyclical Laudato Si’.
The involvement of the Catholic Church in environmental issues is a
consequence of the debate, triggered by an article by Lynn White in 1967, on
how Christianity contributed to the ecological crisis.1 The debate confirmed
that religions have a great ecological potential and should use it properly.
This opinion is shared by the State of the World 2003, the Worldwatch
Institute Report on Progress towards a Sustainable Society, which indicates
the need to involve religions in the process.2 The latest research in the field
of religion and ecology, a new branch of knowledge, also confirms this
thesis. Mary E. Tucker and John Grim from Yale University, who have been
exploring this issue since the mid-1990s, claimed that the contemporary
environmental crisis cannot be solved by religion alone, but cannot be
solved without religion either.3
The care of the Catholic Church for the development of individuals and
societies is expressed in Catholic social teaching. This concept cannot be
defined solely on the basis of the documents of the Church as they do not
provide a clear definition. In this respect, the pontificate of Pius XII was
undoubtedly a breakthrough. He described all issues related to the social
thought of the Church as dottrina sociale cattolica. Pope John XXIII, in turn,
contributed to the issue by incorporating Catholic social teaching into
academic structures (John XXIII, Mater et Magistra, 1961, section 223). It
should be emphasised that the mission of the Catholic Church is integral in
nature. This means that no serious theological concept can be developed
without reference to the contemporary world, current events or the
circumstances of social life of a given epoch and in isolation from the
vertical dimension, i.e., the fundamental relationship between man and God.
Another definition for the social doctrine is provided in the Instruction
Libertatis conscientia. It emphasises that “social teaching has established
itself as a doctrine by using the resources of human wisdom and the
sciences” (SVC, 1962, section 72). However, as stated by Pope Paul VI, the
Church, in dialogue with the world and contemporary science, tries to “give
an answer, in its own sphere, to men’s expectations” (Paul VI, Octogesima
Adveniens 1971, section 42). Therefore, the attempt to define Catholic social
teaching is needed at all stages of human dialogue with the world.
Catholic social teaching refers to God to define the areas and factors
which influence the development of man and his sense of dignity. It also
constitutes the basis for shaping an attitude of responsibility, not only for
personal and social development, but also for the state of the environment.
The continuous commitment of the Church to social issues makes her a
partner in this respect. Given the number of her followers, global structures
and moral authority, the role of the Catholic Church in shaping the
consciousness, necessary for the adequate response to contemporary global
challenges, seems invaluable.
The aim of this monograph is to identify both the common points and
differences between the 2030 Agenda, with its contemporary sociopolitical
concepts, and Catholic social teaching in terms of achieving Sustainable
Development Goals, and to indicate the complementarity of cognitive
perspectives and paradigms in the content of the 17 SDGs. Individual SDGs
are discussed in the 17 chapters of the monograph in order consistent with
the 2030 Agenda. The reference is made to Catholic social teaching and the
scientific achievements of various scientific disciplines. The chapters attempt
to answer the question of how the Catholic Church evaluates and
approaches the concept of sustainable development defined in the 2030
Agenda, and whether, how and to what extent she can contribute to shaping
the contemporary concept of global development. The publication is
intended to define the potential interface between the international
community and the Catholic Church in the implementation of the goals of
the 2030 Agenda.
The monograph also explores how the approach of the Catholic Church
evolved to the reality of social life in recent decades. Note that the position
of the Church was most often discussed with reference to either the
tradition, more than a hundred years old, initiated by the teachings of Pope
Leo XIII, or newer, though rare, trends in theological reflection, such as
theology of liberation or political theology. However, such views did not
provide a common ground for reflection. They rather strived to polarise the
two positions, which is necessary but not sufficient to develop the official
position of the Catholic Church on social issues. They attempted to transfer
certain paradigms of the sociological sciences, especially in the field of social
ethics, based on the Frankfurt School, into the theological reflection. The aim
was to prevent the Catholic reflection from being accused of imitating the
natural law increasingly identified with the ideologically driven theological
reflection. The Second Vatican Council noted some weaknesses in
communicating the axioms of the Catholic Church and laid the foundations
for a new theological current called theology of earthly realities. However,
the rejection of old paradigms was too radical. As a result, Catholic social
teaching lost its identity. Note that paradigms of the sociological sciences do
not provide continuity, which is a fundamental value for the theological
reflection. The official teaching of Pope John Paul II provides an answer to
how to change the paradigm and preserve the continuity of the teaching at
the same time. The key concepts of this new theological reorientation
include anthropological foundations, the principles of freedom and
responsibility, and a reference to the categories of the common good,
solidarity, subsidiarity, participation and the universal destination of goods.
The traditional social doctrine of the Catholic Church, enriched with the new
concepts, acquired a new status and methodological identity,4 and opened to
a broader dialogue with the contemporary world. This new approach is
discussed in this monograph.
Also, note that this monograph, whose aim is to explore the content of the
2030 Agenda from the perspective of Catholic social teaching, approaches
the individual goals of the 2030 Agenda on an interdisciplinary basis. The
publication brings together 55 authors from different scientific disciplines
and uses the comparative method to present each of the 17 SDGs from the
perspective of both a range of different scientific disciplines and Catholic
social teaching. Each chapter of the monograph was prepared by three or
four representatives of different scientific backgrounds and disciplines. This
clearly highlights the multifaceted nature of the challenges of the 2030
Agenda. Each challenge of the 2030 Agenda seems better “exposed” in one
particular scientific discipline: social sciences, humanities, law, theology or
exact sciences. Each of the 17 chapters of the monograph was prepared by
another research team, and the teams were often diverse in composition.
Finally, note that the mere work on the monograph, encouraging dialogue
and cooperation at a micro level, proved that to develop a common position
among people with different and often very distant views, experiences,
paradigms and research perspectives for the achievement of the goals of the
2030 Agenda is sometimes difficult, but definitely possible.
Notes
1 Cf. White, L. (1968). The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis. Science, 155(3767), pp. 1203–1207.
2 Cf. Gardner, G. (2003). Engaging Religion in the Quest for a Sustainable World. In G. Gardner et
al. (Eds.) State of the World 2003. A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Towards a
Sustainable Society. WW Norton & Company, pp. 150–175.

3 Cf. Tucker, M., & Grim, J. Religion and a New Environmental Ethic. www.youtube.com/watch?
v=BG0bQ3SwDI8
4 The essential and noteworthy study: Gocko, J. (2013). Nauka społeczna Kościoła w poszukiwaniu
własnej tożsamości. Towarzystwo Naukowe Franciszka Salezego (with rich foreign-language

literature proving the importance of the discussion).
1 Poverty prevention as a challenge for
the international community in the
context of Catholic social teaching
Radosław Mędrzycki, Tomasz Szyszka and Piotr
Broda-Wysocki
Introduction
Sustainable Development Goal 1 (SDG1), with the wording “End poverty in
all its forms everywhere,” is the first of a long list of 17 goals indicated in
Resolution 70/01. The message of this goal is very optimistic. Moreover, the
following statement is used: “We are determined to end poverty and hunger
in all their forms and dimensions” (UNGA, 2015, section 2). This approach
seems to stem from the conviction that if we mobilise all forces and use the
entire world’s potential, we will be able to avert the tragedy of millions of
people who live in extreme poverty (UNGA, 2015, section 5).
In recent decades, a great number of scientific analyses, publications,
reports and studies on poverty eradication have been published, with a
multitude of valuable suggestions. However, to put theory into practice is a
very challenging task for many reasons. In spite of the great commitment of
the Catholic Church and lay people as well as enormous effort and financial
resources, the implementation of the “Church of the Poor” formula and the
human promotion imperative has not yet produced fully satisfactory results.
Therefore, the concept conveyed by SDG1, especially in relation to
sustainable development, does not seem to be unattainable, all the more
within one decade. In his encyclical letter Laudato Si’, Francis explicitly
states that “the exploitation of the planet has already exceeded acceptable
limits and we still have not solved the problem of poverty” (Francis, 2015,
section 27).
This deep thought of the pope should be construed as a reference to
human activity to date since a number of goods produced with the use of the
planet’s resources have not improved the quality of life of the poor, either
due to socioeconomic overexploitation or lack of solidarity. Unfortunately,
social sensitivity is still too weak, and this entails mentality of indifference
and heartlessness towards the poorest. Incidentally, such an approach is a
manifestation of the sin of omission and missed opportunities. The final
conclusion is pessimistic: unfortunately, the chance to fight poverty using
the planet’s resources has already been wasted. It also seems that
opportunities that arise as a result of the acts of the international and
supranational law, i.e., acts of the Council of Europe, the European Union,
the African Union and others, have not been fully exploited. Due to the
global nature of extreme poverty and limited length of the chapter, only
global references have been made. However, it can be easily found that this
issue is regulated by many legal acts and programme documents.
In SDG1, the international community assumes the fight against poverty
with respect to sustainable development. In a broader sense, SDG1 refers to
social policy. Since “the exploitation of the planet has already exceeded
acceptable limits” (Francis, 2015, section 27), while the problem of global
poverty remains unresolved, poverty should be approached following
Catholic social teaching. In this respect, the question that arises is about
similarities and differences between those two approaches to SDG1, i.e., the
strategy adopted by international aid providers and donor countries
providing the so-called Official Development Assistance and the framework
of Catholic social teaching. It is also worth assessing how the national
measures to combat extreme poverty, proposed by the Catholic Church,
differ from those of left- and right-wing groups.
To address this issue, SDG1 as well as the related axiological and
normative documents and acts of international law referring to poverty are
examined here. The global approach to poverty is compared with Catholic
social teaching.
Definition of extreme poverty

There are two categories of international documents which address poverty,
including extreme poverty. The first category includes axiological and
political documents which do not shape any rights of the poor, but instead
constitute political or moral commitment of particular countries
(governments) to fight against poverty (Ploszka, 2019, pp. 74–84). Resolution
70/01 also falls into this category. Other key documents are as follows: Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development, adopted at the Rio de Janeiro
meeting on 3–14 June 1992 (Rio Declaration); Vienna Declaration and
Programme of Action, adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights
in Vienna on 25 June 1993 (Vienna Declaration); Beijing Declaration 1995;
Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development of 1995; United Nations
Millennium Declaration 2000 (Millennium Declaration); and Human Rights
and Extreme Poverty Resolution 2012.
In general terms, the documents falling into this category maintain
axiological coherence. In the documents referred to previously, the fight
against poverty (or against extreme poverty, as the case may be) constitutes
a goal pursued by the international community, individual countries,
organisations and even people themselves. This implies the decentralisation
of responsibilities (Rio Declaration, Principle 5; Millennium Declaration,
section III.20). Extreme poverty precludes the exercise of human rights and
violates human dignity (Vienna Declaration, section I.25). In the strategy
documents, inequality between men and women, including inequality of
access to goods and means of production, is seen as one of the causes of
poverty. Poverty is also significantly triggered by lack of sustainable
development in the globalised world and lack of solidarity (cf. e.g. Beijing
Declaration 1995, section 16).
The second category includes normative acts pertaining to human rights
at the international level. There are few acts in this group which directly
refer to extreme poverty as compared to the first group. They include the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), with the assumption of its
binding nature, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (ICESCR). The literature notes that the small number of
international legal acts related to poverty is due to the fact that setting
international legal standards for the right of “freedom from poverty” would
inevitably lead to conflicts between poor and wealthy countries; the latter, in
accordance with the principle of solidarity, being responsible for
guaranteeing this right. Therefore, freedom from poverty should be
considered in connection with the rights related to the adequate standard of
living (Ploszka, 2019, pp. 101–102). The responsibility to guarantee these
rights rests with the signatory states of the convention.
Due to the assumptions made in this chapter, the crucial role of
regulations enforced in the Council of Europe and the EU should be
mentioned as a side note. The regulations adopted by the Council of Europe
include the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms secured with the European Court of Human Rights established to
enforce it, the European Social Charter of 18 October 1961 with its additional
protocols (1988, 1995) and amending protocols (1991), and the Revised
European Social Charter of 3 May 1996. With respect to the EU, besides the
soft law instruments, the leading role of the Charter of Fundamental Rights
of the European Union is most frequently highlighted. In Article 34(3)
thereof, the right to social and housing assistance is recognised and
respected in order to combat social exclusion and poverty. However, it is also
emphasised that the EU’s human rights–based approach to poverty is mainly
based on argumentation and has not provided significant added value in the
fight against poverty and social exclusion so far (Ploszka, 2019, p. 201).
In addition to legal acts and documents, the programmes of the World
Bank conducted in cooperation with the International Monetary Fund and
the programmes of the Fund for European Aid to the Most Deprived Persons
in the EU play a huge role.
With reference to the principles of Catholic social teaching, the
sovereignty of individual countries and peoples has been repeatedly
emphasised in the teaching of the pope in recent decades, but in order to
overcome world poverty, rich countries need to provide poor countries with
honest and solidarity-based support. Such an attitude stems, inter alia, from
the principle of honesty and justice as there are many countries, e.g., those
in Africa and Asia, and Amazon areas (Francis, 2020, sections 10–13, 15–16),
which are nowadays sophisticatedly exploited, and are unable to gain
economic independence and ensure prosperity for their inhabitants.
There is no normative definition of extreme poverty in the international
law. The notable attempts to define extreme poverty were made by the
United Nations; they include the Report of the independent expert on the
question of human rights and extreme poverty by Arjun Sengupta
(A/HRC/7/15) (UN, 2008, sections 23–43) and the final draft of the guiding
principles on extreme poverty and human rights submitted by the Special
Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, Magdalena Sepúlveda
Carmona (A/HRC/21/39) (UN, 2012, p. 4). Following these documents,
extreme poverty combines three factors: low income, human development
poverty and social exclusion (including deprivation of individual rights).
From the global perspective, these concepts are highly relative and thus
provide the definition which is descriptive rather than operative.
A/HRC/7/15 reads as follows:
While income and human development poverty focus on individuals,

implying deprivation owing to lack of income or failure to achieve a
certain level of human development, social exclusion focuses on social
relations, thereby implying deprivation because of membership of a
certain social group whose interaction with other groups causes that
deprivation.
(UN, 2008, section 29)
People affected by human development poverty are people “without access

to, or availability of, certain basic goods and services to make it possible for
them to lead a meaningful life” (UN, 2008, section 31). It should be
emphasised that social exclusion can be fundamentally limited by social
security schemes, i.e., all public fund benefits granted to citizens under the
following three pillars: national insurance, social security and social
assistance. According to some opinions within the legal doctrine, these
systems are complementary and resemble anti-poverty cushions. For these
reasons, the potential of policy makers as well as targeted transfers and
policies play a substantial role (Ravallion, 2016, p. 547).
People who are directly and permanently engaged in work among the
poor and with the poor report that in some cases, governments and NGOs
provide inadequate forms of assistance to the poorest. In particular, the
concealed forms of misuse of a large part of the funds under the so-called
administrative fund (excessive earmarking to maintain structures) are
reported. As a result, the intended beneficiaries are rarely able to take full
advantage of ambitious projects and declarations. Aid institutions often
discredit themselves, and those in need of help do not trust them (Francis,
2020, section 24). This results in a totally demanding attitude without the
willingness to independently and creatively engage in the process of exiting
and overcoming poverty. The sin of omission, resulting from failure to
prepare and reliably implement adequate forms of assistance reaching the
poor and stimulate their personal development, is still evident.
In this respect, SGD 1.1 should be mentioned as it measures extreme
poverty as people living on less than USD 1.25 a day. This definition of
extreme poverty is in line with the definition established by the World Bank
in 2008 (Cichos & Salvia, 2019, p. 5). With this approach, the authors of SDGs
can easily avoid descriptive and supposedly relative terms. The examples of
descriptive and relative terms commonly used to describe extreme poverty
are as follows: extreme poverty kills, household is not able to meet its basic
needs, lack of access to health care, lack of access to safe drinking water and
sanitation, lack of basic shelter, total failure to meet basic human needs
(Sachs & McCord, 2018, p. 4338). On the other hand, it can be argued that
numbers, highly dependent on economic factors, are used excessively. In this
regard, poverty should be considered in a broader sense, specifying two
other manifestations, i.e., moderate and relative poverty. The question to ask
here is whether the fact that each developing country has exceeded the level
of USD 1.25 by a few cents automatically means that basic human needs
have been satisfied. Note that the earlier-mentioned limit expressed in USD
should be assessed in relation to 2030 rather than 2015, which is when SDGs
were introduced. This is because 2030 sets the goal (attainable or not).
Moreover, this issue is not so clear if we take into account uneven global
distribution of the risk of poverty (for example, in sub-Saharan Africa, it is
huge; while in East Asia – decreased) and doubts as to how to reliably
compare the standard of living in different regions of the world (Deaton,
2010).
The data cited in SDGs are straightforward and frightening. For example,
they say that 10% of the population live in extreme poverty (defined by the
limit of 1.9 dollars a day), 55% of the world’s population have no access to
social care, while 20% of children live in complete poverty, possibly with no
prospects for biological and social development. Geographically speaking,
the problem is diverse. The North–South divide is not always fully
applicable here, although many aspects relating to this concept remain valid.
Poverty is not a simple result of economic factors. Besides geographical
and climatic reasons (cf. Landes, 2000), cultural factors have a huge impact
here. Whereas
just as social inequalities down to the level of poverty exist in rich

countries, so, in parallel fashion, in the less developed countries one
often sees manifestations of selfishness and a flaunting of wealth which
is as disconcerting as it is scandalous.
(John Paul II, 1987, section 14)
Modern underdevelopment is not only economic but also cultural,

political and simply human.
Lister states that there is no simple definition of poverty, although it

probably has its physical dimension. Similarly, there is no uniform definition
of social exclusion. The concept of social exclusion often refers to the
situation of people most affected by social problems with focus on poverty-
based aspects and sociocultural issues (Golinowska & Broda-Wysocki, 2005,
pp. 17–55; Broda-Wysocki, 2018, pp. 321–329). Nevertheless, with a view to
operationalisation and the potential to take actions, the aim in each case is to
define a poverty limit to separate the extremely poor people from those
whose situation seems to be somewhat better though not necessarily
favourable. Following this approach, definitions of absolute poverty
(referring to basic needs) and relative poverty (based on the standard of
living) were established.
In the teaching of the Church, poverty, especially extreme poverty, is the
result of sinful economic, political and sociocultural structures which have a
huge impact on the personal dignity of a specific person. Poverty is a state in
which people experience a permanent lack of the means to live in dignity,
i.e., food and clean water, education, access to the labour market and decent
wages, health care, legal protection, decent living and rest conditions as well
as access to technical achievements and the opportunity to use it. Extreme
poverty is a state in which people have no access to even the most basic
needs of life. Living in neighbourhoods of poverty is like another category of
living, with multidimensional violence and permanent disinformation and
disintegration. This is where criminal offences, drug trade, prostitution and
killing to harvest organs for transplantation are part of daily life. The
prolonged state of life in poverty results in a sense of helplessness, low self-
esteem and professional inactivity.
Puebla and Aparecida indicate that poverty should not be assessed based
on the abstract (objective) scale of economic indicators as long as it takes the
form specific to individuals (Puebla, sections 31–39; Aparecida, section 397).
The distinction between culpable and non-culpable poverty or objective and
subjective poverty is legitimate, but in the end, it affects a specific person
who needs appropriate help (SVC, 1965, sections 85, 88, 90). Consent to
poverty, and even more so to misery, is a sin of omission as it denies and
opposes the commandment to love God and neighbour (SVC, 1965, sections
72, 83; Paul VI, 1967, section 8). Any attempts to manipulate or reinterpret
the commandments in any way to justify the benefits deriving from
exploiting the poorest also constitute a grievous sin (Francis, 2015, sections
56, 198).
Solidarity principle
The solidarity principle is an essential element of current international
policy, including the European Union (Cichos & Salvia, 2019, pp. 25–29; Mik,
2009, p. 37). If we assume that solidarity is a prerequisite for the existence of
any organisation and community (Laitinen & Pessi, 2014, p. 2), in today’s
globalised world, we should expect strengthened global solidarity. Solidarity
is also connected with sustainable development, especially given that
poverty is increasingly caused by natural disasters which occur, inter alia, as
a result of human activity (Kerényi & McIntosh, 2019, p. 75).
The solidarity principle always means that a relationship between two or
more actors must have been established and filled with a content called
solidarity. What is worth noting is that the Catholic Church’s perspective of
solidarity with respect to poverty is broader. Since solidarity to fight against
poverty is possible, the question is whether solidarity along with the system-
based approach can trigger poverty.
The responsibility for the existence of sinful structures that legitimise
global poverty rests with all the people (SVC, 1965, section 84; Aparecida,
section 62) because everyone perpetuates social disparities in some way, for
example by making use of the products of slave labour existing in the
poorest countries. Seeking to meet, in an unjustified way, multiple needs
resulting from excessive consumerism also constitutes a sin (Aparecida,
section 397). In order to effectively combat poverty, a strong will to
introduce and consistently observe the solidarity principles is required. To
achieve this, profound transformations in the way the world societies think
and act would have to be triggered.
The Oxfam report Reward Work, Not Wealth, published in 2018, reveals
possibly even more explicitly than SDGs that eight people in the world have
accumulated assets of about USD 426 billion, which is equal to those of the
rest of the population. Since 2010, the rate of wealth with respect to the
richest people has increased by 11%. Fifty percent of the population has not
recorded increase in wealth at all. Eighty-two percent of the entire world’s
wealth belongs to 10% of the population. These data are truly meaningful
with respect to the question of solidarity. The concept of ordoliberalism
partially supported by Catholic social teaching and somewhat forgotten
today seems crucial here. Ordoliberalism recognised the rationality of
economic space. However, it did not glorify profit and economic
performance as a measure of success and did not adopt the winner-takes-it-
all model. Ordoliberals remained faithful to the idea of the Christian
personalism which gave priority to work over capital. The concepts of
welfare, which were based solely on economic performance and ignored the
moral condition of human beings, ended in failure or required essential
reforms at a certain time, regardless of whether the socialist or capitalist
model of management was adopted (Broda-Wysocki, 2018, pp. 321–329). “In
order to be genuine, development must be achieved within the framework of
solidarity and freedom, without ever sacrificing either of them under
whatever pretext” (John Paul II, 1987, section 33).
One of the vital aspects of the activity of the Church, besides preaching
the Gospel, is defending and restoring human dignity, especially with regard
to the poorest. Therefore, based on the teaching of Jesus Christ and the life of
the Church in the first centuries, the Church emphasises how important it is
to have a closer look at the poor and serve the poorest through direct
involvement: “For this reason too, those oppressed by poverty are the object
of preferential love on the part of the Church… . It has done so through
countless charitable works which always and everywhere remain
indispensable” (Libertatis conscientia, section 68).
The call not to objectify the poor has a long history in the teaching and
practice of the Church with the following issues raised: human rights (Leo
XIII, Rerum novarum), subsidiarity principle (Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno),
human dignity (John XXIII, Pacem in terris). However, in the second half of
the 20th century, a new understanding of this concept was developed with a
transition from the theology of spiritual poverty to the theology of the poor.
The Second Vatican Council (SVC) discussed the concept of the Church of
the poor while the Medellin CELAM conference held in 1968 established the
paradigm of “preferential option for the poor.” The need to view the problem
of the poor and poverty in its entirety and to develop adequate solidarity
principles was emphasised (Santo Domingo, section 275; Aparecida, sections
396, 409). The approach was new in a sense that besides being available to
the poor, one needs to, above all, be with them, live among them and share
life with them (Aparecida, sections 94, 397–398). It established a new style of
life and direct involvement (John Paul II, 1987, section 15). It was also stated
that the Church has a duty to defend and sympathise with the poor by
undertaking specific activities because the poor constitute an important part
of the community of the Church (Puebla, section 263). The poverty issues are
reflected in many papal encyclicals and exhortations (Paul VI, Populorum
Progressio; John Paul II, Laborem Exercens, Sollicitudo Rei Socialis,
Centesimus Annus, Tertio Millennio Adveniente; Benedict XVI, Caritatis in
Veritate; Francis, Laudato Si’).
The focus on human dignity in the teaching of the Church brings a
number of implications and thus is not readily accepted by the whole
Christian world, especially by the opponents of the Church’s teaching.
Indeed, the Church’s documents dealing with extreme poverty stress the
need to fully respect the personal dignity of every human being, i.e., their
subjectivity, self-determination and freedom. They also warn against a
sophisticated kind of lawlessness whereby human rights are violated when
people are treated objectively and their needs are reduced to material goods
(Paul VI, 1971, sections 26–39). Providing help to the poor cannot depend on
their consent for methods that are detrimental to personal dignity
(dehumanisation). The Church’s teaching considers human rights in
connection with fully integral human development and emphasises a holistic
(multifaceted) approach to the needs of people in extreme poverty (SVC,
1965, sections 69, 88; Catechism of the Catholic Church, sections 2444–2446).
SDG1 can be seen as an international call for solidarity in the spirit of the
teachings of the Catholic Church. John Paul II wrote:
“Fight hunger by changing your lifestyle” is a motto which has appeared
in Church circles and which shows the people of the rich nations how to
become brothers and sisters of the poor. We need to turn to a more
austere way of life which will favour a new model of development that
gives attention to ethical and religious values.
It can be assumed that SDG1 promotes solidarity, but this promotion

seems “soft” as it appears to be clear that solidarity is absolutely necessary to
be able to achieve the goal. SGD1 does not articulate this principle and does
not provide a legal framework for it. However, this does not rule out the
necessity to maintain solidarity in the fight against poverty. This can be seen
in the example of how hunger as one of the basic manifestations of extreme
poverty is dealt with (Caparrós, 2016, p. 405 et seq.). Note that solidarity
understood as a principle (or value as it seems more appropriate in SDGs) is
not limited to international humanitarian aid.
The focus on intrastate solidarity in the fight against poverty is indicated
in the targets of SDG1. The responsibility for the social protection of the
poor rests with the countries in the first place. The countries are obliged to
“implement appropriate social protection systems and measures” (SDG1.3),
which entails the necessity to demonstrate social solidarity, and to ensure
“equal rights to economic, as well as access to basic services, ownership and
control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources,
appropriate new technology and financial services, including microfinance”
(SDG1.4).
Over the centuries, the Church has gained valuable experience and learnt
that the analysis of diverse sociocultural conditions is essential in order to
ensure adequate assistance to the poorest (John Paul II, 1987, sections 14–
15). The awareness and expectations of the poor living in a mountainous
environment, e.g., the Andes or the Himalayas, are completely different
from those of people living in lowland and tropical areas, e.g., Amazonia or
India. Besides the diverse natural environments, i.e., geographical and
climatic conditions, there are also significant differences in cultural and
religious dimensions.
Hence, in the global dimension, poverty always takes many forms with a
slightly diverse character and scale of material, spiritual, psychological and
cultural needs and expectations (John Paul II, 1999a, sections 21–22, 58; John
Paul II, 1999b, sections 7, 34; John Paul II, 2001, sections 7, 26; John Paul II,
2000, sections 51, 114–115). There is no universal recipe to tackle global
poverty. However, if the multiple cultural variables that enable poverty in a
particular sociocultural environment are taken into account, the poor are
eager to accept and creatively engage in aid projects. This, in turn, prevents
passive (short-term) use of the aid or deliberate rejection of any form of aid.
The inter-state social solidarity is a measure used to achieve the rights laid
down in ICESCR (Article 2 of ICESCR; General Comment No. 3, Item 13).
Further details can be found in the next section of this chapter.
The role of social security in the fight against poverty

The role of social security is particularly highlighted in SDG1.4. Note that
from the point of view of the jurisprudence, social rights are the rights of the
second generation primarily laid down in ICESCR. Besides, the guarantees
referred to in Article 2 and 3 of ICESCR and Article 9 of ICESCR, which
regulates the right to social security, including social insurance, play a
pivotal role in the fight against poverty. Article 11(1) of ICESCR addresses
the “right to an adequate standard of living” and its implications, while
Article 11(2) of ICESCR recognises the fundamental “right to be free from
hunger.” If we assume the binding nature of UDHR, Article 22 of UDHR
plays a significant role: “Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to
social security.” In the global terms, these provisions can also be interpreted
as a legal anchor to which SDG1 can be attached.
However, the fact that social rights are the rights of the second generation
has a direct impact on their implementation which, as opposed to the rights
of the first generation, may be progressive (Ploszka, 2019, p. 111). This is in
line with the progressive character of SDG1 targets. However, it is still
obvious that this document does not guarantee that the goal will be
implemented by 2030 in such a way as to eliminate poverty throughout the
world. This should be seen as a political will rather than a legal commitment
to eradicate poverty. In order to be able to combat poverty, legally defined
public tasks that form the system need to be established. This tendency is
clearly visible in social security: humanitarian aid, especially the fight
against hunger, allows one to survive, but does not eliminate poverty as such
(Mędrzycki, 2017, p. 304). It should be stated more precisely what exactly the
system should look like.
Today, institutionalised and state-organised social security systems almost
perfectly reflect a good condition of a modern and developed state. However,
the issue which is still not clear is how political instruments, especially
democracy, and economic tools, i.e., establishing and observing the rules of a
market economy, can respond effectively to challenges, often moral in
nature.
Sometimes, it is assumed that the welfare state is based on three
values/concepts (White, 2010):
Needs. The discussions on the welfare state often focus on the

assumption that the welfare state should be a tool to effectively meet
basic needs. The problem, however, is not to agree on this general
statement, but to try to estimate the needs in such a way as to move
from a moralistic slogan to possible assistance activities. Therefore,
one can agree that social rights represent the last stage in the
development of rights (following political and economic rights), and
determine the scope and types of welfare states (Marshall, 2000).
However, they do not give rise to any specific measures with a view
to the operationalisation of basic needs. It is necessary to promptly
discuss and possibly implement specific directions and ways of
redistribution (economic challenges), and consider demographic
challenges (intergenerational challenges).
Equality. Redistribution activities usually have an equalising value. The
welfare state seeks to reduce social problems and this inevitably
leads to the promotion of egalitarianism. The interpretation of this
concept, the extent of equality and the question of what equality
refers to remain unresolved and vary from state to state. In general,
egalitarian goals are based on three principles: strong meritocracy
(equal opportunities due to natural abilities and talents are provided,
regardless of ethnicity, race, gender etc.), implementation of
egalitarianism (individuals can choose individually defined good
lifestyles) and equality of relations (equal status in society and lack
of domination are ensured).
Freedom. In the discussions on the welfare state, the issue of so-called
negative and positive freedom has been introduced and is constantly
raised. To put it in a short and simple way, the negative freedom is
the individual’s freedom from intervention. This concept is contrary
to the welfare state with its redistribution activities. The question
arises, however, as to whether citizens living at the minimum of
existence (which obviously also requires definition) should be
encouraged to maintain this kind of freedom.
Amartaya Sen answers this question very precisely. Freedom is a

prerequisite for prosperity, and prosperity is subject to social responsibility.
Freedom does not mean being free from intervention. Instead, it is the
possibility of developing abilities (according to Sen, “the capability of a
person to achieve results is tantamount to the capability of a person to
achieve goals”), assuming equal access to the means to achieve them (cf. Sen,
2000, p. 21). This is why innovative individuals perceive it as something
important while the excluded as something insignificant. For this reason, aid
activities should, instead of focusing on equalising effects or achievements,
support opportunities and actions of the poor and excluded people.
To ensure effective eradication of poverty, social strata have to be widely
accepted (in particular, the political world needs to express the unfeigned
will), and the poor themselves need to show interest and commitment (cf.
SDG1.1; SDG1.3). To lift people out of poverty, in particular extreme poverty,
one has to not only provide them with basic material needs, but also
recognise their cultural and spiritual needs. In view of this, it is difficult to
imagine that over the next 10 years, rich societies will be encouraged to
express genuine solidarity with the poor by voluntarily sharing gains and
benefits with the poorest strata of the population (cf. SDG1.4.; Francis, 2015,
sections 139, 175) while people living in extreme poverty will be invited to
accept various forms of assistance and give consent to it. People who
experience poverty are often reluctant to accept the solutions offered to
them, regardless of whether from Christian, left- or right-wing circles.
Providing adequate support and assistance to the poorest is in itself a
beautiful and ambitious goal, but assistance, in any form, cannot be imposed
by force on anyone as it would bear the hallmarks of modern colonialism
(Paul VI, 1967, section 13). The process of creative acceptance of the
proposed solutions simply requires more time.
Conclusions
SDGs are another one of many global programme documents. SDG1 is
axiologically consistent and, together with previous documents on poverty,
forms a relatively stable reference point for evaluation with regard to
Catholic social teaching. SDG1 in connection with the preamble of
Resolution 70/01 indicates that the phenomenon of poverty, especially
extreme poverty, is a social evil. In an effort to overcome it, the following
principles are introduced: social solidarity and, especially in view of
predatory exploitation of natural resources, sustainable development. The
authors of SDGs seem to indicate that sustainable development is needed to
overcome poverty, while overcoming poverty is a necessary condition for
sustainable development. Like in other documents of this type, SDG1’s
measures to achieve quite clearly defined goals are underspecified.
However, if compared to SDG1, Catholic social teaching sees poverty in a
slightly broader context. This is clearly visible in the statement that all
people contribute in some way to exploitation of the planet, and in
particular that there are “sinful structures that legitimise poverty.” SDG1
priorities are very ambitious, but at the same time very general. Therefore, it
is difficult to perceive significant inconsistencies with Catholic social
teaching, and see the SDG1 wording (e.g., “to support accelerated investment
in poverty eradication actions,” SDG1: 1.b) as a promise of reliable
initiatives. However, doubts may arise as to the measures and methods used
to achieve the goals, whether proposed or not. In this respect, Catholic social
teaching certainly does and will differ from the solutions proposed by left-
wing circles. This covers birth control, i.e., top-down contraceptive measures
including compulsory sterilisation, genetically modified crops etc.
Ecclesiastical documents indicate a clear and consistent approach to
poverty and the poor in the teaching of the Church. Forms of assistance to
the poor must respect human dignity, including subjectivity and freedom.
The Church commits itself to promote and defend these principles if there is
a risk that they may not be respected. In addition, the need to proclaim the
principle of the inviolable dignity of every human person results in the
Christian principle of the primacy of the person over things (John Paul II,
1981, sections 12–13), which means that any technology or means are
acceptable provided that they not only serve the effective growth of
economic development but in no way violate the personal dignity of the
poor (Paul VI, 1967, sections 12, 46; John Paul II, 1987, section 42; John Paul
II, 1991, sections 57–58). Therefore, the Church cannot develop or support
any projects or solutions that are incompatible with the Church’s teaching.
As a result, there are a number of misunderstandings and serious tensions,
especially in connection with some proposals on poverty eradication offered
by left-wing and liberal circles.
Particular importance is attached to the solidarity principle (cf. John Paul
II, 1987), including the development of the principles of consensus with
regard to the good of both the individual and society so that helping the
poor does not give rise to resentment, disgust or hidden hostility (SVC, 1965,
section 32). In helping the poorest, it is particularly important to reach out
directly to a particular person and meet their real needs and expectations,
taking into account sociocultural and religious circumstances in which they
live.
Aid projects must be well thought out and well formulated, with special
attention given to competence and consistency. Projects based only on the
principles of paternalism usually incorporate concealed contempt for the
poor, do not take into account real needs, and are a threat to the freedom
and subjectivity of the needy. According to the Church’s teaching, the
poorest people should be encouraged in a sensible and responsible way,
through education and Christian formation, to become actively and
genuinely involved in the process of self-development, strive for self-
sufficiency and take responsibility for themselves and others. An example of
this approach can be found in the teaching of John Paul II expressed during
his pilgrimages to countries affected by pauperisation. The pope appealed to
the goodwill of politicians and the richer in society, and encouraged the
poorest to make efforts to improve their life status.
It is unattainable to solve the complex problem of mass poverty in the
world within just one decade. Based on interpretations of top-down poverty
figures, reasonable or not, it could be evidenced that poverty was allegedly
eradicated. The key point here is, however, to determine whether the aid
covered a specific group of people and ensure that they were not assigned to
another category, not officially referred to as poverty or extreme poverty –
because, above all, it is not about complacency of officials, politicians and
other people involved in poverty eradication at the global and local level,
but rather real and appropriate help for people enslaved by poverty.
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2 The issue of hunger in the context of
food security in Catholic social
teaching
Waldemar Cisło, Katarzyna Góralczyk and
Mariusz Sulkowski
Introduction
“Never has the human race enjoyed such abundance of wealth, resources
and economic power, and yet a huge proportion of the worlds’ citizens are
still tormented by hunger” (Paul VI, 1965, section 4). These words of the
Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the modern world are even more
relevant today than over half a century ago, which is when they were
promulgated at the Second Vatican Council (SVC). In mid-2019, 10% of the
richest people in the world owned 82% of the world’s wealth while only 1%
of the richest people in the world had assets comparable to the rest, i.e., 99%
of humanity (Credit Suisse Research Institute, 2019, p. 2). According to the
estimates of the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
(FAO), more than 820 million people suffer from hunger and malnutrition,
which is around 11% of the world’s population. The situation is particularly
difficult in Yemen, where more than a hundred children die of hunger every
day (World Food Programme, 2019) as well as in the Central African
Republic, South Sudan, Afghanistan, Ethiopia and Somalia (Global Hunger
Index, 2019, p. 7). Pope Francis called this a “global scandal of hunger”
(Glatz, 2013). There are several causes of this situation, including armed
conflicts, natural disasters, climate changes, urbanisation and uneven
distribution of global wealth. Pope Benedict XVI stresses that the call to
“feed the hungry” (cf. Gospel of Matthew 25:35) is an ethical imperative for
the universal Church and “the elimination of world hunger has also, in the
global era, become a requirement for safeguarding the peace and stability of
the planet” (Benedict XVI, 2009, section 27). Pope John XXIII claims that
although the Holy Church’s primary task is to lead souls to holiness and
to ensure their participation in heavenly goods, she also cares for the
needs of people’s daily lives; not only their subsistence and living
conditions, but also their prosperity and success in various areas.
(John XXIII, 1961, section 3)
The issue of hunger is also a concern for individual countries (FAO, 2011)
and international organisations, especially FAO. The need to strive to
eliminate hunger and ensure food security is emphasised in the FAO
founding document of 1945 (FAO, 2017, p. 56), while Section 25 of the 1948
Universal Declaration of Human Rights refers to the right to food. In 1963,
the FAO summit met in Rome and issued a manifesto, Man’s Right to
Freedom from Hunger (Shaw, 2007, p. 81), while the 1969 UN Declaration on
Social Progress and Development called for the eradication of hunger and
malnutrition, and the right to adequate nutrition (UNGA, 1969, p. 10). The
issue of hunger was addressed at UN summits and raised in the second UN
sustainable development goal, which seeks to end hunger, achieve food
security and promote sustainable agriculture by 2030. This goal was
particularly highlighted by Pope Francis in his speech at the 41st General
Conference of the FAO in 2019 (Francis, 2019a).
Successive popes track the progress of goals set at the food summits and
call for prayer and appropriate actions to achieve them. Note that John Paul
II himself spoke at FAO summits several times, including in 1981, which is
when the first World Food Day annually held on the 16th of October was
established (John Paul II, 1981). It proves that there is a widespread common
objection to hunger in the world and in the Church, and hunger becomes a
central issue due to severe consequences it may cause. However, note that in
view of the Church’s identity, the Church should not be perceived as another
charitable organisation since
it is not the Church’s mission to work directly on the economic,

technical or political levels, or to contribute materially to development.
Rather, her mission consists essentially in offering people an opportunity
not to “have more” but to “be more” by awakening their consciences
through the Gospel.
(John Paul II, 1990, section 58; cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church,
2019, section 549)
In Catholic social teaching, it is assumed that hunger and prevention of

famine have not only a material dimension, but above all – a spiritual one. It
is the spiritual dimension that constitutes a specific contribution of the
Church to efforts to eradicate hunger. From the theological, doctrinal and
pastoral point of view, the issue of hunger entails effects other than just the
lack of food and the moral obligation to help another human being, which
clearly indicates its eschatological character.
This brief analysis is sufficient to conclude that hunger is a common and
significant challenge both in 2030 Agenda and in Catholic social teaching
(Francis, 2017). However, these two approaches differ since the Church
adopts a broader perspective and explores moral, eschatological and
transcendent dimensions of hunger (Cor Unum, 1996, p. 1). The Church’s
teaching is directed not only towards those who are hungry and needy, but
also to those who, due to their wealth, are obliged to share it with those in
need. The relationship between those in need and those who are able to help
is eschatological and transcendent (John Paul II, 1979, section 16; Francis,
2015, section 94). Paradoxically, the Church’s teaching emphasises that those
who close their hearts to the hungry experience a worse situation than the
hungry themselves (Gospel of Luke 6:20, 24, 25).
John Paul II pointed out that, according to the tradition of the Church,
care for the poor is at the same time “the option or love of preference for the
poor,” i.e., “a special form of primacy in the exercise of Christian charity,”
which applies to
our social responsibilities and hence to our manner of living, and to the
logical decisions to be made concerning the ownership and use of
goods… . The goods of this world are originally meant for all. The right
to private property is valid and necessary, but it does not nullify the
value of this principle. Private property, in fact, is under a “social
mortgage,” which means that it has an intrinsically social function, based
upon and justified precisely by the principle of the universal destination
of goods.
The issue of hunger in Catholic social teaching

In order to properly understand the issue of hunger from the standpoint of
Catholic social teaching, it is necessary to make reference to its biblical
origins. Adam and Eve were placed by God in the Garden of Eden, where
they experienced genuine happiness. God commanded the man to rule the
Earth (Twardziłowski, 2017, pp. 5–24). However, original sin changed the
condition of both the world and man. Man’s original happiness was
destroyed, and the Earth, which was a blessing for man, became cursed: “in
pain you shall eat of it all the days of your life” (Genesis 3:17–19). As a result
of original sin, humans have to constantly struggle to meet their needs,
including basic needs related to the access to food (cf. Catechism of the
Catholic Church, 2019, section 390). The world experiences the lust for
goods, the desire to rule, violence and war, and the abuse of the natural
world, all of which are the factors that contribute to famine (di Bussolo,
2019). Genesis also stresses that this state cannot be eliminated in the earthly
order (cf. John Paul II, 1987, p. 13) and hunger will be permanently
eliminated at the Messianic Age. As pointed out by Pius XI, “the world will
never be able to rid itself of misery, sorrow and tribulation, which are the
portion even of those who seem most prosperous” (Pius XI, 1937, p. 45).
However, the fact that human nature was injured does not authorise man
to be passive in the face of the evil that occurred. On the contrary, as noticed
in the Catechism of the Catholic Church,
the acceptance by human society of murderous famines, without efforts

to remedy them, is a scandalous injustice and a grave offense. Those
whose usurious and avaricious dealings lead to the hunger and death of
their brethren in the human family indirectly commit homicide, which is
imputable to them.
(2019, p. 2269)
The drama of hunger in the world calls Christians who pray sincerely to
exercise responsibility towards their brethren both in their personal
behaviour and in their solidarity with the human family.
(2019, p. 2831)
Even the oldest books of the Old Testament imposed the obligation to take
care of the poor and share the goods with them. In particular, sharing
portions of the harvest grain, grapes or olives was necessary (Book of
Leviticus 19:9–10; Book of Deuteronomy 24:19–22). Also, the institution of
the sabbatical year, under which the Israelites were obliged to forgive debts
and free slaves once every seven years, indicates that the goods of this world
were originally intended for all.
In the New Testament, the call to share with the needy takes on a new
eschatological meaning. Those who share with the hungry and thirsty
actually share with Christ himself who humbled himself and became man:
Come, you who are blessed by my Father; take your inheritance, the
kingdom prepared for you since the creation of the world. For I was
hungry and you gave me something to eat, I was thirsty and you gave
me something to drink… . Truly I tell you, whatever you did for one of
the least of these brothers and sisters of mine, you did for me.
(Gospel of Matthew 25:31–45)
The Christian approach to the needy is specific in a way that it assumes a
personal relationship with Christ himself, who identifies himself with a
starving and poor person. This goes significantly beyond the form of aid
based only on obligation or institutionalisation of philanthropy and becomes
eschatological in nature. At the same time, this approach should be seen as a
call to share the goods and a warning against spiritual dangers which arise
as a result of growing rich (cf. Gospel of Matthew 19:24:
Those who want to get rich fall into temptation and a trap and into
many foolish and harmful desires that plunge people into ruin and
destruction. For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil. Some
people, eager for money, have wandered from the faith and pierced
themselves with many griefs.
(First Epistle of Paul to Timothy 6:9))
The moral dimension of hunger consists primarily in the fact that a

hungry person is not a random individual among all the others, but a needy
in the midst of those who are replete with food and who are obliged to share
the goods received from the caring God the Father. John Paul II points out
that the lack of sensibility to the hungry is due to “a consumer attitude
uncontrolled by ethics” (John Paul II, 1979, section 16), and “solving serious
national and international problems is not just a matter of economic
production or of juridical or social organisation, but also calls for specific
ethical and religious values, as well as changes of mentality, behaviour and
structures” (John Paul II, 1991, section 60). Pope Francis puts emphasis on
this dimension, claiming that hunger is also “the result of a more complex
condition of underdevelopment caused by the indifference of many or the
selfishness of a few” (Francis, 2017).
In the context of “a globalisation of indifference” (Francis, 2013a, section
54; Francis, 2015, section 52), Pope Francis indicates the limitations and
weaknesses of international politics, which is “subject to technology and
finance” (Francis, 2015, section 54).
However, it should be emphasised that the Church is opposed to any
ideologies based on neo-Malthusianism, which assumes that hunger or
malnutrition is caused by demographic factors. One cannot use hunger as an
argument in the fight for the reduction of the number of people or make the
financial aid contingent on the adoption of certain eugenic laws. Any ideas
to eradicate hunger by way of eradication of the hungry must be strongly
resisted. Contrary to this, there are a number of UN agencies which, in order
to eradicate poverty, do not hesitate to use means or ideas which undermine
human life and health by promoting abortion, contraception or sterilisation.
As pointed out by Pope Francis, “at times, developing countries face forms of
international pressure which make economic assistance contingent on
certain policies of ‘reproductive health’ ” (Francis, 2015, section 50; Peeters,
2019). Catholic teaching opposes ideologies which promote a false belief that
poverty can be totally eliminated and propose changes based on utopian or
messianic concepts. The issue of hunger should be reconsidered in the
context of human ethos because unresolved interpersonal and international
moral issues always turn into conflicts which lead to hunger. As noticed by
Francis,
to blame population growth instead of extreme and selective

consumerism on the part of some is one way of refusing to face the
issues. It is an attempt to legitimise the present model of distribution,
where a minority believes that it has the right to consume in a way
which can never be universalised, since the planet could not even
contain the waste products of such consumption.
(Francis, 2015, section 50)
The issue of hunger will not be solved unless human and international
justice is ensured. It is not a question of almsgiving, but the relationship
between justice and love. To raise awareness of the issue of hunger, John
Paul II called for opposing the civilisation of death, promoting the culture of
giving, the globalisation of solidarity and the “creativity” in charity.
Food production in terms of climate changes
Food is essential for sustaining the life of every human being. According to
the definition adopted by the global organisations, including FAO/WHO and
the European Commission (EC), food means any substance or product,
whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human
consumption or expected to be consumed by humans. Beverages and all
ingredients, including water, which are intentionally added to food during
the process its manufacture, preparation or processing, are also treated as
food (EC, 2002). The definition of food also covers water intended for
consumption and food supplements. Food supplements (dietary
supplements) are food products intended to supplement the diet. They are
concentrated sources of vitamins, minerals or other substances with a
nutritional or physiological effect. The definition of food stated previously is
essential for examining the issue of global hunger in light of food
availability. The problem faced by developed countries is not about food
availability, but rather its quality (FAO/WHO, 2018, p. 26).
Another problem is food waste. This issue plays a crucial role in respect of
global food security and good management of environmental resources (e.g.,
energy, climate change and water availability), economic resources (e.g.,
resource efficiency, price volatility, waste management, markets) and social
resources (e.g., health, equity in access to food). Unfortunately, studies show
that only one-third to one-half of world food production is consumed. Due
to the severity of the problem and different areas of human activity being
affected, different definitions of food waste are used to precisely describe
this phenomenon. Precise definition of the problem will help to trigger
appropriate corrective actions, including legal regulations (Stenmarck et al.,
2016, p. 80). The issue is serious as Pope Francis did not even hesitate to
assert that “food discarded is, in a certain sense, stolen from the table of poor
and the starving” (Francis, 2016).
In countries with insufficient or lack of food, the situation is completely
different. The key point here is to supply food to the hungry, regardless of its
quality. Access to food is a very complex issue. It may result from either the
general lack of food or the lack of drinking water. Insufficient food has also
different causes, including soil erosion, poor crop yields, lack of access to
drinking water intakes as a result of climate change, human overexploitation
and various types of conflicts, whether military or economic (FAO/WHO,
2019a, p. XIX).
Access to food
Crops require adequate soil, water, sunlight and temperature to grow. The
recently published Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) on forestry, agriculture, food production and general land
use shows that global temperatures cannot be kept at safe levels unless there
is a change in food production and land management because agriculture,
forestry and other land uses are responsible for almost a quarter of global
greenhouse gas emissions. This shows that the climate crisis will not be
solved even if we reduce carbon dioxide emissions from cars, factories and
power plants or, more broadly, completely stop burning fossil fuels (IPCC,
2018, p. 32; cf. Francis, 2015, sections 23–24).
It is now 72% of the planet’s ice-free surface that is used to feed and
clothe growing human population, and supply them with goods and
services. Moreover, climate change does, and will, affect the amount of food
produced and the areas of production. Extreme heat events and decrease in
precipitation reduce water availability, limit crop yields and increase the risk
resulting from other factors, such as mass pests and diseases (FAO/WHO,
2019a, p. 100) with negative effects on agriculture. Francis points out that
there is a strong relationship between the fight against climate change and
poverty (Francis, 2015, section 25; Francis, 2019b).
Competing needs
Climate change also results in the decrease in availability of resources,
which entails the necessity to modify the food production system and make
it more efficient. In particular, it will be necessary to increase yields while
reducing dependence on agricultural chemicals, and reduce food waste and
limit food consumption while reducing the environmental impact of
production, e.g., reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This complex problem
requires a coherent and integrated approach (FAO/WHO, Crop and Food
Security Assessment Mission To the Syrian Arab Republic; FAO/WHO, The
state of food security and nutrition in the world. Safeguarding against
economic slowdowns and downturns; FAO/WHO, The state of the world’s
biodiversity. Commission on genetic resources for food and agriculture). At
the global level, the following problems need to be addressed:
Deforestation to acquire new land for cultivation (e.g., South

America) to increase the area under soybean crop (biofuel), avocado
and oil palm (palm oil)
Deforestation in the Amazon primarily occurs as a result of large
areas of rainforest being cut down for agricultural crops or
prepared for grazing. Reports of various organisations, e.g.,
FAO/WHO, reveal that there are only four types of goods, the
production of which has an immense impact on tropical
deforestation. These are beef (creating increasingly large areas for
grazing), soya, palm oil and timber-harvesting. It is estimated that
an area the size of Switzerland (14,800 square miles or 38,300
square km) is lost to deforestation every year. Natural fires in
tropical forests are rare but intense. By contrast, manmade fire is a
common way to obtain large areas of land for human
consumption. Wood-harvesting is the first stage of the process of
deforestation. The remaining vegetation is fired to make room for
crops, e.g., soya, or grazing. In 2019, the number of manmade fires
in Brazil rose rapidly, i.e., by about 80% compared to 2018. This is
also the case when room for palm oil plantations is made. This is
because palm oil is the most frequently produced vegetable oil as
it is cheap and has a wide range of applications. The steadily
growing demand for palm oil encouraged people to cut down
tropical forests to increase the areas of palm cultivation.
FAO/WHO estimate that deforestation is responsible for about
20% of greenhouse gas emissions and is the second largest cause of
climate change after burning fossil fuels (FAO/WHO, 2019a, p.
239).
Desertification of large areas due to plundering of timber and

unprofitable management of pastures
Desertification is a type of soil degradation caused most often by
reckless human activities in areas with low or variable rainfall,
known as arid areas. Such areas account for over 40% of the
world’s land area. Soil degradation can be caused by various
factors, such as urbanisation, mineral extraction and agriculture.
Due to these activities, trees and other vegetation are removed
while the processes of grazing and arable crops impoverish soils.
In addition, climate change has a negative impact as it increases
the risk of drought (cf. Francis, 2015, section 195). All these
processes lead to soil erosion and make soils unable to retain
water and vegetation to regrow. According to the European
Commission’s World Atlas of Desertification, more than 75% of the
Earth’s soil is degraded and more than 90% could be degraded by
2050. Africa and Asia are most affected (ECA, 2018; Heshmati and
Squires, 2013, p. 459).
Overfishing and illegal fishing

WWF data show that more than 30% of the world’s fish stocks are
overfished and about 60% are close to overfishing. This
overexploitation directly affects the welfare of animals which are
not caught for commercial purposes, such as fish, birds, reptiles
and mammals, e.g., dolphins, seals and porpoises. Moreover, it
leads to a significant reduction in the marine fauna and flora,
limiting availability of marine food (fish, seafood), and
impoverishment of the fishing professions (Grooten & Almond,
2018, p. 114; EJF, 2010, p. 23, EJF & Hen Mpoano, 2019, p. 31).
Loss of biodiversity as a result of the use of growing crops adapted to

extremely large areas and disappearance of certain species, i.e.,
beneficial insects, plants etc.
The FAO/WHO report on crop biodiversity and food farming showed
a sharp decline in this respect. These findings refer to both the
reduction in the number of livestock breeds and diminished crop
diversity. Many species which help preserve basic functions of the
ecosystem, e.g., pollinating insects, natural enemies of pests, soil
organisms and wild species of edible plants, disappear as a result
of the destruction and degradation of their habitats,
overexploitation, pollution and other threats. For example, almost
one-third of wild freshwater fish stocks are overfished, which puts
their existence at risk. The report indicates a rapid decline in the
number of key ecosystems for food production and agricultural
development, fresh water supplies, and habitats of beneficial
species, such as fish and pollinating insects (FAO/WHO, 2019b, p.
20; cf. UNGA, 2015, section 33). Francis reminds us of the fact that
the Amazon, the Congo basins as well as great aquifers and
glaciers are those areas which constitute richly biodiverse lungs of
the planet (Francis, 2015, section 38). John Paul II, in turn, claims
that it is not possible to maintain biodiversity without solidarity
(John Paul II, 2003).
Hunger and availability of drinking water

It is assumed that fresh water on Earth represents only about 3% of all water
resources and its amount is constantly decreasing. Global warming and
desertification have a significant impact on the circulation of water in nature
and reduce its amount. This concerns the amount of rainfall, water levels in
rivers and lakes, soil moisture and snow-cover water resources. As a result,
millions of people are deprived of access to water. It is estimated that about
880 million people do not have access to drinking water. For example, Lake
Chad in Central Africa has shrunk by as much as 95% since 1960. With this
desperate lack of water, individual countries are forced to protect their water
resources from their neighbours due to water thefts or appropriations. Such
practices include dam-building and reversing rivers as is the case in China,
for example. Restricted access to water is one of the most dangerous effects
of climate change which puts people’s lives at risk (WHO/UNICEF, Progress
on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene; WHO/UNICEF, Progress on
household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: 2000–2017;
WHO/UNICEF 20, Global baseline report. Wash in health care facilities). As
noted by Pope Francis, “access to safe drinkable water is a basic and
universal human right” (Francis, 2015, section 30).
Ironically, African countries which are least responsible for climate
change are most affected. Severe droughts cover the whole east and south of
Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, the Republic of South Africa, Zambia, Angola,
Namibia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Ethiopia. Pope Francis remarks that “the
warming caused by huge consumption on the part of some rich countries
has repercussions on the poorest areas of the world, especially Africa, where
a rise in temperature, together with drought, has proved devastating for
farming” (Francis, 2015, section 51). Consequently, even neighbouring
villages struggle to gain access to water, and age-old tribal and religious
conflicts re-escalate. This, in turn, leads to wars and genocide. For example,
Somalis who experience lack of water engage in piracy while others illegally
cross the border with Ethiopia and Kenya to steal drinking water. It is not
only the climate change that exacerbates water deficit problems in Africa.
The dramatic situation is deteriorated by human actions, such as the
uncontrolled growth of cattle herds, soil erosion caused by agricultural
practices, the burning of savannahs and grubbing of forests to turn it into
fields and pastures. This desperate lack of water also poses a direct threat to
human life and indirectly affects food shortages. As a result, the inhabitants
experience hunger (WHO/UNICEF, 2018, p. 84).
Peace as a prerequisite for access to food
The Church devotes a great deal of space to the issue of peace, with a
primary focus on preventing the effects of wars, and in particular hunger
which is most severe. In 2013, in connection with the war in Syria and the
next G8 summit, Pope Francis emphasised that peace is a prerequisite for the
effective fight against hunger (Francis, 2013b). Peace is understood as the
effect of justice, and justice, in the world affected by evil, is only possible
through actions of love. Only love can radically transform human relations
and restore fraternal relationships in the areas of conflict, hatred and
exploitation (Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, 2004, p. 4).
Christian love assumes openness to cooperation between all people of good
will.
When hunger affects people on a massive scale, and this is the case during
armed conflicts, they instinctively do everything to obtain food while those
who have access to food resources become lords of life and death. As a
result, hunger becomes a weapon much stronger than money (Francis, 2016).
The oldest historical sources refer to the use scorched earth policy or sowing
the soil with salt so that it becomes infertile (Bond, 2015, p. 8).
Unfortunately, nowadays, we can also observe that access to food or even
drinking water is used as a tool to fight, often against civilians as was the
case during the warfare in Syria or Iraq.
Food was widely used as a means of political pressure after it was
stipulated in the 1974 secret Kissinger Report that aid to developing
countries is contingent on their steps to reduce fertility:
There is also some established precedent for taking account of family

planning performance in appraisal of assistance requirements by AID
[Agency for International Development – editor’s note] and consultative
groups. Since population growth is a major determinant of increases in
food demand, allocation of scarce PL 480 [the Food for Peace program –
editor’s note] resources should take account of what steps a country is
taking in population control as well as food production.
(NSSM 200, 1974, p. 77)
When we observe the conflict in the Middle East or South Sudan, we can
easily notice that weak and often corrupt governments have no way but to
either accept the proposals of developed countries or face further hunger and
death of their citizens. This shows that food is really used as a weapon in
foreign policy and war.
The Middle East as a place where food has been used as a

weapon
In 2014, the so-called Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) took over
traditional Christian towns near Mosul. As a result, more than 100,000
Christians fled. Many of them took nothing when they left their homes and
were left without any means to live. They were completely dependent on
outside help. Food and medicines were first to appear on the list of
necessities, followed by housing facilities. Pope Francis called for prayers
and fasting for peace in Syria at the very beginning of the conflict in Syria
(Pullella, 2013).
During the ongoing war in Syria, water was turned off in besieged
districts of Aleppo, and the supply of food and medicine was blocked to
force inhabitants to leave the districts (Human Appeal, 2018, p. 5). During
the continuing military operations, crops are scheduled to be destroyed (UN
News, 2019). Due to the war, food costs have increased tenfold (FAO, 2018, p.
28). It is estimated that 6.5 million people do not have food security
(UNOCHA, 2019, p. 64). It is only thanks to the rapid response of
humanitarian organisations that even greater tragedy has not occurred. If
not for the immediate aid, hundreds, if not thousands, of people would die
of hunger.
This information comes from interviews made during stays in Syria.1 It is
not difficult to imagine living in a besieged city like Aleppo for a long time.
One cannot buy food due to the siege of the city and the lack of money.
Many people did not have enough savings to cover several years of war.
Only humanitarian organisations, often via the Church institutions, could
donate money to buy food, electricity or heating oil in winter.
Access to water plays a similar role in the fight against civilians. Water
supply to districts is often closed and inhabitants are forced to leave their
homes. This was particularly acute for the elderly living on the upper floors.
Due to the lack of electricity and lifts being out of order, they had to carry
water for food and hygiene purposes (cf. UNOCHA, 2019, p. 25).
The lack of infant milk is another issue which the humanitarian
organisations had to quickly deal with. Malnourished nursing mothers had
no food to feed their children. It turned out that a centre, financed, inter alia,
by Poles, which provided mothers with powder milk adequate to the age of
their children was the only effective solution in this case. In some regions,
such as East Ghouta and Tell Abiad, about one-third of children are
malnourished (UNOCHA, 2019, p. 74). Pope Francis referred to the issue of
hunger in Syria, Yemen and South Sudan at one of his Wednesday General
Audiences. He reminded the faithful of the fact that, the daily bread for
which Christians pray in the Lord’s Prayer is “ours,” not “mine,” which entails
a commitment to starving children (Merlo, 2019).
Wars destabilise the entire region involved. The most recent example of
this is Lebanon. At the beginning of December, the situation seemed under
control although it was tense. However, the collapse of the banking system
caused a great deal of confusion in the country. The practical consequence of
this event is that a family can take out no more than USD 100 a week,
irrespective of the amount of money in the account. The collapse of the
banking system has a major impact on the economic situation. As a result,
access to food in war-torn Syria is significantly limited. Until now, aid
organisations have used Lebanese banks to transfer money, but this is
practically impossible at present. Unfortunately, this leads to further
destabilisation of war-torn Syria (Cornish, 2019). Msgr. Samir Nassar,
Maronite archbishop of Damascus, stated that “guaranteeing daily bread ‘has
become the recurring nightmare’ for ordinary people and the Church is now
‘a wall of tears’ where people come to cry for help or seek silence in the
consolation” (Nassar, 2020).
Such issues require quick response. Fortunately, the Catholic Church can
operate more easily due to her widespread structures. The practical aid is
provided via the charitable activity of a number of organisations, including
the Pontifical Foundation Aid to the Church in Need (ACN), which is
involved in providing aid, mainly food aid, at the very beginning of the
conflict. Initially, food parcels feeding a family for a month were provided,
and the aid covered 3,000 families (ACN, 2019, p. 70). They were
accompanied by the so-called hygiene parcels with things necessary for
personal hygiene. Annually, the Association provides assistance to several
dozen thousand families. Help is distributed via the local Church
institutions. Note that all local churches are engaged, and in Aleppo, for
example, there are 10 different Christian churches. The aid is interreligious in
nature as it also covers Muslims. The positive information is that Muslims
also help Christians in areas inaccessible to our organisations. Helping
schoolchildren and students is another key aid area. More than 12,000 people
were helped (ACN, 2019, p. 70). Helping children is extremely important. As
reported by the local institutions, in Aleppo alone, there are about 10,000
street children who, if left unattended and without access to school, would
be exposed to radicalisation. ACN’s annual budget to help Syria and Iraq is
more than USD 13 million (ACN, 2019, p. 67).
Paradoxically, the situation of the region is worsened due to its rich
natural resources constituting a significant part of the economies of many
countries in the world. As noted by Pope Francis, “once certain resources
have been depleted, the scene will be set for new wars, albeit under the
guise of noble claims” (Francis, 2015, section 57).
Conclusion
The analysis of the goals of 2030 Agenda and the approach of Catholic social
teaching reveals a number of common elements. The fight against hunger
and the call for broad international cooperation in this respect undoubtedly
constitute such a common ground. What makes these two perspectives
different is the way the issues are recognised and approached. Agenda
primarily focuses on the goals and makes little effort to recognise the
problem. Catholic social teaching emphasises that human sin, manifested in
people’s desire to meet their own needs at the expense of others, is the main
cause of hunger in the world. In his encyclical Laudato Si’, Francis strongly
emphasises that
we have “a sort of superdevelopment of a wasteful and consumerist kind

which forms an unacceptable contrast with the ongoing situations of
dehumanizing deprivation”… . We fail to see the deepest roots of our
present failures, which have to do with the direction, goals, meaning and
social implications of technological and economic growth.
The causes of hunger are deeper, exceeding the purely economic or technical
dimension. This is why, from the perspective of Catholic social teaching, the
moral imperative of the fight against hunger never sets specific deadlines to
resolve the issue. In this respect, the approach of the 2030 Agenda should be
regarded as utopian. Nevertheless, one should not stop making attempts to
reduce hunger by introducing a multifaceted, modern solutions with the
purpose of achieving a good quality of life and having regard to limitations
of the planet. Pragmatically, to achieve this goal, the concept of the green
economy can be adopted. It aims at increasing human well-being and social
equality while reducing environmental risks (climate) and preventing
overexploitation of natural resources. To this end, a variety of measures are
needed, ranging from education and training, research and development,
through appropriate economic policies, to sustainable production and
consumption (EC, 2019, p. 49).
How to approach the issue of hunger is another thing which is perceived
differently. From the very beginning, the Church has been emphasising the
transcendent and eschatological dimension of help. Help or failure to help a
hungry person is tantamount to acceptance or rejection of Christ. To
effectively help, personal relationships and experiences with the hungry are
needed. Otherwise, the case may be that various declarations made at
international meetings, however lofty goals they would assume, will not be
followed by actions. This point was raised by Pope Francis in a meaningful
way:
When all is said and done, they frequently remain at the bottom of the
pile. This is due partly to the fact that many professionals, opinion
makers, communications media and centres of power, being located in
affluent urban areas, are far removed from the poor, with little direct
contact with their problems. They live and reason from the comfortable
position of a high level of development and a quality of life well beyond
the reach of the majority of the world’s population. This lack of physical
contact and encounter, encouraged at times by the disintegration of our
cities, can lead to a numbing of conscience and to tendentious analyses
which neglect parts of reality.
It should be also emphasised that certain goals of the 2030 Agenda related
to SDG2 (though all the goals are assumed to be “integrated and indivisible”
(UNGA, 2015, section 18)), are in direct conflict with Catholic social
teaching. This refers particularly to those goals which make reference to
“left-wing” perspective and axiology, i.e., the so-called sexual and
reproductive health and reproductive rights (SDG3.7 and SDG5.6), which
imply the promotion of access to contraception, abortion and sterilisation
(Peeters, 2019). As pointed out by Francis,
Instead of resolving the problems of the poor and thinking of how the
world can be different, some can only propose a reduction in the birth
rate. At times, developing countries face forms of international pressure
which make economic assistance contingent on certain policies of
“reproductive health”… . To blame population growth instead of extreme
and selective consumerism on the part of some is one way of refusing to
face the issues.
Even more emphatic are the words of Pope Paul VI, who asks the
question: “Is it not simply a new form of war when some nations try to
impose restrictive demographic policies on others so that the latter may not
claim their just share of the earth’s fruits?” (Paul VI, 1974, section 6). John
Paul II, in turn, explicitly states that some circles are “haunted by the current
demographic growth and fear that the most prolific and poorest peoples
represent a threat for the well-being and peace of their own countries” (John
Paul II, 1995, section 16).
Note
1 Most of the information about the internal situation in Syria comes from our own archives. The
author runs a humanitarian organisation and visits Syria and other Middle Eastern countries
several times a year.
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3 Health care as a personal and social
asset
Katarzyna Kucharska, Jan Przybyłowski and
Sebastian Sikorski
Introduction
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly (UNGA) on 25 September 2015 in New York,
poses a challenge to all international communities on the key issues referring
to health care and preventive care. The aim of this chapter is to discuss both
consistency and disproportion of present main issues of health care from the
theological, medical, and legal perspective to set priorities for the integrally
operating health care system.
Theological perspective
In the concept of traditional medicine, which also includes the truth about
the creation of man in the image and likeness of God, the human person has
an unchangeable nature. In the concept of modern (existentialist) medicine,
human nature is treated as an infinite project that can be improved by new
techniques. This leads to health improvement and aims at maintaining the
quality of life at all costs. The theologian’s response is to indicate the value
of suffering and hope for eternal life, which form the foundations of the
Christian concept of human quality of life. In this perspective, the principle
of medicus curat, natura sanat, Deus salvat can be again promoted in
medicine, which implies an agreement on the definition of a human being
incorporating psychological, physical, and spiritual integrity. Thus, both
secular science (e.g., medicine or law) and theology shall address the subject
of health care.
The dialogue between both disciplines is feasible if we allow for the
anthropological concept that human life is naturally directed at death; as
Claude Bernard (1813–1878) put it, La vie, c’est la mort [Life is death]
(Ratzinger, 2005, p. 244; Rees, 2016, p. 110). What is more, theology
formulates an axiom based on the view that man is an individual created
and saved by God; therefore, his value, greatness, dignity, and rights must
not be questioned (Przybyłowski, 2019a, pp. 137–157). Health is a kind of
welfare comprising the state of body, mind, and spirit of a human. The
concept of a human is the subject of the Church’s concern, being at the same
time the focus of medicine and law. In the personalistic view, when a person
is treated, their rights must be protected (Przybyłowski, 2019c, pp. 45–55).
Thus, health proves to be something more than just a disease-free condition;
“It is a foundation of formed, creative life, which co-creates the system of
norms and values” (Roth, 1998, p. 11).
Medical perspective
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development appears to be a challenge for
all international communities in the crucial domain of health care and
health prevention.
The aim of this section is to describe protection of health, being a personal
and social value, in the context of Catholic social teaching, and to identify
both the consistency and disparity of health care and health prevention,
assuming a theological, medical, and legal approach. Protection of human
health encompasses various areas, i.e., basic (institutional professional
medical help and care of life conditions, hygiene, work, rest, and nutrition),
specialist (hospitalisation and specialist medical procedures), subjective
(medical personnel), objective (health services, medical care, pharmaceutical
and technical-medical companies), individual (a human being), and
socioeconomical (politics, economy, ecology).
The most significant factors conditioning physical and mental health may
include poverty and material inequalities, family structure, physical
environment (air, living quarters, leisure, etc.), social attitudes and
stigmatisation of some individuals (e.g., the sick), risky behaviours, genetic
factors, and accessibility of medical services. The foundation that aims at
protection of health and providing care for the quality of human life on
everyday basis is dignity of a human being. It is safeguarded by human
rights, patients’ rights, and moral and ethical axiology, as well as medical
deontology. Equal accessibility to health services, regardless of financial
situation of particular individuals, and increased care of individuals
requiring special care of the state, i.e., children, the pregnant, the disabled,
and the elderly, are of key importance here.
Legal perspective
Legal perspective regarding health care is an immensely complex and wide-
ranging matter. Therefore, preliminary conditions should be determined.
International norms and principles regarding human and patient rights,
which initially were subjected to the regulations enacted within common
normative acts, shall be the starting point of consideration. Such a viewpoint
proves to be justified by a strict functional relation between these
regulations. This becomes particularly evident while comparing the right to
life to the right to health care. Narrowing the analysis to the EU regulations,
in order to finally demonstrate the examples of domestic solutions in
particular countries, is deliberate. According to the principle of subsidiarity,
EU member states regulate the structure and the operating rules of their
health care systems individually. Germany and Great Britain were selected
as the subject of the following analysis, owing to the fact that they are two
major representations of health care system models, i.e., the Bismarck model
set in Germany and the Beveridge model designed in the UK. In order to
indicate the “common denominator” for both systems (taking the Polish
solutions into account), which has a great impact on the wide concept of
preventive health care, the issues of integrated/coordinated health care
should be taken into consideration. This is what the tasks related to health
education and prevention focus on. Each and every person is entitled to
health care services intending to treat illnesses and maintain the physical,
mental, and spiritual well-being. The quality of provided medical services is
determined by a number of factors, including the development of studies
aimed at broadening the idea of health. The following section provides an
analysis of achievements in the field of health in the context of applied
medical, legal, and theological sciences.
Health care from the theological perspective

From the theological point of view, health care is not only confined to
psychophysical well-being as positive openness to the spiritual value of
suffering should also play a significant role. The synergy between the health
and spiritual spheres relies on the integrity of the human being. Religion and
health are, in fact, related with the spiritual needs of a human being, aligned
with a broadly understood axiology on both doctrinal and practical levels
(Libiszowska-Żółtkowska, 1997, p. 23). Therefore, not only should health care
take professionalisation of medical procedures into consideration, but also
protect the fundamental right of every person to their religion which
satisfies their spiritual needs.
Health as individual and social asset

While taking complex protection of physical, psychological, and spiritual
wellness into account, fundamental health factors along with non-medical
conditions should still be considered. As far as public health protection
(sociocultural perspective) is concerned, health-promoting activities, which
are legally protected especially in terms of human rights, play a vital role.
The protection of human life is a social measure of human culture and
humanism; however, it requires a clear resolution of the ontological (life in
the biological aspect), normative (criminal law and protection of life), and
axiological (ethical-moral aspects of life protection) issues. The teaching of
the Catholic Church, taking into account the latest medical knowledge, is
unchanging: human life begins at conception and its interruption (abortion,
euthanasia, eugenic practices, and medical experiments) has always been
considered by the Church as the most serious crime against man.
The protection of human life and health is closely linked to fundamental
rights. At the heart of these rights, human dignity is located, together with
the system of ethical and moral values. The freedom to take action and to
protect life and health is ensured by conscience from a theological, legal, and
medical perspective; that is one of the fundamental rights of a human being
who must not be forced to act contrary to their worldviews and beliefs.
Taking health care into account, the role of the Church in promoting
ethics and moral principles based on the natural standards of morality
should also be noticed. Moreover, Church, in its pastoral activity, may also
demonstrate broadly defined Samaritan behaviours, such as charity and
humanitarian actions, mostly directed towards social welfare where the
government proves to be unwieldy or noninvolved.
Finally, the ministry of Church is needed by the sick, elderly, and disabled
people who could be emotionally supported in their suffering. Inasmuch as
man remains closely related to this background, the acknowledgement of the
value of health is primarily created within a family. That is where the need
for integral development arises, obtained by leading a morally worthy and
decent life, and appreciation of natural environment (ecology) along with
life and health care.
Cooperation of the family and health care is essential for the protection of
health. Regarding the prophylaxis, it is the family that shapes healthy habits,
especially with children. All in all, that is the place where the basic personal
hygiene routines are taught, starting with washing hands and the whole
body, preparing food, caring for water, taking care of the sick, maintaining
good personal hygiene, looking after pets, and showing concern for the
environment. Although the Church records do not explicitly mention the
details of provisions of hygiene, they do indicate the relevance of family in
terms of health and life care, along with the importance of environmental
and spiritual education (Francis, 2015, sections 202–245).
Involvement of Church in health issues

The concern of the Church for the sick and suffering people aligned with the
solidarity with them results from the fact that “man is the first and primary
way of church” (John Paul II, 1979, section 14). The Gospel urges Christians
to take care of other people’s needs, in particular those that are sick, elderly,
suffering, or lonely, or who need help and support. The Church has fulfilled
the Samaritan behaviour from the very beginning, and the tangible effect of
this concern could be noticed in hospices, homeless shelters, nursing homes,
and a great number of other facilities providing people with support and
care they need. The Church also established ecclesiastical institutions, whose
aim is to undertake actions promoting health care, such as the Pontifical
Council for the Pastoral Care of Health Care Workers, the Pontifical Council
Cor Unum, the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace (Pontificium
1
Consilium de Iustitia et Pax), the Pontifical Academy for Life (Pontificia
Accademia per la Vita), and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences (Pontificia
Academia Scientiarum). All these institutions are engaged in ethical, moral,
medical, and life sciences issues; moreover, they analyse the current
problems referring to these areas, which undoubtedly have great impact on
human life and health.
One of the most important ecclesiastical documents is the Charter for
Heath Care Workers published in 1995. This document shows birth, life, and
death as three dimensions of human existence. It is part of the work of the
“new evangelisation” which also aims at preparing health workers to protect
life in the manner of the ministry of Christ. The value of the Church’s
teaching is appreciated above all by theologians (especially moral
theologians and bioethicists, e.g., Piotr Morciniec or Marcin Machinek), but
it is also an important voice in discussions with medical scientists, law
specialists, and health care professionals.
Prevention and health promotion from the theological perspective
The Magisterium of Church emphasises that health, to a large extent, is in
human hands given that healthy lifestyle comprises an important part of
disease prevention that is particularly related to the development of
civilisation. In light of the Church’s teaching, the most important measures
that should be adopted to preserve health include periodic medical
examinations, providing urgent care in case of an illness, and prevention
that involves physical exercise aligned with rational, healthy eating habits.
Thus, elimination of alcohol, tobacco, and taking other harmful stimulants
or medicines not prescribed by the doctor plays a vital role. Additionally,
making every effort to ensure a healthy environment (Przybyłowski, 2019b,
pp. 11–22) and responding to the needs of body and spirit are also matters of
top priority (Francis, 2015, sections 203–208). All these are of supreme
significance as people themselves take the consequence for causing diseases
and bear their potential impacts. Drug and alcohol dependence or AIDS are
the clearest examples. It is man that should be held responsible for
environmental threats, caused by disregard for environmental protection. In
his encyclical Laudato Si’, Pope Francis issued a long list of the previous
measures (Francis, 2015, sections 20–26). Taking care for health is closely
related to the moral obligation to preserve a healthy lifestyle and ensure
relevant rest. The Church recognises that the overall health of most societies
raises legitimate concerns due to diseases of affluence, addictions, famine,
lack of access to drinking water, or basic health care. The state of children’s
health is particularly worrying and thus poses challenges to health
prevention and health care. Economic interests also plead in favour of
prophylaxis. As it turns out, preventing diseases proves less costly than
restoring health of the sick, where the use of expensive medicines or
technologies is required. Taking a theological perspective into account, there
are two principles included in all the legal, sanitary, and medical systems
that are worth considering: (1) the right to be born healthy and lifelong
health care (Otowicz, 1998, p. 63; O’Rourke & Brodeur, 1987; O’Rourke &
Boyle, 2011) as well as (2) the principle of subsidiarity along with human
solidarity, which regulates fair medical care for all individuals.
Health care (life protection, general and secondary health care)

While performing the synthetic (owing to the volume of this study) analysis
of chronological regulations enforcing human and patient’s rights, Article 3
of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, establishing life protection
and security of individuals, and Article 25, sanctioning individual’s
economic, social, and cultural rights, including health care, shall be
mentioned. Article 5 indirectly relates to these rights since it imposes
prohibition of tortures. The regulation that in the following context also
deserves particular attention is the Treaty of London (1949). Taking European
regulations into account, the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights
and Fundamental Freedoms drafted in 1950 and the European Social Charter
established in 1961, where the issues of health protection are many times
related to in the context of safety of working environment, should also be
pointed out.
The right to life protection, however, has been directly referred to in
Article 11. Other regulations sanctioning human and patient’s rights jointly
are established in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(1966) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (1966). Special importance should also be given to the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights regulation that requires
parties to take specific steps to create conditions to ensure equal and timely
access to medical services for all (Article 12.2.d). In addition, the Charter of
Fundamental Rights enshrines certain rights to respect physical and mental
integrity of every individual, and it requires the free and informed consent
of the person concerned, along with the prohibition of eugenic practices. The
literature highlights that all people, regardless of their places of residence,
should have equal rights to joint efforts ensuring protection or improvement
of health. Apparently, there are significant differences in accessibility of the
same rights concerning the health sphere depending on the geographical
location, i.e., a high-income or low-income country (Ooms et al., 2019, pp.
99–104). Other regulations enact the right to health protection pursuant to
separate regulations. The Single European Act, signed on 17 February 1986,
included very general provisions on public health. Furthermore, resolutions
regarding health care were sequentially passed in the Maastricht Treaty
signed on 7 February 1992 (the Treaty on European Union), the Treaty of
Amsterdam amending the Treaty on European Union, the treaties
establishing European Communities and certain related acts signed on 2
October 1997, as well as the Treaty of Lisbon. Further declarations regarding
health care are enshrined in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European
Union (Title XIV Public Health). Additionally, the Convention for the
Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to
the Application of Biology and Medicine, known as the Ovido Convention,
should be given particular attention. However, in such an important area of
regulation concerning the protection of human rights and dignity of the
human being, there is no reference to conscience, which allows scientists,
doctors, and patients to make decisions according to their own value
systems. This document also does not provide clear bioethical guidance as is
evident from the identification of human research and transplantation
options. In addition, it lacks a clear definition of where the limit to the
provision of medical services is, what conditions determine the conduct and
termination of persistent therapy; it lacks precise solutions for abortion,
euthanasia, and reproduction.
The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union should also be
indicated here, which in the provision of Article 35 explicitly mentions the
right of everyone to access protection and medical treatment.
Taking Polish medical doctrines into account, as D. Karkowska
pertinently indicates, all the previously mentioned regulations (particularly
ICCPR, ECHR, ESC, and Oviedo Convention) establish basic human and
civil rights held by both healthy and sick individuals (Karkowska, 2016).
Accordingly, the subject of functionally related regulations was jointly
issued. International agreements, such as the Charter of Patients’ Rights
(1984) issued by the European Parliament, the Declaration on the Promotion
of Patients’ Rights in Europe (1994), and the European Charter of Patient’s
Rights (Cittadinanzattiva – Active Citizenship) should also be included in
resolutions protecting patients’ rights. Considering the relation between the
human and patient rights, Article 2.1 of the Declaration on the Promotion of
Patients’ Rights ought to be given particular focus. Recitals of the Charter
grant the right to preventive health care as well as access to medical
services, regardless of the financial situation of the patient, place of
residence, type of disease, or the time given. Both international law and the
law of the European Union introduce broadly interpreted (including
prevention) right to life protection. Regarding the detailed solutions,
however, the legal systems of particular countries should be referred to.
According to the conventional definition, health care is a maintenance or
improvement of health and comprises the prevention, diagnosis, treatment,
and recovery processes. Health care is considered an important determinant
in promoting the general physical and mental health and well-being of
people worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a
well-functioning health care system requires a financing mechanism, well-
trained professionals, evidenced-based medicine and policies, and well-
maintained health facilities to deliver quality medicines and technologies
(WHO, Health Systems, 2020).
Health care is divided into three tiers of service provision, such as primary
care, secondary care, and tertiary care. Primary care refers to the work of a
general practitioner or a family physician who acts as a first point of
consultation for all patients within the whole health care system (NHS, 2019,
p. 14). Secondary health care means specialist treatment and support
provided by medical professionals for patients who have been referred to
them for specific expert care, most often provided in hospitals. Tertiary care
is specialised health care in a facility for advanced medical investigation and
treatment, such as cancer management, neurosurgery, cardiac surgery, or
advanced neonatology services (John Hopkins Medicine. Patient Care:
Tertiary Care Definition). According to the Global Monitoring Report on
Financial Protection in Health and World Health Organization (WHO & the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2020, p. 3), at least
half of the world’s population cannot obtain essential health services.
Currently, 800 million people spend at least 10 percent of their household
budgets on health expenses for themselves or family members. For almost
100 million people, these expenses are high enough to lead them into
extreme poverty and forcing to survive on just $1.90 or less a day. In total,
the number of people that are covered with most essential services ranged
from 2.3 to 3.5 billion in 2015. This implies that at least half of the world’s 7.3
billion people do not receive the essential health services they need.
Furthermore, the previously mentioned report indicated substantial unmet
need for a range of specific health interventions. For example, more than 1
billion people live with uncontrolled hypertension; more than 200 million
women have inadequate coverage for family planning; and almost 20 million
infants fail to start or complete vaccines.
The ongoing progress remains very uneven; there are wide gaps in the
availability of services in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. In other
regions, basic health care services, such as family planning and infant
immunisation, are becoming more available, but the lack of financial
protection means increasing financial distress for families as they pay for
these services out of their own pockets. This is even a challenge in more
affluent regions, such as Eastern Asia, Latin America, and Europe, where a
growing number of people spend at least 10 percent of their household
budgets on out-of-pocket health expenses. The challenge for policy is to
ensure that additional resources for health care are channelled through
compulsory pooled prepayment mechanisms rather than through out-of-
pocket spending (WHO & the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, 2020, p. 3).
Life-ending and life protection

The definition of abortion is the termination of a human pregnancy
accompanied by the death of the embryo/foetus. The data on abortions
displayed on the Worldometers’ counter is based on the latest statistics on
worldwide abortions published by the World Health Organization.
According to the WHO, every year in the world, there are an estimated 40–
50 million abortions. According to the Guttmacher Institute, approximately
862,320 abortions took place in 2017 in the United States. It means that
approximately 18 percent of US pregnancies ended in abortion.
As far as European states are concerned, there were over 400,000
abortions in England and Wales in 2018. Most countries in the European
Union allow abortion on demand during the first 12 weeks. After the first
trimester, abortion is generally allowed only under certain circumstances,
such as risk to the woman’s life or health, foetal defects, or other specific
situations that may be related to the circumstances of the conception or the
woman’s age. Euthanasia is commonly defined as “the practice of
intentionally ending a life to relieve pain” or as “assisted suicide and
termination of life on request,” or “a deliberate intervention undertaken with
the express intention of ending a life to relieve intractable suffering.”
Voluntary euthanasia is conducted with the consent of the patient and is
legal in Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and in the US – case
Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health. Assisted suicide (with
the assistance of a physician) is legal in Switzerland and in the US – the
states of California, Oregon, Washington, Montana, and Vermont. Other
categories of euthanasia, such as non-voluntary euthanasia, when patient’s
consent is unavailable, and involuntary euthanasia, remain illegal in all
countries. According to Vizcarrondo,
there is no role for the physician in euthanasia and assisted suicide. The
physician must care for the ailing patient with love and compassion,
treating physical and emotional pain always with respect, preserving the
person’s dignity, and never cause any harm. The taking of innocent life
is never a moral act.
(Vizcarrondo, 2013, p. 99)
When referring to the issue of abortion and euthanasia from the legal
point of view, it should be pointed out that the legal regulations of
individual countries vary in this respect.
Mental health care
The results of the study conducted in 27 EU member states, Switzerland,
Iceland, and Norway (Wittchen et al., 2011, pp. 655–679) show that each year
164.8 million inhabitants (38.2%) suffer from psychiatric disorders.
Psychiatric disorders are the fourth most common medical cause of
disability (WHO, 2017). For instance, depression according to the World
Health Organization (WHO, 2017, p. 6) is a common illness worldwide, with
more than 300 million people affected.
Around 800,000 people die due to successful suicide attempts every year,
and suicide is the second leading cause of sudden death in the young
population between 15 and 29-year-olds. The proportion of the global
population with anxiety disorders in 2015 was estimated to be 3.6 percent.
As with depression, anxiety disorders are more common among females
than males (4.6% compared to 2.6% at the global level). In the region of the
Americas, as much as 7.7 percent of the female population are estimated to
suffer from anxiety disorders (males, 3.6%). The total estimated number of
people living with anxiety disorders in the world is 264 million. This total for
2015 reflects a 14.9-percent increase since 2005 (GBD, 2016, p. 15455), as a
result of population growth and ageing. Improving the quality of secondary
health care services and increasing accessibility to these services are among
the essential priorities of WHO. This is of particular importance in Poland, as
the psychiatric care reform is being carried out in accordance with the
National Mental Healthcare Programme guidelines. According to the results
of the project “Maps of Health Needs” (Anczewska et al., 2018, p. 2), the
increase in the total number of services in 2010–2014 was mainly seen for
outpatient types of care, such as day hospitals, community mental health
teams, and outpatient clinics.
Health prevention (health education, prevention of illicit drugs

misuse)
According to the concepts presented in the introduction, a “common
denominator” that has a significant impact on the broad notion of health
education and prevention is an integrated/coordinated health care. Taking
the WHO definition into account, integrated health care is a concept
incorporating initial resources, medical services process, and management
and organisation of health care in terms of diagnostics, treatment,
rehabilitation, and health promotion (Hermanowski & Rutkowski, 2015, pp.
226–227). In this context, primary health care headed by a general
practitioner, who remains related to the local community and performs the
role of a “gatekeeper” of the health care system, plays a key role. As far as
the following concept is concerned, the method of financing benefits, i.e.,
pay-for-performance model, needs to be underlined (Hermanowski &
Rutkowski, 2015, pp. 226–227). Its main priority is to prevent fragmentation
of health care and, consequently, to ensure a comprehensive approach to the
health and social needs of the given population. It must be stressed that
health care understood this way is beyond the health care system itself,
indicating, at the same time, the demand for cooperation at the local level of
health, social care, and education sectors.
Right at the start of 1990s, Great Britain implemented the concept of the
general practitioners’ role, as the “patients’ ombudsman” of a special kind, in
the treatment that involves providing health services and health-related
benefits. Changes in the system of general practitioners have been
introduced since 1999, when all the solo medical practices were incorporated
into group medical practices (Dixon et al., 2001), preserving the status of
individual medical practice by particular physicians (Kozierkiewicz, 2011).
Primary group practices became operational in April 2000, with a designated
75 percent of the NHS budget. Commission for Improvement, the institution
whose main task is the supervision over the quality of patient services, was
concurrently established. In the course of adoption of the following
amendments, the British government emphasised the necessity of
abandonment of budget allocation to general practitioners in favour of
group practices. Moreover, high managerial costs related to solo medical
practises, fragmentation of the health care system, and two-tier health care
was pointed out (Colin-Thome, 2001). At that time, the German model was
successively developing multivariate configurations of health care systems
(cf. Greß & Stegmüller, 2009), referred to as “targeted” or “integrated” health
care. The legislator enacted regulatory laws comprising two types of
solutions, where the first one introduced the regulations permitting entering
into individual agreements between health care funds and providers. Those
arrangements normalise the primary and tertiary health care delivered
within the scope of solo practises, yet they allow the establishment of
medical care centres. The second group of regulations, however, introduced
the earlier-mentioned principle of a gatekeeper, as well as disease
management programmes. Community Health Centres (MVZ) were legally
determined as “interdisciplinary facilities led by physicians.” They can be
called Community Health Centres as long as they offer various types of
medical specialty within one organisation. The centres that put the idea of a
one-stop facility into practice, in close collaboration with suppliers,
combined with efficient management of examination and consultation
schedules, enable significant reduction of unnecessary (repeatedly ordered)
tests as well as scaling down or even eliminating the redundant way that a
patient has to take in the process of treatment. Additionally, thanks to the
shared use of equipment, there is a possibility of implementation of an
integrated EPD system along with shared management of medical practices,
which apparently produces significant effects. To set an example, these could
be pharmacies representing the medical branch and fitness clubs
exemplifying the non-medical sector, which collectively form health centres.
Taking Poland into account, the act from 27 October 2017 on primary health
care, which enacted the implementation of solutions that allow coordinated
care, however, only at the level of the primary medical care, involving a
physician, nurse, and midwife must be mentioned. The following act was
intended at enhancing the role of prophylaxis and health education.
Health prevention
UNESCO Strategy on Education for Better Health and Well-Being:
Contributing to the Sustainable Development Goals of 2016 is an update of
previous UNESCO strategies and provides the overarching framework for
joint action by UNESCO and its partners at global, regional, and country
levels during 2016–2021. There are two main strategic priorities in the
UNESCO Strategy. First, the main field of the strategic priority is to provide
all children and young people with a good quality of comprehensive
sexuality education. The key outcomes behind the implementation of the
UNESCO Strategy include (a) preventing HIV and other sexually
transmitted infections; (b) promoting awareness of HIV testing, knowing
one’s status, and HIV treatment; (c) strengthening puberty education; (d)
preventing early and unintended pregnancy; and (e) developing attitudes,
values, and skills for healthy and respectful relationships. The second main
strategic priority of the UNESCO Strategy on Education for Better Health
and Well-Being is to lead efforts towards all children and young people to
have access to safe, inclusive, health-promoting learning environments. The
key outcomes for the implementation of the UNESCO second main strategic
priority include the following: (a) eliminating school-related violence and
bullying, including school-related gender-based violence; (b) preventing
health- and gender-related discrimination towards learners and educators;
and (c) increasing awareness of the importance of good nutrition and the
quality physical education.
Conclusions
The good quality of individual- and population-based life sets a priority on
integrally operating health care. Medical procedures treat, religion brings
spiritual comfort, and law protects the patient’s rights. Yet, the final effect
also depends on the sick person’s determination to recover. Additionally,
health prevention activities designed to indicate how to improve health and
prevent disease play a key role. Medical staff treating the diseased, apart
from the medical expertise, should also demonstrate integrally combined
knowledge of human dignity, the value of human life, possible disease
exposure, and health, which is greatly dependent upon individual efforts
aligned with efficient health care. The main role in the organisation of
functional health care is played by the state and its three authorities:
legislative and executive, and in a number of cases – judiciary. Governments
of particular countries take the responsibility for the organisation of health
care and have impact on the forms and methods of health protection,
determining its personal, social, and economic character, along with
institutionalising that conditions free access to primary and professional
medical benefits. In a broader sense, the liability for people’s health should
be taken by international organisations (UN, WHO, UNESCO) and
politicians, whose resolutions determine the global standards of health and
medical care, and have impact on the improvement of life conditions,
hygiene, work, leisure, and food supplies for the entire population. On the
other hand, the Church, in the course of caritas, applies the Good Samaritan
doctrine. Caring for the diseased and supporting medical staff, giving hope
for recovery, are its priority. Although professional credentials are a prior
requirement, they prove insufficient. In fact, it is about human beings who
need much more than just technically correct caregiving. Regarding the
patient’s rights perspective, there are two crucial determinants since, on the
one hand, the state has to ensure proper functioning of the health care,
which – through its structure and actual commitment – safeguards the
health care rights, and, on the other, an internal structure directed towards
health education and prophylaxis is a necessity. Such tasks are performed by
the integrated/coordinated care based on the primary health care supported
by the outpatient specialist services. That, in fact, is the level at which
education and preventive health care is possible. These are the health centres
established in larger urban areas, incorporating both the health care types
which, when integrated with other points of the broadly defined medical
branch, could eventually produce the desired effect. Nevertheless, smaller
centres (villages and towns) should be based on individual practices
pursuing the previously mentioned objectives. The management of budget
allocated to clinical laboratory sciences sets the crucial challenge. The key
issue of the system structured in the way indicated earlier would be the
allocation of the budget for specialised medical examinations, which – in the
name of erroneous assumptions – should on no account lead to savings at
the cost of patients.
Note
1 By the resolution of Pope Francis, Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Health Care
Workers, Pontifical Council “Cor Unum” and Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace “Iustitia et
Pax” were liquidated and, on 1 January 2017, their functions were taken over by Dicastery for
Promoting Integral Human Development.
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4 The role of education and activities of the Catholic
Church and the need to promote sustainable
development
Beata Zbarachewicz, Jarosław Michalski and Piotr Tomasik
Introduction
This chapter discusses the importance and the role of education in promoting sustainable
development. Currently, over 265 million children do not attend school out of which 22% do not
attend primary school. Moreover, even some of those who attend classes cannot read and count.
Poor quality of education is caused by the lack of qualified teachers, poor school conditions and
unequal access to schools for children from rural areas. High-quality education requires
educational scholarship programmes, workshops for teachers, building schools and improving
access to water and electricity in schools (UNGA, 2019, p. 11). Such measures are undertaken by
international organisations, countries and education-related institutions involved in the
implementation of sustainable development objectives and the education activities for sustainable
development initiatives.
In this respect, UNESCO, the official agency established in 2002 to coordinate the building of
sustainable development, plays a pivotal role (UNGA, 2002, pp. 1–2). Its activities for sustainable
development are particularly visible. In 2015, UNESCO, together with UNICEF, World Bank,
UNFPA, UNDP, UN Women and UNHCR, organised the World Education Forum (attended by
more than 1600 participants from 160 countries) and adopted the Incheon Declaration setting out
the vision of education development and the commitments to be fulfilled by the international
community by 2030.
The role of education in sustainable development is emphasised in the document Transforming
Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Agenda) adopted on 25 September
2015, and in particular in its Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4) devoted to education. SDG4
of the Agenda succeeded the Millennium Development Goal 2 (MDG2) scheduled for the year
2015 (Millennium Development Goals, 2000). The Agenda highlights the need to ensure high-
quality education for all and promote lifelong learning opportunities. In particular, it states that it
is necessary to ensure that all girls and boys receive free, equitable, quality primary and secondary
education, and that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable
development (UNGA, 2015, section 17).
The General Assembly Resolution Education for sustainable development in the framework of
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Resolution 2019) is yet another document raising
the issue of education for sustainable development. It calls on the international community to
strengthen the role of education in order to achieve the goals of the Agenda by 2030. In particular,
it recognises gender barriers with respect to girls’ access to education and the need to provide
quality education to children in conflict regions.
To contribute to the building of sustainable development, countries, international organisations
and educational institutions hold meetings, sign declarations and resolutions, and adopt plans for
the implementation of SDGs (Cichos, 2019). The role of declarations, charters and partnerships in
promoting sustainable development is reflected by the works of more than 1000 university leaders
who signed their commitments to work for sustainable development. Universities have shown
particular commitment in this field. Universities around the world make various efforts to ensure
sustainable development. They propose new teaching methods, pedagogical approaches, curricula
and cooperation with other universities, promote the implementation of sustainable development
in university campuses and run training programmes for university teachers (Lozano et al., 2013,
pp. 10–19). Unfortunately, these efforts often focus on one or two areas of university sustainable
development. This drives further division and prevents adoption of holistic and system-based
approach (Filho et al., 2017, p. 93).
Sustainable development efforts are also supported by initiatives of the Catholic Church. To
achieve Target 4.c of SDG4, which calls to substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers
through teacher-training in developing countries by 2030, the Catholic Church provides
missionary volunteer service in the field of education.
The aim of this chapter is to explore the role and importance of education in the building of
sustainable development and to make reference to Catholic social teaching on education,
upbringing and their impact on human development. The first part of the paper discusses the
crucial role of education in human life. Further, we explore the documents of Catholic social
teaching, especially the teachings of John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis. As a summary of how
the Target 4.c. is put into effect, we present the statistical data of the missionary work of the
Catholic Church in education and charity, with particular emphasis on the Polish missionary
activity.
Access to education
In pedagogical theory, as in any other scientific theory, conclusions are never final and thus may
be questioned. They form a continuous stream of thoughts driven by the value of a specific action.
In view of this, it may be assumed that the attempt to maintain a uniform approach to education,
especially in the face of the dynamic transformation of civilisation, will inevitably lead to a
serious crisis in education. All the more so because the need for constant modification of priorities
and model of education is determined not only by external changes in the education system, but
above all by what evolves inside them. This internal dimension fits into increasingly diverse
expectations and capabilities of entities interested in educational activities for sustainable
development (Nowak, 2008, p. 28).
According to Plato, any crisis is in fact a conflict which arises in a point where objective essence
and subjective existence meet; it continues until a human being (and not the institution) starts to
balance between what is real, good and beautiful with what is perfectly real, good and beautiful
(Michalski, 2012, p. 265). Therefore, further efforts to reform the education system by way of quasi-
evolutionary cosmetic improvements without a clear shift of emphasis or solid reinforcement of
positivist foundations on which it is based and without some elements of the structure being
removed or replaced, which is then inevitable, will not only deepen the crisis, but may contribute
to an uncontrolled gradual decline into disorder. Even today, differentiated particularistic interests,
opinions and views result in a rapid spread of, often mutually exclusive, educational goals and
paradigms. However, this does not necessarily mean that a global revolution is inevitable. History
has shown us time and time again that the only change that occurs as a result of a radical break
with the past and rapid change in the way we exist is that some people stop being dissatisfied
while others, those who preferred to preserve the status quo, object to it. Revolution, or global
reform as may be more preferred, does not eliminate individual tragedies and disparities arising
from good and evil or falsehood and truth. On the contrary, it often deepens or, at best, preserves
them (Filho et al., 2015, p. 114).
It is necessary to state in detail which educational activities should be ceased to ensure that the
benefits for the public interest do not interfere with benefits for individual and vice versa. Such
evolutionary changes require great responsibility and patience of both their originators and those
to whom they are directed (Lozano, 2011, p. 68).
With over 900 million adult illiterate people, 130 million children not attending primary school
and 100 million early school leavers, today’s world urgently needs to repair its education system.
Note that these data concern the global community in the 21st century, which is expected to be the
“century of education and learning.” With the aim to promote sustainable development, this goal is
a challenge in the organisational, methodical, logistical and, above all, educational point of view,
even for developed and prosperous societies.
Theoretical foundations of education for sustainable development seen as a civilisation
challenge or, to put it more firmly, a must or obligation to constantly face new challenges of late-
modernity societies are believed to be created by sociologists, such as P. Bourdieu, U. Beck and A.
Giddens. According to Giddens, the phenomenon mainly results from global access to information
and knowledge free from the constraints of time and space. Thanks to new information and
communication technologies, we can learn at any time using information sources anywhere on
the globe (Giddens, 1991, p. 21).
Growing access to sources of knowledge leads to another phenomenon which Giddens calls the
detraditionalisation of social life. It turns out that distant sources of information can have a much
greater impact on our behaviour than the traditional ones having regional or local character. Due
to the erosion of local values and customs, social life is constantly losing its links with local
traditions. Giddens claims that late modernity is mainly characterised by a learning society.
Globalisation, detraditionalisation and institutionalisation of reflexivity also put learning in a
central position in terms of social relations. Lifelong learning becomes a structural feature of
societies which determines continuing development and uncertainty. Within this framework, a
number of educational tasks have been set for the implementation of Target 4.7 of the Agenda.
Beck introduces a new approach to the need of education for sustainable development and to
how we understand its consequences. He argues that this phenomenon is a necessary condition
for survival in the so-called reflexive modernisation. As he claims, the late-modern society is a
“society of risk” since individuals, organisations and societies face risks due to the uncertainty and
unpredictability of the social world. He also highlights the negative consequences of the constant
need to learn and argues that they are caused by unequal educational opportunities, unequal
access to sources of knowledge and diverse competences (Beck & Giddens, 1994, p. 27; Lozano,
2011, p. 74).
In the modern world, people without adequate skills, economic and cultural capital, as well as
access to information or market power, are increasingly affected by marginalisation as a result of
unemployment, inability to articulate their own interests, functional illiteracy and other similar
social phenomena.
With a view to put into effect the concept of “information society” and “educating society,” it is
necessary to cease using routine and conservative “memory-based” school methods and start
promoting multilateral development, shaping the world of values and key skills, and equalising
educational opportunities for young people, the latter being dealt with by primary school in the
first place. This principle should be treated as an educational challenge, both in terms of Target 4.1
and, indirectly, Target 4.7 of the 2030 Agenda.
There is also another concept which should be raised in the context of education and the goals
of the Agenda. Education is essential for building a spiritual and material dimension of the
contemporary world on the national, European and global level. The educational challenges
include the excess of knowledge, rapid obsolescence of knowledge and the incompatibility of
human classifications and attitudes with the changes and tasks of social, economic and cultural
reality. To tackle these problems, the objectives and priorities of education policy along with the
ways and tools for their implementation in a long-term perspective need to be clearly defined.
It seems that, today and in the future, we will need people who express a realistic approach
combined with cautious optimism being aware of the opportunities, challenges and barriers to
shape a modern and effective school institutions and education as a whole. Therefore, the
preparation and implementation of the education reform requires cooperation and co-
responsibility transcending political and environmental divisions (Rutkowiak, 2005, p. 283).
However, the role of schools and universities in the overall national education system and in the
“information society” should not be overestimated. Educational activities must be multilateral but
at the same time directed towards a common goal, i.e., sustainable development.
Education constitutes a social value, capital, hope and large area of tasks (Bauman, 2008, p. 314).
Its objectives and working methods should express a strong serious opposition to anti-values,
negative phenomena and threats to human existence. Human consciousness requires a new
perspective on the future. However, seeing the future only “through the prism of the past” is a
pitfall.
The question then is how to prepare children, young people and adults to live and work in a
world of globalisation and the information society so that they can participate in this society in a
reasonable way, i.e., promote sustainable development by nurturing the environment and
preventing further destruction.
The potential to solve it lies in the education for sustainable development. This is because
education is in itself valuable and at the same time is an instrument of social change and
continuous learning to understand the world, operate in the world and manage oneself.
Educational reports, forecast studies of committees and social discussions on education reveal a
number of strategies aimed at reforming the education system. All these efforts support the
implementation of Goals 1, 2 and 3 and Target 4.7 of the 2030 Agenda. The most urgent actions for
sustainable development include:
fundamental civilisational curriculum and methodology reform to shape a new human

quality
lifelong learning implementation and the model of the humanised “school of the future”
development of technical, vocational and higher education
development of parallel out-of-school forms of adult education and training of qualified
teachers.
From the legal and organisational point of view, the education development strategy and
education reform incorporate the following principles: universality (democracy), capacity,
flexibility, broad education profile, socialisation of education, uniformity (combined with
preserved internal diversity and opportunity to choose from different options), subjectivity and
humanisation, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and nonviolence,
scientific character, economics and comparability to solutions adopted in other countries. These
principles are undoubtedly not easy to implement and require long-term actions.
Besides these principles called for by the Agenda, innovation understood as a creative activity
plays a huge role. It has a significant impact on effectiveness of education in the society and links
its executors with the educational policy.
In the 21st-century society, knowledge, skills and competences are becoming a new criterion of
stratification. This is why school and education for sustainable development should take a central
place in the strategy of shaping information and lifelong learning society so that it can adapt to
work and achieve economic performance.
According to V.E. Frankl, human reason is reflected by questions rather than answers (Frankl,
1990, p. 37). In the world of globalisation, the education reform should be based on educational
research to explore the following areas: course of action, purposefulness, unity of diagnosis,
design, implementation and evaluation of changes, and adoption of necessary corrections and new
solutions on the basis of own experiences and education systems of other countries with a view to
human-oriented sustainable development.
In his speech to the international movement of canonist lawyers, gathered together with the
representatives of UN, UNESCO and the Council of Europe, Pope John Paul II said:
It should be hoped that every programme, every plan for the social, economic, political and
cultural development of Europe will always put the human being, with his or her highest
dignity and inalienable rights, first and foremost, at the heart of genuine progress.
This is a clear indication of what should be done in the field of education. If we want to
promote education in the spirit of sustainable development, we must focus on the human as a
fundamental value in the first place. Following the words of John Paul II that a human being is the
way of the Church, we could state that the human being is the way of education for sustainable
development.
Teaching of the Church and papal documents focused on the need for education
and intercultural dialogue
The concept of education and upbringing in the teaching of the Catholic Church has constantly
evolved over the last two centuries. Education has undergone different stages of development,
from “shaping thoughts” through integral formation to support in self-education. A student
stopped being treated like an object, while a teacher ceased to perform the function of a trainer.
The role of the teacher was to support the development of their student. This general tendency is
discussed by Dziekoński (2020, pp. 42–53), who analysed the Vatican documents dating back to the
19th and 20th centuries. The trend mentioned previously followed the changes in secular
pedagogy. The issue is also raised in the Church’s teaching, which introduces four terms to
describe the phenomenon: openness, peace, counteracting violence, and progress.
John Paul II emphasises that Christianity is open to brotherhood (John Paul II, 1990, section 43)
and missions should not be based on self-interest. Instead, they should be open to understanding
those who live in different social conditions and cultural traditions (John Paul II, 1990, section 56).
A similar message is given by Pope Francis, who states that a Church which “goes forth” is a
Church whose doors are open (Francis, 2013, section 46). He continues these considerations in his
reference to the environment. He establishes a relationship between environmental matters and
interpersonal relationships, including an attitude of openness (Francis, 2015, section 119).
The question of peace is discussed very explicitly in papal teaching. In recent years, the popes
responded to the existing threat of war by delivering occasional speeches, messages on the World
Day of Peace observed every year since 1968 and major magisterial documents. In view of the
matters discussed in this paper, the focus should be made on the issue of education for peace. In
his message for 2004, John Paul II indicates that education for peace requires teaching legality and
opposition to the temptation of terrorism (John Paul II, 2003, sections, 5, 8). Eighteen years later,
the issue of education for peace is raised by Benedict XVI. He argues that
every educational setting can be a place of openness to the transcendent and to others; a place
of dialogue, cohesiveness and attentive listening, where young people feel appreciated for their
personal abilities and inner riches, and can learn to esteem their brothers and sisters.
(Benedict XVI, 2011, section 2)
He also emphasises the need to exercise freedom properly:
The exercise of freedom is intimately linked to the natural moral law, which is universal in
character, expresses the dignity of every person and forms the basis of fundamental human
rights and duties: consequently, in the final analysis, it forms the basis for just and peaceful
coexistence. The right use of freedom, then, is central to the promotion of justice and peace,
which require respect for oneself and others, including those whose way of being and living
differs greatly from one’s own. This attitude engenders the elements without which peace and
justice remain merely words without content.
Important aspects related to a proper understanding of the position of a human being in the world
are discussed by Pope Francis. He argues that peace, justice and the preservation of creation
should not be treated individually (Francis, 2015, section 92), and this fact constitutes a call on
man to sustain a contemplative or balanced lifestyle (Francis, 2015, sections 222, 225). This clearly
entails a number of educational tasks compliant with Target 4.7 of the 2030 Agenda.
The relationship between education for peace and opposing violence is obvious. According to
Pope Francis, violence is born in human hearts and manifests itself, inter alia, in the destruction
and pollution of the environment (Francis, 2015, section 2). Violence results from the assumption
that arbitrary power is exercised by the strongest (Francis, 2015, section 82). It violates the
principle of distributive justice and this always leads to violence (Francis, 2015, section 157). A
remedy to this can be found in so-called ecological conversion:
Natural resources, the many forms of life and the earth itself have been entrusted to us to till
and keep, also for future generations, through the responsible and active participation of
everyone. We need to change the way we think and see things, and to become more open to
encountering others and accepting the gift of creation, which reflects the beauty and wisdom
of its Creator.
This principle provides a direct reference to education, both in terms of Target 4.7 and, indirectly,
Target 4.1 of the 2030 Agenda.
Progress is yet another concept which should be raised in the context of education and the goals
of the 2030 Agenda. The concept of progress should not be construed as a cliché as it requires
appropriate axiological analysis. John Paul II claims that the ideology of purely earthly progress
leads to the devastation of the created world and human societies because it usually succumbs to
temptation of selfishness (cf. John Paul II, 1990, section 17). An in-depth analysis of the concept of
progress was conducted by Benedict XVI. He links this concept with reason and freedom. Over the
centuries, this relationship had diverse forms and led to various actions. He concludes that there is
progress is an ambiguous concept since
without doubt, it offers new possibilities for good, but it also opens up appalling possibilities
for evil – possibilities that formerly did not exist. We have all witnessed the way in which
progress in the wrong hands can become and has indeed become a terrifying progress in evil.
If technical progress is not matched by corresponding progress in man’s ethical formation, in
man’s inner growth (cf. Epistle to Ephesians, 3:16; Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 4:16), then
it is not progress at all, but a threat for man and for the world.
(Benedict XVI, 2007, sections 22, 17–23)
The need for moral progress is also emphasised by Pope Francis (Francis, 2015, section 127). These
calls are in line with Target 4.7 of the 2030 Agenda, but there is an urgent need to define a
community of values around their implementation (cf. Francis, 2015, section 229). In order to
accomplish this task, one needs, inter alia, to establish intercultural and interreligious dialogue.
Papal documents make a distinction between intercultural and interreligious dialogue.
Interreligious dialogue does not imply the renunciation of one’s own identity. John Paul II refers
to the Council decree Nostra Aetate (cf. SVC, 1965a, section 2) and states that
we strive to discern and welcome whatever is good and holy in one another, so that together
we can acknowledge, preserve and promote the spiritual and moral truths which alone
guarantee the world’s future. In this sense, dialogue is never an attempt to impose our own
views upon others, since such a dialogue would become a form of spiritual and cultural
domination. This does not mean that we abandon our own convictions. What it means is that,
holding firmly to what we believe, we listen respectfully to others, seeking to discern all that is
good and holy, all that favours peace and cooperation.
A dialogue which avoids confrontation shows respect for otherness and at the same time does not
relativise its values leads to intercultural dialogue because religion is closely related to culture.
John Paul II defines culture as
the key which gives access to the deepest and most jealously guarded secrets of the life of
peoples… . To say “culture” means to express in a single word the national identity which is the
soul of these peoples and which continues, in spite of unfavourable conditions, all kinds of
trials, historical or natural disasters, to be a single and cohesive one, that has been living for
centuries.
Such appreciation for culture leads to the formulation of the principles of dialogue between
cultures. On the one hand, it calls for the meeting of cultures as a result of progressive
globalisation, and on the other hand, it calls for preventing colonisation of culture. Pope Francis
describes it as the acceptance of a culture of encounter and dialogue and a clear opposition to the
culture of rejection and exclusion, which is a culture of degradation and domination of the
stronger (Francis, 2015, section 30; Francis, 2020). This is how the area of dialogue opens to create
the community of values with the possibility of defining a catalogue of fundamental values that
determine the directions of education. Note, however, that the papal teaching clearly states that no
dictates are allowed. This means that the compromise cannot be unlimited.
Missions as an institutional response of the Catholic Church to education

Education for sustainable development in the framework of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development resolution (2019) shows that a significant progress was made in the global agenda. In
particular, the network of key partners enabled 26 million students to learn about sustainable
development and provided training to two million teachers in this field. It emphasises that the
support for member states in their efforts to promote education for sustainable development is
needed.
To respond institutionally to the Target 4.c of SDG4, which calls to substantially increase in
developing countries the supply of qualified teachers by 2030, including through international
cooperation, the Catholic Church conducts global missionary volunteering. In the following, the
statistical data of the missionary work of the Catholic Church in education and charity with
particular emphasis on the activity of Polish male and female missionaries are presented.
According to the report of the Polish Bishops’ Commission for the Missions of 1 October 2018,
2004 Polish male and female missionaries served in the missions on five continents. Figures on
persons who served in the missions in 2018 based on the report of the Polish Bishops’ Commission
for the Missions are shown in Table 4.1.
According to the report of the Polish Bishops’ Commission for the Missions of 1 October 2019,
1903 Polish male and female missionaries served in the missions in 99 countries on five continents.
The data are presented in Table 4.2.
Table 4.1 Persons who served in the missions in 2018 (www.misje.pl)
Fidei Donum (diocesan Lay

Continent Total Nun Monk
priest) person
Africa and Madagascar 775 78 21 371 305

Latin America and the
805 178 19 182 426
Caribbean
North America 20 5 1 1 13
Asia and Asia Minor 337 46 7 136 148
Oceania 67 14 1 6 46
Total 2004 321 49 696 938
Table 4.2 Persons who served in the missions in 2019 (www.misje.pl)
Fidei Donum (diocesan Lay

Continent Total Nun Monk
priest) person
Africa and Madagascar 730 73 17 349 291

Latin America and the
766 168 17 178 403
Caribbean
North America 17 4 1 – 12
Asia and Asia Minor 328 44 6 133 145
Oceania 62 11 1 7 43
Total 1903 300 42 667 894
The Agenzia Fides report of 21 October 2018 provides information on the Catholic Church’s
commitment to education, charity and social assistance. In 2016, the Catholic Church headed
217,261 institutions worldwide, including 72,826 preschools, 96,573 primary schools and 47,862
secondary schools. Catholic colleges were attended by 2,509,457 young people, while universities
were attended by 3,049,548 students.
The data shown in Table 4.3 are as of 31 December 2017.
According to the report of the Polish Bishops’ Commission for Missions of 1 October 2019,
Polish male and female missionaries ran about 150 preschools representing about 8000 children,
about 500 primary schools representing about 100,000 students, and about 150 secondary schools
representing about 45,000 students. Vocational education, often providing informal training, e.g.,
vocational courses, also brings some added value. Polish missionaries are also involved in the
development of higher education in Africa, which may deepen the cooperation between Catholic
universities in Africa and Poland (MIVA).
The Target 4.c of SDG4 was also fulfilled by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warszawa
(UKSW). In 2015, the University started to offer English-language study programmes directed
mainly to students coming from religious and ethnic minorities, especially from Africa. UKSW
offers classes in the field of learning, teaching, psychology, culture and pastoral work. The
academic year 2018/2019 covered 20 students, while 2019/2020 30 students. The students come
from the following countries: Ethiopia, Uganda, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Cameroon, Tanzania, Kenya,
Malawi and Zambia. As assumed, the education and formation initiative makes a significant
contribution to education of future academic staff in the students’ countries of origin.
The Catholic Church is also actively engaged in charity and assistance activities. According to
Ad Gentes, in 2016, the Catholic Church headed 111,405 centres of charitable assistance
worldwide: 5287 hospitals, mainly in America (1530) and Africa (1321); 15,937 clinics, mainly in
Africa (5177), America (4430) and Asia (3300); 610 leprosaria, mainly in Asia (352) and Africa
(192); 15,722 homes for the elderly, chronically ill and disabled, mainly in Europe (8127) and
America (3763); 9552 orphanages, mainly in Asia (3660); 11,758 care centres for children, mainly in
America (3191) and Asia (3295); 13,897 marriage counselling centres, in Europe (5664) and America
(4984); 3506 social education and reeducation centres and 35,746 other institutions.
Table 4.3 Overview of the educational activities of the Catholic Church (https://missio.org.pl)
Primary Secondary Higher

Preschool Primary Secondary University
Continent Preschools school school education
children schools schools students
students students students
Africa 18,813 2,251,425 45,088 19,179,537 15,238 6,367,769 114,086 127,009

America 15,205 1,242,021 20,599 6,012,055 11,828 3,905,640 612,964 1,776,150
Asia 13,460 1,861,409 15,841 5,536,204 11,270 5,909,398 1,287,231 421,364
Europe 22,327 1,873,860 15,590 3,066,847 9,511 3,637,840 320,777 585,140
Oceania 1,500 75,124 4,409 772,884 713 499,945 10,741 35,632
Total 71,305 7,303,839 101,527 34,558,527 48,560 20,320,592 2,345,799 2,945,295
The data shown in Table 4.4 are as of 31 December 2017.
The missionary activity of the Church was described in the documents issued at the Second
Vatican Council (SVC) and in the post-conciliar period. The Council Decree Ad Gentes indicates
that “the pilgrim Church is missionary by her very nature since it is from the mission of the Son
and the mission of the Holy Spirit that she draws her origin, in accordance with the decree of God
the Father” (SVC, 1965b, section 2). This theological concept provides guidance to the faithful on
conduct. However, it should be emphasised that the missionary activity of the Church does not
imply the rejection of other sensitivities. Openness does not mean that one gives its consent to
lose its identity. Instead, its aim is to build community leading to homogenisation. In his
encyclical Redemptoris Missio, John Paul II refers to the issue of missionary activity in relation to
the concept of human freedom. He emphasises that the proclamation of Jesus Christ always
supports the development of humans, and at the same time he points out that the missionary
activity of the Church must respect human freedom. The mission of the Church “does not restrict
freedom but rather promotes it” (John Paul II, 1990, section 39). A great impulse for the missionary
activity was given by Pope Francis. In the exhortation Evangelii Gaudium, he notes that the
mission is a call to “go forth from our own comfort zone in order to reach all the peripheries in
need of the light of the Gospel” (Francis, 2013, section 20). He also describes the features of an
evangelising community: it “has an endless desire to show mercy … gets involved by word and
deed in people’s daily lives; it bridges distances, it is willing to abase itself if necessary, and it
embraces human life,” and consists of “patience and disregard for constraints of time” (Francis,
2015, section 24). Following these guidelines, the missionary activity transcends the limits imposed
by denominations.
Conclusions
In spite of notable achievements in higher education for sustainable development in the last 15
years, there are still many challenges to overcome (Filho et al., 2015, p. 116).
The 2030 Agenda calls us to ensure inclusive and equitable education as well as lifelong
learning opportunities for all. Despite the UN endeavours to support countries in their efforts to
fulfil these requirements, some reports are disturbing. Despite significant progress in access to
education, there were 262 million children and young people aged between 6 and 17 in 2017 who
still did not attend school, while more than half of them did not meet minimum standards of
proficiency in reading and mathematics (UN, 2019, p. 11; UNGA, 2019, p. 1).
Table 4.4 Overview of the charity and assistance centres run by the Catholic Church (https://missio.org.pl)
Homes for
Care Education
the elderly, Marriage
centres and re- Other
Continent Hospitals Clinics chronically Orphanages counselling
for education institutions
ill and centres
children centres
disabled
Africa 1367 55907 683 1663 1,765 1,504 245 1,137

America 1399 44330 3,596 2308 3,153 4,798 1577 12,458
Homes for
Care Education
the elderly, Marriage
centres and re- Other
Continent Hospitals Clinics chronically Orphanages counselling
for education institutions
ill and centres
children centres
disabled
Asia 1160 22919 2,620 3473 2,900 863 503 2,372

Europe 1038 22361 8,475 2269 2,533 5,676 778 14,977
Oceania 305 5551 361 100 141 224 66 238
Total 5269 16068 15,735 9813 10,492 13,065 3169 31,182
High-quality education is essential for improving people’s lives and sustainable development.
Universal access to education will improve the quality of life and provide innovative solutions to
the biggest challenges of the modern world. The international community’s call for inclusive and
equitable quality education at all levels, i.e., early childhood, primary and secondary education,
higher education and distance learning, including technical and vocational training, remains valid.
The aim is to ensure that all people, irrespective of gender, age, race or ethnic origin, including
people with disabilities, migrants, indigenous peoples, children and young people, especially the
most disadvantaged, have access to lifelong learning opportunities. The actions aimed at fulfilling
these tasks will provide people with knowledge and skills needed to fully participate in society,
and at the same time will promote sustainable development. As underlined in the Resolution,
education for sustainable development is an essential factor to achieve all other goals of the 2030
Agenda (UNGA, 2019, p. 2).
However, education understood in this way should not constitute a means to release oneself
from the “compulsion of facts,” or irrationally constrain the “dictatorship of values.” Education
should represent a defined integral whole which indicates a necessary – i.e., rational, effective,
practical etc. – path in the search for a free and diverse existence, on the one hand, and a free –
i.e., expected, desired, needed, trusted etc. – path in the search for necessity and uniform
existence, on the other. In other words, education should not seek to provide a precise estimation
and full preparation for future events, but rather develop and shape a certain state of creative
expectation to ensure that the quality of the ideal and imagined action has an impact on the
quality of real and sensual action, and vice versa. By following this approach, education would
prepare and enrich the soil so that improved Homo sapiens’ states of affairs can be seeded in the
future. This is because ideas can sprout in artificial conditions, but they should grow in natural
conditions on the best possible soil structure. The idea cannot be put into effect if it does not refer
to specific values, expectations and capabilities of those towards whom it is directed. This is why
the culture-forming and creative factor of education, i.e., pancreationism of values and facts at
different levels of novelty and definition of goals and ways of execution, should constitute an
inseparable part of human education.
Progress has been made in increasing access to education at all levels and the number of people
in education, especially women and girls. The number of people with basic literacy skills has
increased dramatically. However, further efforts are needed to achieve the universal education
goal. Member states need to be supported in their efforts to promote education for sustainable
development.
The modern teaching of the Catholic Church follows the goals of the Agenda in a specific way.
Freedom is understood as the affirmation of human in relation to ethical values. Dialogue does not
imply the rejection of identity or submission to cultural colonisation, but is understood as a search
for the truth, education for persistence to serve the truth, and acceptance the plurality of reality.
These principles should be followed not only by religious schools or any school system where
religion is taught, but also by all other areas of the education system.
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5 Combating legal and cultural forms of
discrimination against women from the
point of view of Catholic social
teaching
Magdalena Wilczek-Karczewska, Małgorzata
Pawlus and Andrzej Waleszczyński
Introduction
Leaving no one behind is the central promise of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development. Women and girls, to whom the Sustainable
Development Goal 5 (SDG5) “Achieve gender equality and empower all
women and girls” is devoted, are still threatened to be left behind (UN,
2016).
The proponents of gender equality note that only 1 of the 17 SDGs
comprehensively addresses gender equality. They interpret it as a decreased
commitment to women’s issues compared to how these issues are addressed
in one of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Kim, 2017, p.
240). However, it should be noted that MDGs devoted to gender equality
were limited to the access of women and girls to education and the
reduction of maternal mortality. SDGs are extended to include gender
equality. In particular, the emphasis is put on elimination of gender
inequalities in education (Targets 4.3, 4.5 and 4.6), malnutrition of pregnant
and lactating mothers (Target 2.2), access to sexual and reproductive health-
care services, including for family planning (Target 3.7), promotion of safe
and secure working environments, in particular for women migrants (Target
8.8), providing access to safe public transport (Target 11.2) and access to
adequate sanitation and hygiene with a special attention paid to the needs of
women and girls (Target 6.2). SDGs also recognise the need to prevent
gender-based violence and early marriages, ensure women’s rights to
economic resources, such as land ownership and management, and value
unpaid care and domestic work. Despite their deficiencies, SDGs address the
needs of women worldwide in a more comprehensive way than MDGs
(Abebe & Faraday, 2019, p. 4). Note that the 2030 Agenda provides the
follow-up to the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (UN, 1995,
section 19, §252), both in terms of problem areas and the use of gender
mainstreaming in development policies.
This chapter explores the tasks of SDG5 of the 2030 Agenda with respect
to Targets 5.1 and 5.4 from the perspective of Catholic social teaching. Target
5.1 provides a general call to end all forms of discrimination against women
and girls everywhere. Target 5.4 is more specific and calls to recognise and
value the unpaid care and domestic work of women. The 2030 Agenda states
that the implementation of these tasks requires both public actions,
especially actions of national governments with the support of NGOs,
primarily aimed at providing public services, developing infrastructure and
ensuring broad social security, and private actions. It also promotes joint
responsibility of women and men for family and household. Importantly,
Target 5.4 is not intended to be implemented equally in all countries. Its
implementation depends on national circumstances. It is assumed that
shared responsibility of spouses or partners for family and household is
determined by legal, cultural, social, economic and geographical conditions.
The discussion on Targets 5.1 and 5.4 shows the position of women and girls
both in the public and private sphere. These two equally important
perspectives influence and complement each other. “The personal is political,”
a slogan of the Women’s Liberation Movement transformed into the second-
wave feminism from the 1960s, is still relevant (Hannam, 2007, pp. 142–144).
Women’s issues are raised by both the UN and the Catholic Church. Their
goals and objectives aimed at counteracting discrimination against women
and girls are consistent with each other but differ in scope and nature, and
assume different anti-discrimination measures. Family and in particular
unpaid care and domestic work by women are the key issues which are
perceived differently.
The assumptions of the 2030 Agenda constitute a sui generis model-based
approach even though the legal systems recognise them in domestic
legislation. Other UN documents, headed by the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, also impose on
the signatory states the obligation to ensure that the principles of equality
between women and men are put into practice, either through legislation,
including legal acts of constitutional rank, or by other available means (UN,
1979, Article 3(a)). The 2030 Agenda sees sustainable development as the
building of the world of justice, fairness and tolerance, open and conducive
to social inclusion, and ready to meet the needs of the weakest, including
women and girls. The Catholic Church does not stand by. She is aware of the
multiple forms of gender discrimination around the world. On 22–24 May
2015 in Rome, prior to the summit of the 2030 Agenda, the Pontifical Council
for Justice and Peace, in collaboration with the World Union of Women’s
Catholic Organisations and the World Women’s Alliance for Life and Family,
held an international conference on women’s issues entitled “Women and
the Post-2015 Development Agenda: The Challenges of the Sustainable
Development Goals?” Since the Second Vatican Council, women’s issues
have been frequently discussed in the teaching of the Catholic Church,
especially by John Paul II. The Catholic Church contributes to improving the
situation of women and girls in the world through the formation of
conscience, but at the same time is perceived as a patriarchal institution
which restricts women’s rights and supports gender inequality. Therefore, it
seems that a broader space for dialogue and cooperation is needed and can
be only achieved when common points and differences between the
mainstream international gender equality policy and Catholic social
teaching for the implementation of SDG5 are identified.
Unpaid care and domestic work of women from the cultural and
legal point of view
Unpaid care and domestic work of women and their position on the labour
market are the issues raised by the second-wave and subsequent feminists
(Hannam, 2007, pp. 133–156, passim; Mendes, 2011, pp. 483–498; Ferree &
Tripp, 2006, pp. 112–114). The timeless slogan “done paid” continues to call
for affirmation of women’s work in the household and makes its meaning
more than just symbolic. It is emphasised that work for the family brings
real benefits from the economic point of view, even though it does not
generate a direct nominal profit. The literature also highlights how
important this type of activity is for the individual, society and economy
(Titkow et al., 2004, passim; Zachorowska-Mazurkiewicz, 2016, p. 121).
Unpaid domestic work is still generally performed by women, which is
culturally and in particular historically justified. In the past, family work
performed by women exclusively in households was underestimated due to
the progressive urbanisation of countries. This was particularly noticeable in
Western Europe. As a result of the social and economic changes of the
modern age, men started to leave, in the literal sense, their households to
take up paid work, inherently associated with professional and gainful
activity performed outside, and generating a financial profit, i.e.,
remuneration (Bogucka, 1998, pp. 5–8). Consequently, women’s work in a
private sphere was perceived to be inferior (as it was unprofitable), less
necessary (as it did not directly affect the material security of the family),
and free from special qualifications and external verification. As a result, the
activity of women was reduced to three areas corresponding to three
components of the later slogan of the 19th-century German tradition:
“children, kitchen, church” (Zaiceva & Zimmermann, 2007, p. 6). Moreover,
in view of early forms of capitalism in the 16th and 18th centuries, new
goods, such as sewing clothes or food production, which were previously
produced in households only and primarily by women, started to be
accessible on the external market. The standard of living started to be
dependent on the earnings of the husband. This, in turn, exacerbated the
conflicts associated with gender relations, especially in cities (Bogucka, 1998,
pp. 5–8). Paradoxically, then, the tendency was that the economic
backwardness of a given country with the resulting slower urban processes
translated into a stronger position of women in the family. For example, in
the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which faced relatively weaker
urbanisation processes compared to Western European countries, the
division of labour between husbands and wives was more balanced. This is
why historians describe the intra-family relations in Poland as soft
patriarchy (Pietrow-Ennker, 1992, p. 13). As a side note, the relatively strong
position of women in this part of Europe was also determined by religious
conditions. The reformation which began in Poland in the 16th century had
a special character and was socially limited to the nobility and few large
cities. It was thus primarily targeted to the elites. Moreover, at the turn of
the 16th and 17th centuries, the nobility experienced the rebirth of
Catholicism. In the Protestant states, by contrast, the reformation dissolved
monasteries and abolished celibacy, and thus women had no other option
than married life. Marriage became the absolute centre of social life
(Bogucka, 1998, pp. 5–8). This shows that the modern age did not result in
women’s emancipation. On the other hand, a new cultural model of the
family and image of the woman began to be strengthened. It was assumed
that mothers and wives express themselves exclusively through domestic
work. It also led to the social conviction that women’s activity in a private
sphere is obvious and should not result in any remuneration. In addition,
women were thought to be created and biologically predestined to perform
domestic work and to sacrifice themselves for the family as it lies in their
nature. In the issue of the position of women in society, researchers claim
that the modern age shifted us back in the development, even more than in
the Middle Ages (Bogucka, 1998, pp. 5–8).
This universal approach to the position of women in society strengthened
in the 19th century and took a specific form in Poland, at the time when the
country was partitioned in three stages by the Kingdom of Prussia, the
Russia Empire and Austria (1795–1918). After the November Uprising (1830–
1831), the perfect attitude of the woman known as a Polish Mother was
promoted. This concept derives from literature (Mickiewicz, 1830). A Polish
Mother became an archetypal image of a woman who expresses herself
through raising her children in the spirit of patriotism and Catholicism, a
concept seemingly unprecedented compared to other countries. Woman is
thus responsible for taking care of home and the welfare of the family, but at
the same time is obliged to promote civil virtues in captivity. Given that the
largest and most aggressive partitioners, Prussia and Russia, were
predominantly Protestant and Orthodox, respectively, there is no doubt that
this attitude was politically justified. The term “Pole” started to be identified
with a Catholic over time; however, this term is also understood as a
“selective perception of the national history” (this opinion is mentioned by J.
Staśkiewicz after B. Porter-Szucs (Staśkiewicz, 2016, p. 142). However, as
early as in the 19th century, when the first emancipatory movements
emerged, the role of a woman as a Catholic Polish Mother transformed into
a different form. The postulates of feminist ideology to change the position
of women in society were formulated.
Izabela Moszczeńska (1864–1941), one of the first Polish women engaged
in emancipation movements, adopted the concept of the materialistic
interpretation of history. This concept describes the phenomenon which
dates back to prehistoric times. It assumes that women and men hold equal
positions while motherhood is the only criterion which differentiates women
from men. Over time, with the emergence of the concept of private property,
work started to be divided between men and women. As a result, women
could not equally participate in the process of civilisation. Emancipatory
movements began to promote the idea of the exchange of gender roles. The
aim was to introduce a moral revival of man and creative development of
woman (Pietrow-Ennker, 1992, p. 21). However, the established patterns
related to the role of a woman in the society proved deeply rooted. Suffice it
to say that failure to follow the traditional concept of the Polish Mother was
seen as a betrayal of national and religious values. The postulates formulated
by emancipatory movements were considered harmful (Pietrow-Ennker,
1992, p. 21). Interestingly, in the 20th and 21st centuries, along with rapid
changes in society, the concept of the Polish Mother considerably evolved
(Titkow, 2012, pp. 27–47). In extreme cases, women who treat sacrificing
themselves for the family as the only goal in life have been, and keep being,
stigmatised. On the other hand, women who seek self-fulfilment in all
possible areas of life, from the family to professional and social activities, are
also negatively judged. Women who blindly follow the idealised concept of
perfection in every sphere of life are denounced, while their attitude is
thought to generate frustration and exhaustion (about the “superwoman”
syndrome allowing “demystification” of the Mother of Poland figure, cf.
Titkow, 2012, pp. 27–28, 30–31, 41–44). Therefore, in recent decades, more
attention has been paid to the informed choices of women and the dangers
resulting from hasty judgments on women’s professional work and their
choices regarding unpaid domestic work (about the “assertive woman” being
aware of her rights, cf. Titkow, 2012, pp. 42–44). Note that life choices of
women are always good, albeit subjectively good, i.e., good for particular
women. From the legal point of view, special tools which enable women to
fulfil their plans should be developed.
The family model as well as women’s struggle for access to food, drinking
water and better education of their children, i.e., the problems faced by
America in the 19th and early 20th centuries and explored by ecofeminism
in the 1970s and 1980s (Mann, 2011, p. 7), are the issues which are still
relevant in Africa today. The experts emphasise that the economic
empowerment of African women is essential to the success of the African
Union Agenda 2063, the long-term development plan for Africa. They also
point out that there are six goals of the 2030 Agenda which directly address
African countries: SDG1 (to end poverty), SDG2 (to achieve food security),
SDG3 (to promote health and well-being), SDG5 (to achieve gender
equality), SDG8 (to promote full employment and decent wages for all) and
SDG10 (to reduce inequality). The example of Africa also proves that the
concept of sustainable development in combating discrimination between
women and men has a different meaning in different parts of the world.
While highly and moderately developed countries undertake actions which
address equal access for women to managerial positions, reproductive rights
and the shared responsibility of partners in the household, underdeveloped
countries require grassroots work in the first place. In particular, women
should not bear full responsibility for running the household and should
have access to the labour market. As a general rule, the family model
observed in a particular culture or epoch should not be compared with
another one. However, it is worth noting that the situation faced by
European and American women a hundred years ago is quite similar to the
current situation of African women. This proves that women’s rights evolve
and are determined by culture, religion, mentality, economic development
and policies of the country. Note that, like the 19th-century Polish Mothers,
African women bear the responsibility for the well-being of the family and
at the same time face discrimination in the public sphere and are obliged to
strictly follow the rules of patriarchal community. These women are called
unsung heroes (Ighobor, 2019).
According to the UN Research Institute for Social Development, unpaid
work by women in Africa yields profits ranging from 10% to 39% of GDP
(Ighobor, 2019). The International Labour Organisation points out that
women in Africa are disproportionately burdened by domestic work and
unpaid care. For example, the share of women in the labour force, including
in the grey market, is 86% in Rwanda, 77% in Ethiopia and 70% in Tanzania
(Ighobor, 2019). The responsibility for the well-being of the family is not
only about raising children. Women are also engaged in land and animal
farming, which is a hard physical work in unfavourable climatic conditions.
Today, in most developing countries, women perform the functions of
transport animals, farmers and water or fuel suppliers (Pathania, 2017, pp.
72, 77; UNW, 2017, No. 8, p. 3). Note that these obligations are imposed on
very young girls who get married early, before they finish their education.
“In our culture, people believe education is for boys and that the women
must marry and stay at home,” said S. Haidara, Special Adviser to Mali’s
Minister of Environment and Sustainable Development (Ighobor, 2019).
In contrast, the economic empowerment of African women should be
based primarily on education. This is because uneducated women are
inevitably expelled from the labour market. However, changes are
happening, though slowly. According to the report Women, Business and the
Law 2019: A Decade of Reform, prepared by the World Bank, most reforms
promoting gender equality have been carried out in sub-Saharan African
countries, especially the Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Malawi,
Mauritius, Sao Tomé and Principe and Zambia (Ighobor, 2019). The
Democratic Republic of Congo, despite the political crisis, carried out the
reforms to enable women to do business, open bank accounts, become active
on the labour market and choose their place of residence. Mauritius took
steps to counteract sexual harassment of women at work and gender-based
restrictions on access to credit. Sao Tomé and Principe equalised the
retirement age of women and men, including the age entitling women and
men to receive full pension benefits (Ighobor, 2019).
Discrimination against women on the labour market is economically
unprofitable. The calculations show that sub-Saharan African countries lose
95 trillion dollars every year as a result of discriminatory behaviours
(Ighobor, 2019). According to the Global Financial Inclusion Database, only
in eight African countries, i.e., Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Namibia, the
Republic of South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe, do over 50% of women
have their own bank accounts (Ighobor, 2019). This problem is also
recognised by the Catholic Church. At the threshold of the millennium, Pope
John Paul II, in his speech to the faithful in Africa, highlighted the
considerable diversity of Africa in the aftermath of colonialism. He pointed
out that Africans appreciate the role of the family and, more broadly, the
community despite a number of problems, including acute poverty. One of
the key challenges for Africa is the emancipation of women. Importantly,
this challenge is considered to be among the most pressing problems facing
this part of the world, including extreme poverty, tribal struggles, arms
trade, slavery and demographic issues. John Paul II also emphasised that all
changes must respect the distinctiveness of African peoples. The countries in
the northern hemisphere cannot treat Africa as a cog on a gigantic wheel.
They must respect the distinctness of its cultural makeup, give due
consideration to the priorities and problems of individual African countries
and, above all, not impose a distorted vision of life and man since this fails
to respond to the demands of true development (John Paul II, 2000, section
52). This shows that the priority should be given to the emancipation of
women in Africa and other pressing problems, including the fight against
poverty. Secondly, the changes must respect the cultural diversity of Africa.
As pointed out earlier, the implementation of SDGs, especially Target 5.4 of
the 2030 Agenda, should have regard to the socioeconomic conditions of a
given country. In this respect, the view of the UN is consistent with Catholic
social teaching.
Modern European women are also forced to experience professional
inactivity, although due to other reasons. According to the report of the
Institute for Structural Research (IBS) prepared by I. Magda, in Poland, 37%
of women aged 15–64 are professionally inactive for reasons other than their
own choices, and young mothers are most threatened with being pushed out
of the labour market. This accounts for 5% more than the European Union
average. In countries with the highest female professional activity rate, such
as Sweden, the percentage of women active in the labour market is as high
as 80% (Magda, 2020, p. 1). The IBS report concludes that a low female
employment rate is a waste of human capital (Magda, 2020, p. 2). It states
that the issue of the professional inactivity of women could be addressed by
proposing a friendly labour market with flexible employment opportunities
for women, including work at home. It was also emphasised that greater
care for households on the part of fathers, especially care for children, plays
a significant role here (Magda, 2020, pp. 11–12). This approach reveals a
trend typical of liberal societies with deep historical connotations. The value
of women, or people in general, is strictly determined by their activity in the
labour market and the profit they are able to generate as they are employed.
The waste of human capital resulting from the low rate of gainful
employment of women, as mentioned earlier, is a prominent example of this
attitude. This shows that the concept of homo economicus contrasts with
family values. However, the impression that family values do not fit in
economic profits is only apparent (cf. Fineman & Dougherty, 2005, IX–XVII).
It was recognised that unequal distribution of unpaid care work is one of
the obstacles to achieving gender equality and women’s economic
empowerment. In Target 5.4, the international community committed itself
to tackling this problem. Unpaid care work concerns all free activities
performed in households and aimed at maintaining them. This covers both
direct care of persons, such as children and adult dependents, and indirect
care, i.e., housework. Although unpaid care work is of key importance to
people, it is often invisible. Moreover, globally, it is unevenly distributed in
households: 75% of work is performed by women and girls. Inequalities in
unpaid care work affect women’s employment opportunities, labour market
opportunities and time budget (Moreira da Silva, 2019). There is also a
correlation between the low position of women in the social structure and
their burden of unpaid work for households (Titkow et al., 2004, p. 153).
Therefore, one of the goals of the 2030 Agenda is to solve the problem of
unpaid care and release the economic potential of women (Moreira da Silva,
2019).
Political recommendations for the implementation of Target 5.4 address
the following areas: public services, infrastructure, social protection and
responsibility-sharing. These actions, including the actions undertaken by
the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), are
based on the so-called 3R strategy (recognise, reduce, redistribute) (OECD,
2018, p. 1). For recognising the economic contribution of unpaid care work,
it is necessary to measure it by means of time-budget surveys and include
time-use modules in household surveys. Another way is to create the
Household Satellite Account within the system of social statistics to estimate
and record the volume of non-market output produced in households
(Ferrant et al., 2014, p. 11). The measurement of unpaid care work and the
collection of data on the time budget of women and men are particularly
challenging tasks in developing countries and the OECD declares its support
in this respect (OECD, 2018, p. 4).
For reducing the burden associated with unpaid care work, it is necessary
to improve technical infrastructure. This will save time and can also have a
positive impact on the environment (electrification, water and sewage
infrastructure, transport, communications, biogas plants). The development
of social infrastructure and public services in the field of health, education
and care is also particularly important. The care infrastructure can relieve
women of the burden of care and support the creation of jobs for women.
The conflict of roles can also be reduced by adequate social protection.
However, according to OECD experts, social benefits can also result in the
increase in women’s unequal burden of unpaid work. This is the case when
social protection programmes reinforce traditional patriarchal family
structures based on stereotyped gender roles.
Another step to recognise the value of unpaid work of women is to share
work with other household members and redistribute it through public and
private care services. Since the population ages, the number of people in
need of care will increase and women will not be able to cope with this task.
Experts believe that measures to redistribute care work should be combined
with combating gender stereotypes. The aim is to break with traditional
sociocultural gender roles, encourage men to start to do more work in the
household, and make women more involved in professional and public
activities.
To affect the unpaid care work at the national policy level, the state
should influence the change of social norms and defeminisation of care
through family and fiscal policies, social security and influencing the change
of attitudes via the media and education. However, support, including
financial support, from state bodies should be based on the principle of
subsidiarity which is also discussed in Catholic social teaching, starting from
the Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Rerum Novarum (1891). The principle of
subsidiarity applies to all social groups, not only women and girls. Special
protection should also be given to maternity. Policy papers provide a clear
view in this respect. In this respect, the maternity protection should extend
enough even if it gives rise to concerns as to whether it does not cause
discrimination against other entities. Article 4(2) of CEDAW states that the
issue of any orders under national legislation to protect maternity shall not
be considered an act of discrimination. Article 12 of CEDAW extends this
provision by emphasising that anti-discrimination measures should also
cover health care, family-planning services, and special care for women
during pregnancy and childbirth, including adequate nutrition, also during
child feeding. However, the state should not put itself in the position of
being omnipotent since the family and home are the most intimate areas of
human life. Public entities should not unduly and unnecessarily interfere
with this order and the assistance should respect the rights of women and
men to protect family life.
The fact that the 2030 Agenda addresses this issue can provide a platform
for cooperation since the Church also calls for recognising and respecting
women’s domestic work (John Paul II, 1981b, section 23). However, note that
the way the Church’s teaching sees maternity is not just a function or role. It
is a vocation and essential dimension to the fulfilment of the female
personality. The role of the mother in the family is special, important and
irreplaceable (Paul VI, 1971, section 13; John Paul II, 1981a, section 19) and
makes an invaluable contribution to social well-being and progress (John
Paul II, 1995c, section 9). In his call for social appreciation for maternal tasks,
John Paul II proposes to abolish the economic coercion regarding work of
mothers by introducing family wages or social benefits and adapting the
work system to the needs and forms of human life (John Paul II, 1981a,
section 19). At present, a balance between work and private life is
appreciated. According to Catholic social teaching, roles and professions
should be harmoniously combined, but with respect for the primary and
inalienable right to work for home and raising children (John Paul II, 1981b,
section 23). Note, however, that the teaching of the Catholic Church assumes
that the diversity of the tasks of women and men stems from the specific
character of their roles as mothers and fathers, whereas equality policies see
the diversity of gender roles in the family as inequality of opportunity and
attempt to eliminate it through institutionalisation of care, equal sharing of
parental leave and individualisation of social rights.
Mulieris Dignitatem and new feminism

Women have a unique role to play in thought and action, and promotion of
new feminism which rejects the temptation of imitating models of male
domination. The aim of the new feminism is to recognise and express
genuine female genius in all manifestations of social life, and to make efforts
to overcome all forms of discrimination, violence and exploitation (John
Paul II, 1995a, section 99).
In Catholic social teaching, the issue of women is primarily discussed in
the apostolic letter Mulieris Dignitatem on women’s dignity and vocation.
The document is still relevant today and fits very well into contemporary
discussions on sustainable development. It provides a new look at women
and, more importantly, a new look at human person and interpersonal
bonds.
A human being should always exist as a woman or a man (John Paul II,
1988, section 1). Both woman and man were created in the image of God
(John Paul II, 1988, section 6). Given the sexual life and procreation as well
as due to the responsibility for and involvement in home and family life,
these aspects of human existence are extremely important. Christian
anthropology can be seen as a way of perpetuating stereotypes. This is
because male and female identities are presented in relation to their
biological nature and the social function they perform in the family: woman
acts as wife and mother, while man as husband and father. By contrast, the
feminist gender anthropology introduced a distinction between the
biological dimension (sex) and sociocultural dimension (gender). It rejected
the concepts of natural gender differences in favour of the belief that gender
roles are socially determined.
Since the 1990s, there has been a tendency to promote cultural
determinism in the feminist and equality discourse while ignoring biological
sex. Following the Beijing conference, the concepts of gender and gender-
mainstreaming have been permanently introduced into the international
language, and gender equality has been mainstreamed into social policy at
the national and global level. The implementation of gender equality in
societies has become a key objective, and efforts have been made to
transform gender identities and family roles. The aim of the current social
changes is to invalidate traditional and stereotypical roles, and to achieve
gender symmetry or balance, both in the public and private sphere. This
strategy is oriented towards personal freedom and strengthening the
economic independence of women. At the same time, the traditional family
culture is underestimated, while the concept of motherhood is denied and
replaced by the concept of unpaid domestic care work. The influence of
liberal feminist thought is also present in Catholic feminist theology
(Beattie, 2006). However, it ignores the view on understanding women and
their role in the Church and the world discussed in the encyclical Mulieris
Dignitatem. It brings to the fore the issue of autonomy and refers to the
philosophical output of I. Kant, M. Heidegger, J. Butler and L. Irigaray.
In anthropological terms, the ethics of care adopted by feminists
(Noddings, 1984, passim; Held, 2006, passim) which concentrates on
interpersonal relationships is much closer to Catholic social teaching.
Looking at SDGs through the prism of anthropology, it seems that they
support the vision of a woman who remains in relation to her needs, other
people and the surrounding reality. However, it is necessary to ensure that,
as a result of the calls to implement SDGs, woman is not seen solely in terms
of personal autonomy. This approach was advocated, inter alia, by
ecofeminism in its initial form (d’Eaubonne, 1981, p. 236, passim). In order to
explain class struggle, it introduced the concept of gender war. It supported
cooperation and equality between sexes as a response to existing inequalities
and dominance structures. The pursuit of women’s liberation from rigid
cultural norms cannot lead to their masculinisation (John Paul II, 1988,
section 10). The call to maintain the primacy of relations, as emphasised by
feminists and discussed in theology of relations (Harrison, 1985, pp. 15–16),
fits into the vision of man presented by Catholic social teaching and
indicates the way SDGs should be implemented.
Pope Francis points out that the recognition of women’s rights and their
participation in public life have significantly improved, but the process is not
complete (Francis, 2016, section 54). Many nations still face gender
discrimination resulting from legal conditions and social norms. Until 2014,
52 countries around the world lacked constitutional guarantees of equality
between women and men (UNW, 2017, p. 13). This trend continues. Another
key challenge is to eradicate unacceptable practices, such as verbal and
physical violence against women, domestic harassment and various forms of
slavery. According to the UN, 35% of women worldwide have experienced
physical or sexual violence (UNW, 2017, p. 13). This directly undermines
women’s dignity and vocation, and forms a shameful vision of man. The
abuses in marriage are contrary to the very nature of marital unity (Francis,
2016, section 54). The sin of a human, as a result of which man begins to rule
over woman, breaks the unity of the two and diminish the true dignity of
woman and dignity of man (John Paul II, 1988, section 10). “The woman
cannot become the object of domination and male possession” (John Paul II,
1988, section 10). The fact that humans, due to their sinful nature, have a
tendency to violate the moral order does not justify the improper relation
between man and woman. This refers both to marriage and social life “in
which the woman remains disadvantaged or discriminated against by the
fact of being a woman” (John Paul II, 1988, section 10).
D. Elson points out that
the disproportionate responsibility that women bear for carrying out

unpaid work is an important constraint on their capacity to realise their
rights… . Both women and men need time to care for their families and
communities, and time free from such care.
(Pathania, 2017, p. 72)
Her view is closely related to SDG5 and section 20 of the SDGs, which
indicates that all forms of discrimination and violence against women and
girls can be eliminated if men and boys will be included in the process. “Man
[should] be fully aware that in their shared parenthood he owes a special
debt to the woman. No programme of equal rights between women and men
is valid unless it takes this fact fully into account” (John Paul II, 1988,
section 18). Extreme individualism and masculinism criticised in Catholic
social teaching also refers to men. Man should be more engaged in domestic
matters to better understand himself as a human. Similarly, he needs to
devote more time to the direct care of children to better understand himself
as a father. Women “assume, together with men, a common responsibility for
the destiny of humanity” (John Paul II, 1988, section 31). Therefore, it seems
that the UNW HeForShe initiative, which seeks to encourage men and boys
to promote gender equality (UNW, 2019, p. 13), supports Catholic social
teaching in its vision of man as a unity of the two.
Anti-discrimination measures should not be limited to new development
opportunities for women. In addition to legal changes, this issue requires in-
depth philosophical and theological discussion to inspire legislative and
political processes, and initiate cultural changes. This profound
transformation is necessary because discrimination against women is still
based on strong patriarchal values (Park, 1993; Chung, 1994; Kim & Lee,
2011).
Conclusions
The contribution of women is necessary to achieve sustainable development.
Therefore, the role of women in the family and society needs to be redefined.
Currently, domestic work primarily performed by women starts to be
perceived in a different way. Domestic work, including maternal duties, is a
type of activity which contributes to the development of a person and
should therefore be socially recognised and appreciated (John Paul II, 1981a,
section 19; John Paul II, 1981b, section 23), also in the form of appropriate
remuneration, at least equivalent to other works (John Paul II, 1994, section
17). Nevertheless, societies are just beginning to understand that unpaid
domestic work by women is immensely valuable and can be measured with
economic parameters. Historically, revolutionary events took place.
However, revolution does not mean violent, dynamic and rapid changes
here. Rather, metaphorically, it refers to deep social transformations. The
2030 Agenda calls for equality of position between men and women in terms
of shared responsibility for the home and family. However, its calls still
serve as programmatic recommendations. Nevertheless, they are also rooted
in Catholic social teaching. Note, however, that the Catholic theology does
not seek to equal women and men and does not completely ignore gender
differences. Instead, it emphasises equality from the perspective of dignity.
In the modern world, the level of material prosperity we are able to
achieve is unprecedented in human history. However, the achievements of
some groups marginalise other groups and left them behind. This refers
specifically to women from developing countries. This situation can lead to
the gradual loss of sensitivity for other people. John Paul II points out that
“our time in particular awaits the manifestation of that genius which
belongs to women, and which can ensure sensitivity for human beings in
every circumstance: because they are human!” (John Paul II, 1988, section
30). This, in turn, should support the eradication of all forms of
discrimination against people, whether social, cultural or based on sex (Paul
VI, 1961, section 29). According to Catholic social teaching, the programmes
aimed at improving the situation of women should be based on respect for
their dignity and vocation to motherhood or, more broadly, the possibility of
achieving full female humanity (John Paul II, 1981b, section 23). The social
advancement of women should not reject natural sex differences and should
not lead to standardisation and masculinisation (Paul VI, 1971, section 13).
Rather, the specific character of woman’s nature should be recognised, and
the multilateral contribution of women to the life of societies and human
progress should be appreciated (John Paul II, 1995b, section 8). At the same
time, the requirements of Catholic social teaching regarding women’s
empowerment in family and social life must be implemented by the
institutions and organisations run by the Catholic Church (Peterson-Iyer,
2019, p. 103). This is the only way the Catholic Church can stand honestly at
the side of women and the sustainable development of humanity.
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6 Access to water as common good of
humanity in the context of Catholic
social teaching
Wojciech Kluj, Małgorzata Laskowska and Marek
Rzotkiewicz
Introduction
Access to water is a fundamental right of every human being. Its rational
and joint distribution is one of the tasks of utmost priority for local
communities and global environments (Francis, 2015, section 28). Statistics
on access to water and sanitation around the world show a sad picture.
According to data provided by the United Nations Information Centre
section (UNIC):
3 in 10 people lack access to safely managed drinking water services and

6 in 10 people lack access to safely managed sanitation facilities… . Water
scarcity affects more than 40 per cent of the global population and is
projected to rise. Over 1.7 billion people are currently living in river
basins where water use exceeds recharge. 2.4 billion people lack access to
basic sanitation services, such as toilets or latrines. More than 80 per cent
of wastewater resulting from human activities is discharged into rivers
or sea without any pollution removal.
(UNGA, 2015; cf. UNDP, 2006; UNESCO-WWAP, 2012)
The Catholic Church is aware of the seriousness of this problem. This is
seen in the official teaching and in various missionary social campaigns on
the access to water as part of the idea of sustainable development. The aim
of this chapter is to present water as the common good of humanity and
access to water as a human right – the way it is seen in the social teaching
of the Church. Legal and ethical perspectives will also be taken into account.
Water as common good of all the people

The social teaching of the Church is not part of the deposit of faith. It
develops gradually. As awareness of social problems increases, it becomes
analysed from the perspective of faith. In the past, this was the case with the
efforts to abolish slavery, raised by popes and many Christians. Towards the
end of the 19th century, issues related to the developing working class began
to be considered from the perspective of faith. Today, from the perspective of
faith, Christians see the violation of basic human rights. In the context of
civil international relations, the term “global public goods” is used more
often (Kaul et al., 1999, pp. 9–10).
Among the newly emerging issues, there is also the question of the
protection of aquatic ecosystems and the right of people for the universal
access to clean water. Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the [Catholic]
Church of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace (PCJP) briefly states
that “the goods of the earth were created by God to be used wisely by all.
They must be shared equitably, in accordance with justice and charity”
(PCJP, 2004, section 481).
The principle of the universal access of goods applies especially to water.
As a gift from God, water is a vital element essential to survival; thus,

everyone has a right to it… . By its very nature water cannot be treated
as just another commodity among many, and it must be used rationally
and in solidarity with others.
(PCJP, 2004, section 485)
As a conclusion, it is said that “the right to safe drinking water is a
universal and inalienable right” (PCJP, 2004, section 485).
Problems linked to the increasing water shortage

The social teaching of the Catholic Church officially started with Leo XIII
and his encyclical letter Rerum Novarum (1891). It was continued by Pius XI
in Quadrogesimo Anno (1931). John XXIII added his voice in Mater et
Magistra (1961) as well as in Pacem in Terris (1963). Second Vatican Council
presented Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World
“Gaudium et spes” (1965). Paul VI wrote his encyclical Populorum Progressio
(1967) and apostolic letter Octogesima Adveniens (1971). John Paul II was the
author of three encyclical letters on social issues: Laborem Exercens (1981),
Sollicitudo Rei Socialis (1987), and Centesimus Annus (1991). Pope Francis
often takes up social issues, especially human promotion, from the
perspective of evangelisation. This is the background of the Catholic
Church’s understanding of the problems linked to water (Dorr, 2016, pp. 17–
134).
In recent teaching of Pope Francis, in his encyclical Laudato Si’, one reads:
Fresh drinking water is an issue of primary importance, since it is

indispensable for human life and for supporting terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. Sources of fresh water are necessary for health care,
agriculture and industry. Water supplies used to be relatively constant,
but now in many places demand exceeds the sustainable supply, with
dramatic consequences in the short and long term.
The pope in particular mentions two cases: large cities and some regions
of Africa. The encyclical notes that the problem of poor people’s access to
good water is becoming particularly serious. The absence of clean water
leads to illness and even death.
Every day, unsafe water results in many deaths and the spread of water-
related diseases, including those caused by microorganisms and chemical
substances. Dysentery and cholera, linked to inadequate hygiene and
water supplies, are a significant cause of suffering and of infant
mortality. Underground water sources in many places are threatened by
the pollution produced in certain mining, farming and industrial
activities, especially in countries lacking adequate regulation or controls.
It is not only a question of industrial waste. Detergents and chemical
products, commonly used in many places of the world, continue to pour
into our rivers, lakes and seas.
This phenomenon is dangerous because, due to the lack of general access

to this common good, a tendency to privatise these scarce resources arises.
Water, intended to serve everyone, becomes a commodity that not everyone
can afford. In this matter, the pope speaks firmly:
Access to safe drinkable water is a basic and universal human right,

since it is essential to human survival and, as such, is a condition for the
exercise of other human rights. Our world has a grave social debt
towards the poor who lack access to drinking water, because they are
denied the right to a life consistent with their inalienable dignity. This
debt can be paid partly by an increase in funding to provide clean water
and sanitary services among the poor.
This is not only a social issue. It is also an educational and cultural one
since there is still little awareness of this serious problem. Failure to address
this issue at an international level may result in serious consequences. It
may happen that “the control of water by large multinational businesses
may become a major source of conflict in this century” (Francis, 2015,
section 31). Pope Francis writes explicitly that “once certain resources have
been depleted, the scene will be set for new wars, albeit under the guise of
noble claims” (Francis, 2015, section 57).
Inspirations
Already in 2001, John Paul II spoke about the need for a global “ecological
conversion.” The final document of the Synod for Amazon (2019) also
addresses the issue of “ecological conversion,” using even the expression an
“ecological sin.” It reminds of the need to provide everyone with the access
to drinking water. By ensuring that the defence of human rights flows from
the faith, the Fathers of the Synod recognised that local peoples must play a
key role in protecting the nature of the Amazon. Pope Francis also
mentioned the need for ecological conversion in his most recent Message for
World Peace Day on 1 January 2020.
On various occasions, the figure of St. Francis of Assisi is recalled.
Through his openness to nature, he became the patron of the Catholic – and
not only – ecological movement. He called water his sister, when saying,
“Praised be you, my Lord, through Sister Water, who is very useful and
humble and precious and chaste” (St. Francis, Letter to the Faithful).
Pope Francis is convinced that the Christian faith has an important role to
play in the education and creation of a new model of development, progress
and human solidarity. “The problem of water is partly an educational and
cultural issue, since there is little awareness of the seriousness of such
behaviour within a context of great inequality” (Francis, 2015, section 30).
The laws and regulations alone are insufficient in the long run. Only
education can implement ways of reducing water consumption. This may be
effected especially through the effort of asceticism and development of
correct conscience. This process should start from seminaries and formation
houses (Francis, 2015, section 214).
However, just a sense of duty and moral responsibility is not enough. One
also needs inspiration, and nature itself may serve this purpose. Jesus
Himself lived in full harmony with the creation.
Soil, water, mountains: everything is, as it were, a caress of God… .
Anyone who has grown up in the hills or used to sit by the spring to
drink, or played outdoors in the neighbourhood square; going back to
these places is a chance to recover something of their true selves.
But this is not all: Christians have an even greater source of inspiration.
The privileged way in which nature is accepted by God and transformed in
the mediation of supernatural life are the sacraments.
Water, oil, fire and colours are taken up in all their symbolic power and
incorporated in our act of praise… . Water poured over the body of a
child in Baptism is a sign of new life. Encountering God does not mean
fleeing from this world or turning our back on nature.
Examples of specific actions

Encyclical Laudato Si’ reminds: “A global consensus is essential for
confronting the deeper problems … for example … promoting a better
management of marine and forest resources, and ensuring universal access
to drinking water” (Francis, 2015, section 164); or “water is a scarce and
indispensable resource and a fundamental right which conditions the
exercise of other human rights” (Francis, 2015, section 185).
Although we cannot take responsibility for everything in the existing
world order, something can be changed locally. A special role in this field is
played by missionaries. Very often they support local efforts to build and
manage educational, medical and cultural facilities to promote the integrity
of creation, including water issues. Christian missions are currently building
many local wells and creating new irrigation systems. A lot of effort on the
water issues was taken by agricultural missionaries.
The missions are constantly stimulating the development of the new
socio-ecological ethics. As early as 1991, the US Catholic bishops issued a
pastoral letter entitled Renewing the Earth, where some issues related to
water protection and free access were taken up (US Conference of Catholic
Bishops, 1991, section 1). Ecological awareness is growing in the field of
recent missiological reflection (Kaoma et al., 2015, including 19 interesting
papers; Dorr, 2016; Zenner, 2018; McAnally, 2018).
During his recent meeting with fishermen from southern Italy (20 January
2020), Pope Francis praised them for the voluntary action of collecting
plastic waste in water. He supported their efforts to establish a specific law
in this matter.
Pope Francis is not afraid to refer to interreligious cooperation in this
matter (Kluj, 2014; McAnally, 2018, pp. 26–30, Przybyłowski, 2019, p. 137). In
Abu Dhabi, in February 2019, together with the great imam Sheikh Ahmad
al-Tayyeb from the University of Cairo al-Azhar, he signed the document on
Human Fraternity for World Peace and Living Together, where we read, for
example: “lack of equitable distribution of natural resources … have
generated, and continue to generate, vast numbers of poor, infirm and
deceased persons. This leads to catastrophic crises that various countries
have fallen victim to” (Francis & Al-Tayyeb, 2019).
Access to water as a human right

Human rights are a notion of international law. But access to water as a
human right is a novelty. In 2002, the UN Committee on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights (CESCR) adopted the General Comment No. 15 (The
Right to Water, Articles 11 and 12 of the Covenant), where it established that
right to be indispensable for leading a life in dignity and a prerequisite for
the realisation of other human rights. In 2010, the United Nations General
Assembly (UNGA) formally recognised the right to safe and clean drinking
water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment
of life and all human rights (Resolution A/RES/64/292 of 28 July 2010). In the
international law, most attention has always been devoted to seas and rivers;
however, regarding water from the perspective of human rights, freshwater,
i.e., rivers, lakes and groundwater, should be considered.
Navigational use
For a long time, international law treated rivers, and other bodies of water,
from the commercial (navigational) point of view, not from the human
rights perspective. The dawn of the international river law is linked with the
Treaty of Münster of 1648 and the Natural Law theory, especially with the
ideas of Grotius, who created the doctrine of free (inoffensive) passage
justified by necessity (H. Grotius, 1625, Vol. II, Chapter III, section XII).
Grotius argued that rivers, differently than seas, can be subject to property
because they are confined within their banks.
So a River, considered merely as such, is the Property of the People

through whose Lands it flows, or of him under whose Jurisdiction that
People are; and they may, if they please, make Sluices, and appropriate
to themselves whatever that River produces.
(H. Grotius, 1625, Vol. II, Chapter II, section XII)
Rivers are open to occupation. No nation has the right to hinder another
from trading with distant nations.
The usage of rivers was of interest to many prominent international law
writers (S. Pufendorf, E. Vattel), but they still view rivers as venues to
international trade, not from the human rights perspective. This view
influenced later legal and political documents. To mention just the Decree on
the Opening the Navigation of the Scheldt and Meuse Rivers (16 November
1792), the Treaty of Paris (30 May 1814), the Final Act of the Congress of
Vienna (9 June 1815), the Final Act of the Berlin Convention of 1885, the
Treaty of Versailles of 1918, and the Barcelona Convention and the Statute
on the Regime of Navigable Waterways of International Concern of 20 April
1921. The last step in the development of the international river law on the
navigable utilisation of rivers was the signing of the European Agreement on
Main Inland Waterways of International Importance (AGN), (UNECE
Transport Agreements and Conventions No. 6, 19 January 1996).
Non-navigational use
From the second half of the 19th century, it has been possible to observe new
ways of rivers usage, other than navigational. At the same time, when the
use of rivers exclusively for the transport of goods diminished, they were
utilised for other purposes, e.g., for electricity production or for irrigation
projects. Since the 20th century, a new prominent factor has come out, i.e.,
the protection of the environment. The environmental element cannot be
considered as new, but earlier it had often been ignored as not sufficiently
important.
The first example of this “new” tendency is the International Regulation
regarding the use of international watercourses for purposes other than
navigation (Declaration of Madrid of 20 April 1911 by the International Law
Association [ILA]). In this regulation, ILA stated that riparian states with a
common river are in a position of permanent physical dependence on one
another. That precludes the idea of the complete autonomy of each state in
the section of the natural watercourse under its sovereignty. The fact that
this document was issued and signed by a non-governmental organisation
(ILA) may explain its rather blunt statement that riparian countries’ physical
dependence on one another precludes the idea of the complete autonomy of
each state in the section of the natural watercourse under its sovereignty.
The next contributions of the ILA with respect to international river law
came in 1966, when it issued the Helsinki Rules on the Uses of the Waters of
International Rivers, and in 2004 – with the Berlin Rules on Water Resources.
In these documents, a greater emphasis was placed on the protection of the
environment and on different ways of river use. Among these, navigational
use was only one of many, and not even the most important. This warrants
the opinion that after the Helsinki and the Berlin Rules, the statement – e.g.,
the 1911 Declaration of Madrid – that the right of navigation by virtue of a
title recognised in international law may not be violated in any way
whatsoever lost its credibility.
The Helsinki Rules and the Berlin Rules prioritised different ways of use of
water resources in general, which also included rivers. Under Article 14 of
the Berlin Rules, in determining an equitable and reasonable use, states shall
first allocate waters to satisfy vital human needs. No other use or category of
uses shall have an inherent preference over any other use or category of
uses, which applies also to navigation. Navigation along rivers is not the
only means of competing modes of transport as there are other means, such
as train, road or air. It is not even the most important, as others, especially
train, are less time-consuming.
But while the Helsinki Rules still referred to international rivers, the
Berlin Rules not only departed from international rivers, but from any
rivers. They referred to water, not to rivers. That, however, does not warrant
a possible opinion that the Berlin Rules do not apply to rivers and they have
no importance in international river law. Quite the contrary; these rules
emphasise that water is a resource, which is illustrated by provisions on
aquifers (a subsurface layer or layers of geological strata of sufficient
porosity and permeability to allow either a flow of or the withdrawal of
usable quantities of groundwater). Aquifers are the subject of separate
document (Rules on International Groundwaters, Seoul, 1986).
This means that one of the founding presumptions on which international
river law is based, i.e., the right of navigation along foreign rivers, has been
challenged. Rivers are no longer to be differentiated from their waters as a
resource. They are no longer seen as inexhaustible.
The last noteworthy steps in the development of international river law
were the Helsinki Convention on the Protection and the Use of
Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (17 March 1992) and
the New York Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of
International Watercourses (adopted by the UN General Assembly on 21
May 1997). The New York Convention applies to the uses of international
watercourses and of their waters for purposes other than navigation and to
measures of protection, preservation and management related to the uses of
these watercourses and their waters. It constitutes the first universal act of
transboundary waters as the acts before that convention were of a regional
character only.
Access to water and its sustainable development
The previously described changes in the international river law have
widened the scope of different kinds of river uses. It is possible to say that
they emancipated some non-navigational kinds of river usages; however,
they still refer to commercial uses (regardless if navigational or non-
navigational). Even when it comes to the protection of the environment,
they are slightly related to human rights or to sustainable development
goals. But that changes. There are voices that new and different types of
river uses are justified (Goldmann, 1990, pp. 741–802; Nijssen et al., 2001, pp.
143–175). Under Article IV of the Helsinki Rules, each basin state is entitled,
within its territory, to a reasonable and equitable share in the beneficial uses
of the waters of an international drainage basin. States should use water
with a view of its sustainable usage. Such a use requires resource
management which yields the greatest sustainable benefit to present
generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
aspirations of future generations (Munro & Lammers, 1987, p. 251.
Sustainable use is closely related to, and an essential measure for, the
achievement of the objective of sustainable development (Barral, 2016, pp. 3–
25).
Article V of these rules stipulates then that a reasonable and equitable
share within the meaning of Article IV is to be determined in light of all the
relevant factors in each particular case. It may thus be necessary to take into
account different and sometimes unrelated factors. They may include, for
example, climate changes and their impact on a given river system, lowering
of the water level and the deterioration of navigation conditions, limitation
of fishing or agricultural conditions. It may also be appropriate, and
sometimes necessary, to take into account the need to protect human rights.
The access to water has been recognised by CESCR in 2002 (the General
Comment No. 15) and later by the United Nations General Assembly in 2010
(Resolution A/RES/64/292). According to the United Nations General
Assembly, approximately 884 million people lack access to safe drinking
water and more than 2.6 billion do not have access to basic sanitation.
Approximately 1.5 million children under five years of age die, and 443
million school days are lost each year as a result of water- and sanitation-
related diseases. Due to these reasons, Resolution 64/292 called upon states
and international organisations to provide financial resources, help capacity-
building and technology transfer to provide safe, clean, accessible and
affordable drinking water and sanitation for all.
Even though the Helsinki and the Berlin Rules are not formal sources of
law, they do, however, codify the customary law and establish certain
recommended solutions. It is thus possible that they can be resorted to by
states using different ways of river exploitation or in international disputes
between states.
That may be the case, e.g., in a simmering dispute between Egypt and
Ethiopia, which may eventually destabilise the whole Horn of Africa
(Zeidan, 2015, p. 49). Climate change–induced variations in water supply
mean that the states through which the Nile River flows will have little
choice in the long run but to make adjustments to their overall water
management approaches and strategies. As the Nile basin may experience
greater variability in rainfall patterns in the future – with more years
featuring droughts or extreme floods – the greater cooperation between all
riparian countries may be necessary to avoid environmental shocks up and
down the basin (Siam & Eltahir, 2017, pp. 350–354).
Human rights arguments can also be used by individuals, even against
their own states. That was the case in Ominayak v. Canada, where a group
of Lubicon Cree Indians brought an application before the Human Rights
Committee (HRC, 1990) for the breach of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights. The case arose from the granting of leases by the
province of Alberta in Canada to certain oil companies on the ancestral
community’s lands, which threatened the traditional way of life of
applicants.
In the next noteworthy case of this kind, Sawhoyamaxa Community v.
Paraguay (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2006) the Inter-American
Court of Human Rights found that Paraguay breached applicants’
(individuals’) right to life enshrined in Article 4(1) of the American
Convention on Human Rights. In that case, the Court found that members of
the Sawhoyamaxa Community were affected (among others) by the
limitations to drinking water and sanitation facilities.
In the third such case, Ogoni v. Nigeria, the African Commission on
Human and Peoples’ Rights concerned the deprivation of natural resources
and the environmental and health consequences of the oil development
activities. The applicants claimed that the Nigerian government violated the
right to health and the right to clean environment as recognised under
Articles 16 and 24 of the African Charter. This resulted from direct
participation by the Nigerian government in the contamination of air, water
and soil.
These human rights cases, which have arisen on three different continents,
show a new prominent trend. This trend, even at its early stage of legal
development, in addition to empowering individuals and communities, may
potentially have impact on the key normative requirements existing under
national law (McIntyre, 2016, p. 311). It may even stop the national
governments from taking national actions, which may have broad
international consequences.
The most striking example of such cases is the overuse of the waters of
Amu Darya and Syr Darya for agriculture (growing cotton), which resulted
in the almost-disappearance of the Aral Sea. Prior to the 1960s and 1970s,
water from these rivers was already being used for agriculture, but not on a
massive scale. The almost-disappearance of the Aral Sea supports the
argument that, from the perspective of human rights, it does not matter if a
river is regarded as international or purely national.
The significance of human rights in water law

Human rights and their impact on water law is a new factor, which have a
great perspective ahead. It has already been noticed and formally recognised
in international law (i.e., the General Comment No. 15 and the United
Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/64/292). It has been considered
by international courts and tribunals and may be used in disputes before
national courts. It is unknown, however, if human rights can be used to stop
national governments from taking national actions, which can have
international consequences, like the case of the Aral Sea.
Distribution of water (rationality and solidarity)

The problem of access to clear water and SDG6 is also present in mass
media. Since water is an important aspect of local and global policy
(Chaisemartin, 2019, pp. 60–65), information management (and the idea of
sustainable development) is presented in different ways. Mass media are the
main, sometimes the only, source of information about the environment,
including the distribution of water in the world (Coyle, 2005, p. X). They are
also very important sources of communication about sustainable
development. Therefore, the question is how and to what extent local and
global media deal with the topic of water, and especially SDG6. There are
not many studies completed so far on this. Nevertheless, one can indicate
those which undertook such an analysis.
Svatava Janoušková, Tomáš Hák and Vlastimil Necas conducted a
quantitative analysis, the purpose of which was to determine the number of
publications on sustainable development in English newspapers. Global
press was selected for the study, and the articles analysed came from the
period between 2009 and 2018 exactly. In total, 9553 press titles were
allocated to the study (including The Wall Street Journal, Dow Jones
Newswires, The New York Times, The Sydney Morning Herald, South China
Morning Post, and The Times of India). Based on the analysis of the media
content, it has been shown that the five most published themes on
sustainable development were “climate change” (SDG13), then “renewable
energy” (SDG7), “gender equality” (SDG5), “extreme poverty” (SDG1) and
“access to justice” (SDG16). On the other hand, neglected topics include
“access to water and sanitation” (SDG6) (Janoušková et al., 2019).
Researchers noticed that the world press does deal with sustainable
development (1.5 million articles on the subject in 10 years), but not all of its
goals attract journalists equally. A similar conclusion was reached by other
scientists, including Pierre Legagneux, Nicolas Casajus, Kevin Cazelles
(Département de Biologie, Chimie et Géographie, Université du Québec à
Rimouski, Rimouski, QC, Canada). Analysing the American, Canadian and
British press from 1991 to 2016 in terms of climate change issues, they
showed that “media coverage of climate change was up to eight times higher
compared to biodiversity” (Legagneux et al., 2018, pp. 2–3). Other topics,
such as access to water for local or larger societies, are not readily and often
addressed by journalists.
Coming back to the issues of SDG6, it is worth noting the invaluable role
of the media in popularising theological, legal and ethical approaches to the
problem. The concept of “water ethics” is relatively new. It has been used
since ca. 2006, mainly by environmental ethicists and researchers on
sustainable development (Grunwald, 2016; Llamas et al., 2009). Based on the
UNESCO document Water Ethics and Water Resource Management (2011),
Armin Grunwald prepared the following ethical principles relating to water
distribution: (1) Principle of human dignity and the right to water; (2)
Principle of equity in availability and applicability of water; (3) Principle of
eco-centric ethics; (4) Principle of vicinity; (5) Principle of frugality; (6)
Principle of transaction; (7) Principle of multiple and beneficial use of water;
(8) Principle of mandatory application of quantity and quality measures; (9)
Principle of compensation and user pays; (10) Principle of polluter pays; (11)
Principle of participation; (12) Principle of equitable and reasonable
utilisation (Grunwald, 2016). These principles also include the need for
rational and solidary water distribution, also in the context of the protection
and restoration of water-dependent ecosystems (mountain areas, forests,
wetlands, rivers, lakes and underground waters) and the participation of
local communities in improving water management and sanitation (Ellinor
et al., 2017). In water ethics, “solidarity reminds us of what may be called our
‘upstream and downstream interdependence’ ” (Jennings et al., 2009, p. 27).
Social solidarity and rational use of water begins with local communities.
It is there where the awareness of the need to save water and its reasonable
use is built. This has a huge impact on global awareness (Hattingh, 2019, p.
28). In order to build this social awareness, it is necessary to help develop
specific skills and acquire relevant knowledge from an early age. Becoming
familiar with basic information about the dependence of life and the
environment on water, especially about the lack of access to clean water, is a
necessity. In terms of skills, one should mention, among other things, the
need to develop the skills of saving natural resources, sharing, economical
daily water use, caring for the well-being of loved ones and neighbours in
access to water, and caring for local water-dependent ecosystems. Education
focused on this subject is, therefore, not only education in the area of
knowledge and skills, but also attitudes, which is decisive in achieving the
objectives of sustainable development.
Due to the anthropocentric and bio-/eco-centric element of education on
water ethics, one can see the important role not only of lawyers but also of
theologians and educators in popularising the assumptions of this education
and ethics at first the local and then national and global levels. Mass media
is a necessary means without which it is difficult to deal with this topic
today. They not only play an informational and educational role, but they
can also help to spread attitudes about water ethics. Thanks to the
supervisory function of the media, the citizen of the “large” world and of
smaller society has a chance to access to reliable and full information on
water policy and management.
Conclusions
In this chapter, access to clean drinking water and to sanitation facilities has
been presented from the perspective of Catholic social teaching, human
rights and media/ethics. The right to water was officially recognised as a
human right in the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 64/292 and
by Pope Francis in his encyclical Laudato Si’. Access to clean drinking water
and to sanitary facilities was also recognised by international courts in
disputes concerning violations of human rights. Failure to comply with these
laws may not be only an abstract ethical problem, but it can lead to serious
conflicts, great migrations and even wars. In the pastoral practice of the
Catholic Church, especially in Africa, America and Asia, various actions are
taken to give access to clean water, especially for poor people. There is also a
growing awareness of the importance of this problem, especially the need
for moral reflection on this issue. Journalists and scientists have a great
impact on educating the public in the area of ethical principles relating to
the proper distribution of water. Education on ethical principles of water use
is necessary both locally and globally.
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7 Prospects for sustainable development
of the energy sector in the times of
global climate change and
environmental threats
Zbigniew Łepko, Marek Niezgódka, Piotr
Burgoński and Dominika Żukowska-Gardzińska
Introduction
Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7) of the document Transforming Our
World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Agenda) calls for
access to sustainable energy to withstand global climate change and growing
environmental threats. It proposes to search for a balance between energy
expectations of civilised humanity and respect for animate and inanimate
natural resources. The goal refers to the concept of sustainable development
according to which the security of current and future generations can be
guaranteed only if the balance of natural, economic and social components
of the natural environment is maintained. To this end, a number of
challenges need to be addressed, in particular technical/technological,
geographical/natural, economic, sociopolitical, legal/administrative and
moral/ethical. Each of these challenges can be discussed separately based on
a specific area of sustainable energy. However, the aim of this paper is to
focus primarily on those areas which explore a common ground between
technological and ethical challenges. This way, local energy projects can be
prepared and their global future effects can be predicted. Also, it is possible
to explore technological challenges related to energy acquisition,
transmission and use with respect to the guidelines of Catholic social
teaching. It is particularly worth exploring sustainable energy from the
perspective of the common good, social justice and broadly understood
poverty.
Sustainable energy in light of the principle of the common good

From the point of view of Catholic social teaching, the energy sector should
be discussed in relation to the issues pertaining to the common good. The
concept of the common good refers to a set of natural and cultural
conditions conducive to comprehensive human development (Catechism of
the Catholic Church, 1992, section 1906). The common good is a set of
particularistic goods of individuals forming an organised system of social
organism. The common good understood in this way is indivisible and can
be achieved, multiplied and protected only on a common basis. Moreover,
the good of one person cannot be used to multiply the good of another. The
common good acquires its full meaning if discussed in connection with the
principle of solidarity which assumes the readiness to accept and carry out
certain duties to search for appropriate ways of broadly understood
cooperation in various areas of activity and exchange different types of
knowledge.
Catholic social teaching is a firmly established component of the doctrine
of the Catholic Church, but it is still open to new impulses as evidenced by
officially documented responses of popes to the signs of the times, i.e.,
critical events of the modern world. Special attention should be paid to
official statements of those popes who headed the Church at the turn of the
20th and 21st centuries, i.e., John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis. Their
statements often refer, either explicitly or implicitly, to the growing
importance of environmental issues. They prove that the issue of sustainable
energy goes far beyond technological factors and quantified analysis of
environmental profits and losses. To fully explore the issue, one has to adopt
a specific ethical perspective and qualitatively assess complex living
conditions of current and future human generations – hence the need and
necessity to discuss the issue of sustainable energy in relation to those
principles of Catholic social teaching which explore a relationship between
the development of technological civilisation and ethical, or even religious
and spiritual, dilemmas (Zagończyk, 2015, pp. 79–92; Sadowski, 2020).
The popes mentioned previously refer primarily to the rich achievements
of their predecessors in the field of doctrinal approach to social issues. The
discussion was initiated in 1891 by Leo XIII with his encyclical Rerum
Novarum. There are strong indications that the popes explore the pioneering
and original approach adopted by Teilhard de Chardin in Christianity and
Evolution, in the 1920s (Teilhard de Chardin, 2002). He emphasised the need
to open Catholic social thought to environmental issues. He pointed out that
it is necessary to examine the relationship between all determinants of the
human condition and the human living environment. In other words,
human personal development is a function of the quality of the natural
environment, while the state of the natural environment is a function of
ethical sensitivity and maturity of man. Following this framework, John
Paul II and the succeeding popes use the term “human ecology.” They point
out that the care for the environment is probably best reflected by the care
for safeguarding human dignity (John Paul II, 1991, section 38).
It is thus clear that the discussion on environmental protection should
involve not only natural and technological matters, but also an ethical
dimension (John Paul II, 1999, section 41). This general principle applies to a
number of issues, including safeguarding the quality of human life in terms
of energy. Energy development should recognise human dignity and treat it
as a guiding principle for any improvements, modernisations and reforms.
Research reports (Energy Watch Group) clearly show that the challenges
which the energy sector has to face include not only technological
development, but also ethical matters resulting from the need to develop
principles of a new human solidarity. Adopting this approach would
normalise the economic and political relations of various countries with
different levels of wealth and different technical capabilities to meet
sustainable energy challenges. The need to introduce these principles is also
clearly highlighted by the European Union. Out of the 28 EU member states,
26 countries declared to stop investing in coal-fired power following 2020.
However, it is estimated that Germany, for example, will be able to cease to
produce energy by burning coal in 2038 at the latest (Greenpeace), while the
draft Polish Energy Policy (PEP) until 2040 does not assume such a scenario
at all. The analysis of the global energy policy clearly shows that the abilities
of individual countries to effectively address the demand for sustainable
energy vary greatly. Each country has to be treated on an individual basis
with a reference to the principle of solidarity and subsidiarity postulated by
Catholic social teaching within a given treaty-based community of states.
Catholic social teaching plays its part in improving technological processes
aimed at enhancing environmental energy efficiency by setting out the
ethical dimension. The principles of solidarity and subsidiarity are
regulatory and provide a balance between the energy progress of civilised
humanity and the material, social and spiritual well-being of man (John
Paul II, 1987, section 41; Francis, 2015).
It seems that the need to explore the ethical dimension of implementation
of sustainable energy also results from its purely technical aspects. This is
because we face a number of specific challenges leading to a complex
interrelationship between technological and ethical dilemmas. This
interrelationship of dilemmas gives rise to the interrelationship of questions
which require reasonable answers. Particular emphasis should be put on the
principle which says that the noble goal of sustainable energy policy cannot
fully serve to justify the means used to achieve it, however effective they
would be. Such questions arise in the face of well-recognised technical
limitations in terms of energy production, energy storage and estimation of
local energy needs. One of the questions is whether it is possible to make
international actions for sustainable energy fully consistent in the face of
diverse geographical and weather conditions, and diverse natural resources.
These general questions are narrowed down to the more specific ones.
Pursuant to section 7 of the Agenda, transitional energy can be managed
according to the model of the so-called energy mix, i.e., combination of
conventional and renewable sources of energy. This energy-mix model of
energy management assumes that in the next few years certain regions and
countries will not be able to obtain sufficient amount of energy from
renewable sources and, due to social and economic reasons, will not be able
to cease to obtain energy from conventional sources, in particular from
burning hard coal and lignite. The situation is diverse, which is well
illustrated by the examples of individual EU countries who manage the
energy mix. In Poland, for example, the energy-mix model relies 80% on
hard coal and lignite, and only a few percent on wind and water, i.e., 7.9%
and 1.7% respectively. In Sweden, on the other hand, hydropower and wind
power account for 23% and 26% of the total energy consumption
respectively. According to Catholic social teaching, diverse energy
management in different parts of Europe and the world proves that SDG7
should be construed as a heuristic recommendation for long-term energy
projects. In each case, one should seek to find the optimal path to achieve the
right level of sustainable energy, following specific socioeconomic
circumstances (Łepko, 2011, pp. 78–87).
There is also another factor which proves the interrelationship of
technological and ethical dilemmas. Energy management not only concerns
raising the standard of living, but also affects a moral aspect of dignified
living, expressed, for example, by the human right to heating or lighting.
From this point of view, one should also take account of the Jevons paradox
which occurs when the increase in efficiency of use of primary energy
resources results in the increase rather than decrease in the rate of
consumption. The phenomenon, widely known in technological
development, arises because of a greater energy demand. Easy access to
cheaper energy increases energy needs, and this, in turn, leads to an increase
in energy consumption and a greater burden on the natural environment.
All this proves that in the pursuit of energy efficiency for sustainable energy,
a number of environmental and ethical dilemmas have to be taken into
account. The dilemmas include the issue of currently observed indirect
negative environmental effects of technical instrumentation used to manage
renewable energy sources and storage of waste from nuclear energy
production (Łepko, 2012, p. 13).
The environmental aspect of sustainable energy policy is evident, given
the need to execute a great range of tasks, i.e., converting primary energy
into electricity or heat and defining the ways of supply to individual and
collective customers. Sustainable energy not only deals with the ways of
energy generation and energy sources, but also covers all other areas of the
system of energy management. The energy development strategy until 2050
adopted by the European Union seems to take account of these
circumstances. It aims at increasing the share of gas at the expense of more
environmentally harmful solid fuels. It is also scheduled to stop using gas
after 2050. Given the side effects of unconventional energy sources on the
environment, the EU strategy is a kind of the lesser evil in ethical terms.
This perspective for sustainable energy progressively reduces ambivalent
aspects. This is in line with the heuristic approach embedded in section 7 of
the Agenda, which assumes that major sustainable energy projects may
include locally diverse implementation programmes. In each case, the
changes expected in the field of sustainable energy for the sake of high
standard and quality of life for today’s and future human generations should
be evolutionary rather than revolutionary (Hawken et al., 1999).
This way of introducing technological changes in the field of energy
generation, transmission and use, which is in line with the guidelines of
Catholic social teaching, can be found in EU legislation, e.g., the Regulation
2018/1999 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December
2018 on the Governance of the Energy Union and Climate Action. Its aim is
to achieve and consolidate a stable energy union that provides EU
consumers, including households and businesses, with secure, sustainable,
competitive and affordable energy supplies and to stimulate research and
innovation by attracting investment through a major transformation of the
European energy system. Article 1(1) of the Regulation provides that the
governance of the energy union shall be based on long-term strategies,
integrated national energy and climate plans covering 10 years (2021–2030),
corresponding integrated national energy and climate progress reports
prepared by individual member states and the integrated monitoring system
of the European Commission. As shown earlier, the EU legislation moves
towards a change in the legal framework of the energy market. The sector is
expected to be governed by the principle of sustainable development and the
principle of energy security to secure individual EU citizens and societies.
The problem of energy poverty and the EU’s equality and anti-
discrimination policy in the context of Catholic social teaching
The issue of poverty is of interest to both the Church and the European
Union. There are a number of similarities and differences in how these two
institutions approach poverty. In both cases, it is emphasised that in today’s
Europe, relative poverty, measured in relation to the average standard of
living in a given country, is a more severe problem than absolute poverty,
defined as the complete inability to meet basic personal needs. Both
approaches also assume a multidimensional character of poverty. However,
they put emphasis on different aspects and dimensions. In the EU’s view,
poverty is defined as a situation in which resources of individuals or families
are “so small as to exclude them from the minimum acceptable way of life of
the members of the Member State in which they live” (EC, 1975, 1.2). The
resources are not limited to money. They also cover health, education,
housing and services, including banking and energy services (EC, 2010, p. 2).
Catholic social teaching also recognises multidimensional poverty but
explores slightly different aspects: material, economic, cultural and
sociopolitical. It also emphasises the spiritual dimension and introduces the
concepts of moral and religious poverty, which are to describe a situation in
which moral or religious human development is not nurtured (John Paul II,
1982). Interestingly, the Church’s teaching also assumes a positive view of
poverty understood as a freely chosen simplicity of life (Second Epistle to the
Corinthians 8:9).
Catholic social teaching does not recognise the concept of energy poverty.
However, new types of poverty and a “scenario of poverty [which] can
extend indefinitely” are introduced (John Paul II, 2001, sections 50–51).
Therefore, it should be assumed that energy poverty also falls within the
scope of issues addressed by the Church. The 2016 statement of the
Commission of the Bishops’ Conferences of the European Community
(COMECE) on poverty and social exclusion in Europe reads that poverty
does not only refer to the lack of financial resources, but also covers those
spheres of life which hamper human development, e.g., insufficient access to
energy (COMECE, 2016). This shows that the issue of access to energy
appears in Catholic social teaching, even though the documents of the Holy
See do not refer to it. It is perceived as a form of poverty, but the Church has
not incorporated the concept of energy poverty into her teaching so far.
By contrast, the EU documents issued in 2009 or later often refer to
energy poverty as a specific form of poverty. They define it as a lack of
access to energy services providing heating, cooling, lighting and energy
used to supply equipment. Access to these services ensures health and
adequate standard of living, and enables European citizens to fulfil their
potential and strengthen social inclusion. According to the EU documents,
the reasons why energy-poor households do not have access to a sufficient
level of essential energy services are as follows: high energy expenditure,
low household incomes, low energy efficiency of housing and appliances,
and specific energy needs of households. Moreover, the EU identified key
energy poverty indicators: low absolute energy expenditure, arrears on
utility bills, high share of energy expenditure in income and inability to keep
home adequately warm (EPOV, 2020).
The similarity between the Church’s teaching and EU policies is also
exhibited in the way the poor are treated. Catholic social teaching adopts the
concept of “preferential option for the poor,” which implies that practice of
charity should give priority to the poor since the poor are those who need
the help of others, and Jesus identified with them, cared for them and was
one of them (PCJP, 2004, sections 182–184). The preferential option for the
poor is echoed in EU documents. The European Commission claims that it
“has placed the fight against poverty at the heart of its economic,
employment and social agenda” (EC, 2010, p. 1). Directive 2019/944 states
that “Member States should take the necessary measures to protect
vulnerable and energy poor customers” and establishes disconnection
safeguards (EC, 2019, pp. 5, 28).
COMECE places the issue of poverty resulting from lack of access to
energy services mainly in the context of social justice. According to the
COMECE bishops, all those who are deprived of these services should be
entitled to obtain them, and the services can be subject to demands in
accordance with the positive law. Further in the statement, a reference to the
eradication of poverty is made in the context of human dignity, the common
good, the preferential option for the poor, responsibility for others, solidarity
and subsidiarity (COMECE, 2016).
To support the reasons for addressing the issue of energy poverty, the EU
documents usually refer to the need to promote social justice and
fundamental rights as key objectives of the EU, and human dignity and
solidarity as the EU’s cornerstone (EC, 2010, p. 1). Moreover, the necessity to
guarantee a decent standard of living and well-being of citizens, realise their
potential and increase social inclusion is emphasised (EC, 2019, p. 59). This
proves that Catholic social teaching and the EU policies rely on a partially
common axiology (dignity, justice, solidarity) when they refer to the poor or
poverty, including energy poverty.
These two approaches are also similar in the way they tackle the issue of
anti-discrimination. The Church does not raise the issue of discrimination in
access to energy services, but she postulates that everyone should have
equal access to economic, cultural, political and social life, and benefit
equally from national wealth (Paul VI, 1971, section 16). The Church’s
teaching devotes much space to the discussion on discrimination against
women, supporting the defence and promotion of the personal dignity of
women, and equality of men and women (John Paul II, 2001, sections 50–
51). The EU documents prohibit gender and race discrimination in access to
all publicly available goods and services, including energy as may be
assumed (FRA, 2018, p. 133), and require that men and women benefit
equally from national energy policies. The EU recognises that women are at
greater risk of energy poverty than are men due to lower average incomes
(EP, 2017, p. 36).
Energy competition in the context of the principle of the
common good and knowledge-sharing
The efficiency of energy management, in terms of production, distribution
and consumption, depends on how particular data are used given their wide
variety. This is what defines the importance of sustainable energy
development. There is a necessity for large-scale transformation of the entire
energy sector, from a network level to an individual scale, i.e., a single unit
of energy production or consumption. In physical terms, this transformation
is another step in the field of global digital transformation, which occurred
as a result of development of extensive computer and telecommunications
networks. The development of the Internet initiated the processes which
were the beginning of revolutionary technological and social changes in a
global scale. The transformation of network-based sectors of the economy
achieved thanks to digital technologies went far beyond the area of power
engineering and sparked a civilisation revolution on a scale larger than ever
before. The discussion on energy competition in the context of the principle
of the common good and knowledge-sharing should recognise social aspects
and provide the rationalisation of consumption models. Therefore,
highlighting the importance of new models of energy distribution based on
the digital infrastructure of energy systems is equally important.
Still, the prevalent unsustainable energy economy leads to inefficient use
of natural resources and undermines the sustainability of the whole
economy. This is particularly associated with the energy balance of heating,
air conditioning system and all forms of transport. The electrification which
results in significant savings in consumption costs and ensures a substantial
reduction in air pollution, especially in confined spaces, requires a transition
to sustainable energy production technologies. Full transition to a
sustainable economy requires the transformation of consumer behaviour.
Rather than seeking to own a variety of goods, one should encourage
collective forms of ownership based on publicly available services and other
resource-sharing methods. To further discuss the rationalisation of energy
consumption, it is worth referring to new solutions in the field of
individualised use of electric vehicles, not necessarily in the possession of
their owners, equipped with digital data infrastructures and management
systems.
It is frequently reported that the efficiency of the transition to a
sustainable energy economy is limited. This is because start-up investment
costs are significant. Actions to raise consumers’ awareness play a huge role
here. It is necessary to encourage lifestyle change and promote
environmentally sustainable standards of behaviour. The UNESCO strategic
documents indicate that science and education are critical in this respect and
show that the models of Open Science and Open Education should be widely
implemented and thus ensure that paradigms of open access to scientific
content and data are effectively adopted (UNESCO, 2015). The UNESCO
strategy refers explicitly to the implementation of SDG7 (sustainable clean
energy) and SDG13 (climate action) and assumes that science and education
systems need to undergo transformation following the principles of
openness.
This issue has become a keynote of the TWI2050 (IIASA, 2018) panel
reporting cycle launched in 2018 and prepared by the International Institute
for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) (IIASA, 2018). The aim of the reports
is to provide an integral view of system-related problems connected with the
Agenda implementation and draw knowledge from virtually all disciplines
based on an interdisciplinary model. The reports cover the period up to 2050
in order to propose multiple scenarios for achieving the goals of the Agenda.
As evidenced by documents, since the traditional model of operation of
scientific institutions and educational programmes arranged by discipline
and field of science currently prevails, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to
achieve a breakthrough progress in addressing complex global problems
today and even more so in the future. Note that the TWI2050 reports
strongly emphasise that social aspects of sustainable development challenges
prevail over all other aspects. The reports focus on six key areas (IIASA,
2018) when discussing the goals of the Agenda:
human capacity and demography

consumption and production
decarbonisation and energy
food, biosphere and water
smart cities
digital revolution.
Wherever the generation of renewable energy, especially electricity, is of

paramount importance, production and demand need to be balanced on an
ongoing basis. This gives rise to a variety of problems connected with the
stabilisation of, mostly networked but sometimes local, energy systems. This,
in turn, entails the necessity of balancing energy, which can be only
achieved by the construction of appropriately dimensioned energy storage
modules or redistribution processes carried out in extreme time regimes. In
each case, the decision-making processes have to take place in near real-
time. For this purpose, it is necessary to develop high-performance digital,
IT and telecommunications infrastructures, including data acquisition and
transmission networks, advanced computer processing and storage systems,
and intelligent algorithmic solutions, including multi-level data analysis and
computational models to streamline adaptive processes, following machine-
learning paradigms or, as referred to more commonly, artificial intelligence
(IIASA, 2019).
Conclusions
As shown previously, SDG7 of the Agenda for sustainable energy policy
explored in the context of Catholic social teaching clearly indicates the need
to seek agreement between technological and ethical challenges. From the
standpoint of Catholic social teaching, the progress of civilisation driven by
sustainable energy can be fully achieved only if the solidarity-based respect
for human dignity is ensured. All forms of energy poverty and uneven
development of countries and regions of the world pose a great challenge to
those who propose and develop sustainable energy solutions. This challenge
should inspire people to seek diverse ways of implementation of sustainable
energy targets encompassing international and inter-state solidarity issues.
The analysis of Catholic social teaching shows that the Agenda should
apply the approach according to which the energy development and energy
progress assume not only the improvement of the standard of living, e.g.,
enhanced access to lighting or heating, but also increased respect for the
values constituting the basis for any strategy of energy changes. This
position is particularly highlighted by Pope Francis in his encyclical Laudato
Si’. He claims that the spirit of solidarity and brotherhood is a necessary
condition for the creation of the society which respects the idea of integral
development (Francis, 2015, section 18). According to the pope, the one-
dimensional perspective aimed at building the energy potential of civilised
humanity should be abandoned in favour of a perspective encompassing at
least two dimensions so that the technological commitment is accompanied
by ethical commitment. This is because the chances are that technological
changes in the energy sector, based solely on the respect for the natural
environment and ignoring the principle of brotherly solidarity, may slow
down the development of civilised humanity or even preclude it. Therefore,
it is worth reiterating the view of Catholic social teaching, which is that the
progress of civilised humanity should be based on respect for human dignity
(Bołoz et al., 2016, pp. 109–128). Before any actions are initiated in this
respect, the view should be promoted and encouraged via education and
upbringing activities for the young generation. Through the conscious
change of mentality, it will be possible to implement the provisions of the
Agenda (Preamble, Introduction and section 8), which say that it is
necessary to build a world with a universal respect for dignity and justice.
These provisions could be supplemented by a clear reference to the human
person to help establish a full correspondence between technological aspects
in the field of energy acquisition, transmission and ethical guidelines
formulated by Catholic social teaching. This also would enable various
decision-making bodies to establish the hierarchy of importance in global
matters requiring changes.
This hierarchy, covering matters critical for civilised humanity, sets
minimum conditions for achieving the goals of the Agenda. Such conditions
are the only way to see the pure forms of energy, i.e., having regard to the
environment and broadly understood habitat, as the common good. The
efforts to achieve the goal of section 7 of the Agenda should be followed by a
fundamental reconstruction of principles governing the operation of the
energy market and related mechanisms. The processes of decentralisation of
the energy system implemented in this way and closely related development
of mobile forms of energy consumption, e.g., electromobility, would lead to
a natural need to search for new settlement models with adequate flexibility
and ability to respond to the high dynamics of future system-based changes.
This area of study is highly interdisciplinary in nature and thus requires a
high level of cooperation and focus on social processes and conditions (Leal-
Arcas, 2019).
In particular, the processes leading to the implementation of a sustainable
model of the energy system and the entire energy economy should take into
account the problems of universal availability of energy and support actions
aimed at eradicating poverty. Open Innovation is one of the future economic
mechanisms that should be adopted to support such activities. On the basis
of commonly used models of Open Science, made possible thanks to a wide
availability of scientific data based on FAIR (Findable, Accessible,
Interoperable and Reusable), the upcoming European Union Framework
Programme Horizon Europe 2021 is scheduled to adopt the following
keynote: Open Innovation, Open Science, Open to the World (EC, 2019).
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Towarzystwo Naukowe Franciszka Salezego.
8 Decent work and economic growth
from the perspective of sustainable
development and Catholic social
teaching
Katarzyna Roszewska, Jarosław A. Sobkowiak
and Artur Wysocki
Introduction
The issue of decent work was recognised as a target under Millennium
Development Goal 1 (MDG1) (Millennium Development Goals) (MDGs)
(UN, 2000a). However, this happened as late as in 2007. Initially, MDG1 was
composed of two targets calling to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
The concept was developed primarily thanks to the contribution of the
International Labour Organisation. Its origins are connected with the report
of the Director-General of 1999 (ILO, Decent Work for All). Theoretical and
methodological foundations of the report were established by specialists
cooperating with ILO, including Gerry Rodgers (2001), Dharam Ghai (2003)
and Gary. S. Fields (2003). The report was incorporated into the prominent
document of the UN Economic and Social Council of 2006 on the right to
work (ECOSOC). This gave an impulse to recognise the importance of the
concept in a broader context from the perspective of sustainable
development.
The 2030 Agenda highlights both the importance of decent work and its
relationship with economic growth. These two issues are at the heart of
Sustainable Development Goal 8 (SDG8): Promote sustained, inclusive and
sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent
work for all (UN, 2020a). The term “decent work for all” used in the report of
1999 frequently appears in the 2030 Agenda, not only in the wording of the
goal, but also, for example, in Sections 3, 9 and 27. The aim of this chapter is
to present the concept of decent work and its relationship with economic
growth from the perspective of sustainable development and Catholic social
teaching. Particular focus is made on four Targets of SDG8 which directly
address the concept of decent work, i.e., Targets from 8.5 to 8.8.
It has been a long time since the Catholic Church started to discuss the
dignity of work and the right to work for everyone. Work was one of the
first social issues gradually incorporated into her teaching. For example, it is
discussed in the writings of Clement of Alexandria, who lived at the turn of
the second and third centuries. Major contribution to the concept of work is
from significant social documents of the Church, starting from Leo XIII’s
Rerum novarum, developed to respond to contemporary changes and new
socioeconomic realities. To compare properly the Church’s teaching with the
view of the 2030 Agenda, it is necessary to discuss how man is perceived
and show the differences in how work and decent work, and its importance
for man and society, are viewed. The first part of this chapter discusses the
anthropological aspects of work. The second part presents the Church’s
teaching on work in the face of changing socioeconomic circumstances and
major ideological concepts. The third part discusses decent work and its
impact on economic growth from the legal and institutional perspective,
with references to the documents of ILO as the UN major supporter of
decent work.
Anthropological aspects
In the anthropological foundations of Catholic social teaching, the work in
man’s life is discussed from the perspective of vocation. Work is an intrinsic
part of human nature and is connected with his involvement in the work of
creation and redemption (John Paul II, 1981, sections 4, 27). Work is a
“fundamental dimension of man’s existence,” and thus has also a social
dimension covering both family and society as a whole. At the same time,
the Church emphasises that work is not an end in itself and should be
subordinated to the ultimate goal of man and society. Thanks to work, man
can improve himself, i.e., grow in his humanity and take care of his needs
and the welfare of their loved ones and society as a whole. As a fundamental
principle in the Church’s social teaching, all aspects of work incorporate the
distinction between the subjective and objective senses of work (John Paul
II, 1981, sections 5–6). The Church clearly emphasises the paramount
importance of the subjective dimension which regards the development of
man himself and his relations with other people. Therefore, it is necessary to
respect the hierarchy of values; otherwise, man becomes alienated at work.
The involvement of man in the work of creation and redemption

The document of the Pontifical Biblical Commission (PBC) of 2019, which is
entirely devoted to anthropological issues, indicates that any manifestation
of human activity should always have regard to the holistic vocation of
man. It also illustrates the concept of following God in His creative work.
According to this concept, God entrusted man with the care of the Earth,
and not the control over it. This means that man is a guardian rather than a
master of creation (PBC, 2019, p. 104). Through his work, man can improve
himself and the outside world. For this purpose, man must respect the laws
governing the nature of all creation. Work should be perceived as a gift and
task which give man an opportunity to develop and continue the work of
God. Due to the original sin and its consequences, man has to make an effort
to overcome difficulties while working. However, the original sense of work
is preserved. Work is a room for further development of man with the
respect for his dignity:
Work is a good thing for man – a good thing for his humanity – because
through work man not only transforms nature, adapting it to his own
needs, but he also achieves fulfilment as a human being and indeed, in a
sense, becomes “more a human being.”
Man’s work leads to the transformation and humanisation of the whole

external reality, and leads him to other people. It also contributes to the
growth of social well-being, although the Church’s teaching does not see it
as a paramount goal. Man is the goal and subject of work, and thus all
socioeconomic activities must be directed towards him (PCJP, 2004, p. 106).
This hierarchy is a way to true and sustainable social development. Work is
an essential part of integral development as referred to in Paul VI’s
encyclical Populorum Progressio (1967). Integral development fosters the
development “of each man and of the whole man” (Paul VI, 1967, section 14).
The “each” means every human being, irrespective of origin, race, colour or
material situation. The “whole” means all areas of human activity, including
spiritual sphere. This integrity reveals a strong relationship, essential for a
proper understanding of sustainable development, between economy and
morality (PCJP, 2004, p. 331), and the influence of religious values on
economic activity, regardless of geographical or cultural context (Nnamene,
2010, p. 70). This is also in line with human autotelicity, which assumes that
the purpose of people’s lives is predefined in their internal structure and thus
cannot be a tool for achieving goals which reach far beyond the scope of
their integral development. Since human life is a vocation, work is an
expression of the person, i.e., “actus personae” (PCJP, 2004, p. 271). Man gives
dignity to work by the fact that he performs work as a man. In other words,
human dignity is a “measure” of the dignity of work.
Work as a gift vs. human alienation at work

In view of the Church’s teaching discussed previously, work is perceived as a
gift. Another approach that should be presented here sees work as a
necessity or even a curse (Carter, 2012), which makes man alienated from his
primary goal. The Church Fathers use different terms to define these two
diverse approaches to work. In the former case, work is called opus
humanae, while in the latter, it is referred to as opus servile to indicate that
work is neither a gift nor a service. In fact, it is a slavish attitude to the
reality of the world which tells man to await for the moment of liberation
from work. In practical terms, there are far-reaching consequences of this
distinction. Work seen as an intrinsic part of human nature calls man to
transform the world; whereas work seen as a curse is a necessary evil and
only a means to obtain money. In the latter case, this leads to the conclusion
that one may decide to give up work if they find another way of earning
money. Consequently, all known pathologies, such as corruption and
appropriation, could be easily excused. Therefore, in confrontation with the
concept of sustainable development, the Catholic view on the virtue of
moderation can play a significant role (Sadowski, 2009, pp. 141–144). Man is
a “measure,” which means that moderation should be a tool to arrange
human activity, including work, based on vocation. Man’s personal self is
revealed primarily in vocation. Therefore, man cannot be perceived only
through the prism of his needs. Man defines a new measure of the “self-
consciously restrained.”
The approach which sees work as a gift or task is closely related with the
concept of rest. It assumes that leisure time gives rest, i.e., recovery and
restoration of harmony with oneself, with the world, with other people and
with God (John Paul II, 1998, section 64–68). The essence of this approach
can be grasped at the level of the very words as the terms creatio and re-
creatio mean, respectively, the creation and restoration of forces inherent in
man. In contrast, in the approach which sees work as a necessity or a curse
(alienation), rest is treated more individualistically and perceived as an
abandonment or cessation. In the alienation-based approach to work, people
who retire cease to work, while, in the approach proposed in the Church’s
teaching, they end a certain form of their professional work, but do not
abandon work in its essence. They do not stop working, but make an attempt
to adapt their forces to their work possibilities to fulfil their vocation. They
can use their professional experience in a completely new way, e.g., in
vocational guidance, to follow the concept of solidarity of work (PCJP, 2004,
p. 264).
Catholic social teaching in the face of changes in the reality of

work
Contemporary models of growth and the current reality of the world of
work were originally determined by the civilisational changes following the
industrial revolution and the emergence of new political systems shaped by
new ideological currents, such as liberalism, socialism or modernism. Until
the 18th century, the issue of economic growth was virtually not discussed.
Adam Smith’s concept of the wealth of nations undoubtedly laid the
foundations for this discussion. He assumed that the country’s total annual
production based on the work of its citizens is a measure of wealth and
abandoned the mercantilist approach based on nation’s precious metals
(Smith, 2007). The pursuit of maximising production and profit was further
developed in the approach adopted by David Ricardo, the successor to the
father of economics. His concept of socialism of the 19th century, followed,
in particular, by Karl Marx, primarily resulted in the exploitation of workers
and class antagonism between capital and labour. Leo XIII emphasises that
due to sharp antagonism between capital and the needs of the people of the
world of work, “the elements of the conflict now raging are unmistakable”
(Leo XIII, 1981, section 1).
The idea of decent work in Catholic social teaching

Capital and labour are central issues discussed in Rerum Novarum. The
document was the first great social encyclical of the Catholic Church and
largely determined its further development. It presents the foundations of
Christian anthropology and the principles of social life. Leo XIII criticises
both the abuses of the liberal model of economic development and the false
solutions to problems proposed by contemporary socialists. However, he is
particularly sensitive to the defects of socialism. Pius XI, in his comment on
his predecessor’s document, calls socialism “a remedy far worse than the evil
itself, would have plunged human society into great dangers” (Pius XI,
1931a, section 10).
Leo XIII stresses the importance of private property, which is an
inherently fundamental value in socioeconomic development. However, he
does not absolutise this idea as he follows the principle of the universal
destination of goods. In order to improve the living conditions of workers,
he puts forward the concept of fair wages whose aim is to secure their
livelihood, support them with a little savings and enable them to create their
ownership. In the teaching of Pius XI, this concept is extended to the so-
called family wage, i.e., wage which supports the entire family. Leo XIII also
proposes to spread the ownership of businesses (through the purchase of
shares) so that workers can feel that they work on their own and have
benefits from it. These efforts undoubtedly reflect the struggle for what is
today called decent work and productive employment (UNGA, 2015).
The call for what is today defined as solidarity is yet another key point of
this document. The aim was to cooperate for the common good of the world
of work (trade unions), entrepreneurs, the state and religious associations.
This concept is also one of the fundamental goals of the contemporary ILO
document Decent Work Agenda (ILO, 2010). The approach was in opposition
to both the liberal stance and, perhaps above all, to the demands of socialism
which assumed that the class antagonism (class struggle) cannot be solved
and would inevitably lead to the elimination of the capitalist class. In the
Church’s teaching, appropriate cooperation between capital and labour is
essential for the proper functioning of the economy.
Another key goal of the Decent Work Agenda is to provide social
protection of workers. Note that the call to ensure health protection of
workers as well as accident and death insurance, though primarily directed
towards professional associations, is already present in the writings of Leo
XIII (Leo XIII, 1981, section 36). However, the involvement of states was still
weak and social legislation was not sufficiently developed at that time.
The Great Depression of the 1930s brought about the collapse of liberal
concepts and at the same time the development of the statist movement;
however, Pius XI did not call for a radical increase in the involvement of the
state. Instead, he proposed “wise provision on the part of public authority”
(Pius XI, 1931a, section 73). Unlike his predecessor, he criticises mainly
liberal concepts, but the primary area in which he sees the problem is the
collapse of so-called intermediate structures in economic life and the decline
of morality. Therefore, the encyclical Quadragesimo Anno clearly
emphasises the importance of the principle of subsidiarity (Pius XI, 1931a,
section 79–81). The task of the state is to create the right institutional and
legal conditions, to defend justice, to eliminate abuse, especially in the case
of wage workers, and to take special care of the weakest and the poor. The
care for the most disadvantaged was reflected in Nova Impendet (1931b), the
document on unemployment issued in the same year.
In the face of further political and socioeconomic changes, Catholic social
teaching introduced new aspects or explored in more detail the existing
ones. In this chapter, the key points of this approach directly related to the
central issues are discussed. In his encyclical Mater et Magistra (1961), John
XXIII refers to the rights of nations in the context of the development of
post-colonial dependence. He points out that developed countries use
political and economic power in their former colonies. The major
contribution of Paul VI and his encyclical Populorum Progressio (1967) has
been already discussed in the concept of integral development. The
encyclical is also the first large document of the Church’s teaching to discuss
in so much detail the concept and principle of solidarity.
Laborem Exercens (1981) of Pope John Paul II explores important
anthropological aspects of work and redefines the need for a proper
hierarchy of values to avoid alienation at work, either in the capitalist
system or in the socialist system still existing at that time. John Paul II
indicates that these systems are based on objectification of man at work
since they reduce man to the material dimension to maximise profit or
volume of production available to people. He argues that this total
reductionism was the main source of the collapse of the communist bloc, as
previously mentioned in his encyclical Centesimus Annus (1991).
In the face of the financial crisis, Benedict XVI, in his encyclical Caritas in
Veritate (2009), highlights the need to find a relationship between economics
and morality and to restore the distorted hierarchy of values. The Church’s
position on environmental issues in relation to the concept of sustainable
development is most clearly expressed by Pope Francis in his encyclical
Laudato Si’ (2015).
The Church’s view on decent work from the perspective of economic

growth
The concepts of Catholic social teaching presented previously are fairly
consistent with the modern concept of decent work and its goals. Now, focus
is made on how the Church’s teaching sees the relationship between decent
work, in its essence, and economic growth.
According to Catholic social teaching, properly performed work leads to
the development of man and his relationships with others, and thus to the
growth of what is defined as human and social capital. Referring to the aid
for developing countries, Benedict XVI claims that “the most valuable
resources in countries receiving development aid are human resources:
herein lies the real capital that needs to accumulate in order to guarantee a
truly autonomous future for the poorest countries” (Benedict XVI, 2009,
section 58). The growth of human capital is the basis for social and economic
development, and makes it stable and sustainable, as indicated in SDG8 of
the 2030 Agenda.
Note that the subjectivity of work present in the Church’s teaching applies
to all types of work, including nonprofit work, e.g., women’s housework and
other types of housework, helping others etc. This is because work fosters
human development even if it is not quantitatively measured by economic
activity indicators and is not recognised in GDP. Irrespective of any other
reasons, GDP growth rate is not a sufficient indicator to describe changes in
the economy.
Therefore, the Church warns against absolutising the amount of profit of a
company (Francis, 2015, section 195) and the amount of indicators of
changes in the economy as a whole, including in particular GDP. When
discussing the wrongly understood potential of economic growth, Pope
Francis emphasises that
this has made it easy to accept the idea of infinite or unlimited growth,
which proves so attractive to economists, financiers and experts in
technology. It is based on the lie that there is an infinite supply of the
earth’s goods, and this leads to the planet being squeezed dry beyond
every limit.
This approach profoundly affects not only the operations of enterprises,

but also the actions of economic politicians. As a result, efforts are often
made to strengthen the quantitative growth of the economy, without due
regard to their harmful effects on integral human development and their
long-term harmful effects on the economy as a whole. The processes of the
so-called financialisation of the economy, which were to a large extent the
cause of the crisis in 2008–2009, are a good example here. In this respect,
Laudato Si’ calls to slow down some inappropriate economic processes:
if in some cases sustainable development were to involve new forms of

growth, then in other cases, given the insatiable and irresponsible
growth produced over many decades, we need also to think of
containing growth by setting some reasonable limits and even retracing
our steps before it is too late.
Francis, 2015, section 193)
This artificial, in a sense, economic growth, which does not recognise the
real needs of people, is the first victim of the economic crisis of 2020 which
erupted as a result of the pandemic.
In spite of the specific character of the Catholic approach, some concepts
of sustainable development are in line with the Church’s teaching. The
concept of so-called degrowth, which originated as a result of the report of
the Club of Rome of 1972, may serve as an example here (Jackson, 2009).
Human work, which is the basis for sustainable growth, serves, first and
foremost, the development of man, which is a primary reason why it is
essential for him, irrespective of whether work is performed for the sake of
gaining a livelihood or transforming the reality, or for any other reasons:
The goal should not be that technological progress increasingly replaces

human work, for this would be detrimental to humanity. Work is a
necessity, part of the meaning of life on this earth, a path to growth,
human development and personal fulfilment. Helping the poor
financially must always be a provisional solution in the face of pressing
needs. The broader objective should always be to allow them a dignified
life through work.
(Francis, 2015, section 128).
The fact that human work is essential for man entails the necessity to care
for availability of work for everyone.
The Church in the face of various contemporary dilemmas

The relationship between decent work and economic growth puts certain
social groups in a specific situation. This particularly refers to young people
who combine the idea of development with the concept of development
through work. As indicated earlier, Catholic social teaching places a strong
emphasis on the primacy of people over capital. Furthermore, people cannot
be deprived of material goods and development opportunities which respond
to their needs and constitute an essential condition for their existence.
Therefore, to ensure the primacy of man, it is necessary to provide work
possibilities and at the same time see man through its measure. However, in
order to support people in acquiring knowledge or learning creativity, one
has to refer to the concept of human capital (PCJP, 2004, p. 278). In the name
of the principle of subsidiarity, institutions responsible for the organisation
of work structures are obliged to create opportunities for full employment of
young people and to revise the notion of the “indirect employer,” i.e., a
person who specifies the institutional, organisational and legal dimension of
work (PCJP, 2004, p. 288), prepares employment policies and defines the
form of the economic system. In view of the diverse levels of development in
individual countries, regional and national policies are not sufficient. It is
necessary to establish the international cooperation for development
primarily focused on the implementation of organisational and legal
framework within which justice and solidarity prevail over market logic
(PCJP, 2004, p. 448). This is where the Church’s teaching largely corresponds
to the goals of the 2030 Agenda.
Another area requiring the dignity of work is women’s work. Catholic
social teaching emphasises the pivotal role of women in the family and in
raising children. This entails the necessity to reconsider the form of women’s
work and remuneration. Seeing women’s work only through the prism of
cost structure is utterly unacceptable. Since family is a vocation of people,
especially women, remuneration must reflect this fact by taking account of
both the contribution to work and the family dimension of a worker (PCJP,
2004, pp. 91, 250). The question of finding appropriate wage solutions is
obviously not easy and remains open since it is necessary to reconcile the
interests of the employer and the state as an institution which establishes the
institutional and legal order. Note, however, that the state, a leading entity
until recently, transfers some of its powers to other entities which organise
social life in the area of work.
The question of family is also important for the employment of
immigrants. The issue is raised by Pope Francis in the Message of His
Holiness Pope Francis for the 104th World Day of Migrants and Refugees:
Welcoming, Protecting, Promoting and Integrating Migrants and Refugees.
Francis proposes four verbs guiding the conscious help for immigrants: to
welcome, to protect, to promote and to integrate. The pope distinguishes
between three stages of assistance: prior to leaving the country of origin,
during the stay in the country of destination, and in the return to homeland.
At each stage, specific forms of help are needed. At the first stage, it is
necessary to provide full and certified information, and protection against
illegal recruitment practices. At the second stage, immigrants should be
given adequate consular assistance, the right to carry their identity papers
with them at all times, equal access to justice, the opportunity to open bank
accounts and guarantee of a living wage. They should also be able to
communicate freely, work and have access to telecommunications facilities.
At the third stage, it is necessary to implement social and professional
reintegration programmes (Francis, 2018). This shows that migration is a big
challenge and multidimensional phenomenon. On the one hand, it can have
a negative impact. It can give rise to exploitation of minors, women’s work
without proper protection of their rights as well as development of
technologies giving birth to new professions and overruling the old ones,
which can cause the expansion of areas of poverty. On the other hand,
migration can help people to better adapt their personal predispositions to
the labour market.
With respect to women’s rights in the world of work, particular attention
should be paid to women’s capacity-building, the development of
programmes to support women’s development in the professional
dimension, wider representation of women in support programmes, access
to knowledge management education regarding innovative practices for
women’s empowerment and the specific role of women in personnel
management. The Church’s teaching starts to identify more clearly the need
to make greater use of women’s potential in different aspects of life and
society. However, some commentators believe that the Church most often
addresses the second-wave feminism associated with the sexual revolution
while the first-wave feminism related to the demand for greater influence of
women on social problems is left aside (Stanley, 2017).
It is worth noting here again that the idea of sustainable development
identifies certain work-related issues which are consistent with the Church’s
teaching (Okereke, 2008, pp. 146–148). This refers primarily to the
understanding of the poor and to the need to recognise the relationship
between technological development and the organisation of social life. Other
questions include the concept of a good life with particular emphasis on the
environment and culture, the role of the state, which cannot be diminished
and neutralised, the approach to the right of ownership, and the concept of
the common good which most clearly shows the relationship between
sustainable development and the human integrity reaching beyond the
individualistic dimension (Okereke, 2008, pp. 150–167).
The question which should be now addressed is what the key challenges
of international organisations are in the context of decent work. First and
foremost, it is necessary to promote education which teaches proactive
attitudes and self-organisation. The ability to design life and acquire
competences in this respect should be an important element of this
education. Another key issue is the ability to shape one’s own development
and the so-called narrative identity to facilitate the understanding of one’s
own experiences, especially painful ones. Re-examination of experiences is
often an essential element of further development, also through work
(Drabik-Podgórna & Podórny, 2018, p. 330).
International organisations should also strive to adopt the right attitude
towards Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). It is fairly easy to see that
companies and corporations embrace this concept as their new policy due to
the pressure from anti-corporate movements rather than their own
conviction and new understanding of the social implications of business
(Luke, 2015, p. 323). The relationship between sustainable development and
development in general should also be highlighted. To describe this
relationship, companies often refer exclusively to the idea of empowerment
of employees to evoke a sense of moral correctness (Luke, 2015, p. 330). As a
common practice, the aim of these activities is to build image. The Catholic
Church can significantly contribute to this discussion. Firstly, she extends
the idea of sustainable development to include the integrality of man.
Secondly, she can effectively deepen the idea of development in
confrontation with the reality of social life, as indicated in Paul VI’s
encyclical Populorum Progressio of 1967 and subsequent documents.
The response of international organisations to the problems of
the world of work
The struggle for the rights of the world of work, both at the national and
international level, resulted in the establishment of the International Labour
Organisation at the beginning of the 20th century (1919). The organisation
became a broad platform for the debate on the protection of workers and
sought to improve their situation. In recent years, this attitude was
expressed in the issue of decent work, which is also a central concept of the
2030 Agenda. In one of the recent documents of the 2030 Agenda on decent
work, the idea of decent work is seen not only as one of the main goals of
the 2030 Agenda, but also as a driver which can be found in all other goals
(ILO, 2010). In the search for a broad consensus, ILO also initiates a dialogue
with religions. This attitude is expressed in its document on how the
fundamental objectives of decent work are reflected in the teaching of
individual religions, including the Catholic Church (ILO, 2012a).
Current situation in the world of work

The rapid development of technology in recent decades, particularly
accelerated by computerisation, has reduced the importance of human
labour in the global economy. Labour-intensive production is quite
commonly shifted to underdeveloped countries with insufficient protection
of labour rights. Automation of production and progressive robotisation
cause serious problems in searching for new jobs.
Although the continuous decline in the volume of work has been forecast
for years (Rifkin, 2001, p. 168), global labour productivity has risen and
global unemployment has returned to pre-crisis levels. The still-widespread
informal employment affects the wages, health and safety at work, and
working conditions. In three quarters of the countries which report data in
this respect, it accounts for more than half of all non-agricultural workers
(UN, 2019, p. 14). Since the economic crisis, the average annual growth rate
in the global economy as a whole has varied between 1.5 and 2% (UN,
2020b).
It is estimated that, in 2018, 172 million people (5%) worldwide were
unemployed. The number of the unemployed is expected to grow by 1
million each year. In 2018, approx. 700 million workers lived in extreme or
moderate poverty, i.e., for less than USD 3.20 a day. The precariat has
become a fairly common social phenomenon. In total, in 2016, as many as 2
billion workers were employed informally, which account for 61% of the
global workforce (UN, 2020a).
Given the contemporary forms of slavery, the situation is even more
serious. According to the ILO report on modern slavery, in 2016, approx. 40.3
million people were subject to modern forms of slavery, of which 24.9
million to forced labour and 15.4 million to forced marriages. This means
that 5.4 per thousand people in the world are victims of modern slavery. One
per four victims of modern slavery is a child. Of the 24.9 million people
subject to forced labour, 16 million are exploited in the private sector, such
as domestic work, construction and agriculture, 4.8 million are sexually
exploited and 4 million are forced to work as designated by state authorities.
Women and girls are disproportionately affected by forced labour. They
account for 99% of victims in the sex services sector and 58% in other sectors
(ILO, 2017, pp. 9–11).
Moreover, the situation of many workers who seem to have a good job is
very unstable. In this case, adequate protection usually affordable only to
rich countries is required. The pandemic which occurred in 2020 is yet
another challenge in this regard. It caused a rapid increase in unemployment
in many countries, but its overall impact on the global economy is still
unknown and difficult to estimate.
Action of the LO and other organisations to promote decent work

Besides the International Labour Organisation (ILO), labour standards are
also set by the World Trade Organisation (WTO), which shapes international
trade policy. Trade has a broad impact not only on the economy and the
environment, but also on jobs and labour standards, and thus on social
cohesion. The General System of Preferences is a manifestation of respect for
workers’ rights at the level of international trade relations. Its aim is to
guarantee access to European markets for developing countries in return for
ratifying and observing, inter alia, conventions on workers’ rights or
introducing social clauses into international trade agreements. The scope of
these agreements has been extended, especially after the Lisbon Treaty (van
den Putte, 2015, p. 280). The European Union–Singapore Free Trade
Agreement is one of the recent examples (EU, 2019).
Attempts to reconcile capital and labour are not always successful. In a
series of rulings concerning the relationship between the Treaty, freedom of
economic activity and the right to collective bargaining (the so-called Laval
Quartet, 2007–2008), the Court of Justice had to deal with the collision
between wage-dumping and the interests of service providers who offer
cheaper services and protect their own jobs. The Court assumed that the
right to conduct a collective dispute in protection against wage-dumping
may justify a restriction of other freedoms, but the exercise of that right
shall be subject to the principle of proportionality. This was assessed as a
step backwards in workers’ rights (Bercusson, 2007, p. 285).
Another ongoing dispute connected with trade relations concerns the
chapters of Trade and Sustainable Development of the Free Trade Agreement
between the European Union and South Korea. The employment standards
in Korean companies are a key point in the dispute. The EU is pressing for
the implementation of the core ILO conventions. Despite some concessions
from Korea, subsequent meetings under the Committee on Trade and
Sustainable Development have not yet produced satisfactory results (UN,
2019).
ILO seeks to shape an appropriate perception of work, not only in
economic terms, but also in a broader social dimension. Its initiatives in
favour of decent work have been an integral part of its activities since Juan
Somavia, ILO Director General, presented a report on decent work stating
that “the overall goal … should be to provide opportunities for decent work
for all women and men to obtain in conditions of freedom, equity, security
and human dignity” (ILO, 1999, p. 10).
However, the extended scope of work is also sometimes criticised and
assessed as incomplete. Currently, some researchers point out yet another
dimension of work. Work can be understood as an activity which has a
significant impact on the well-being of the individual as it mobilises the
body, mind and soul of workers, while the ILO focuses primarily on the
economic dimension of work and the accompanying social relations
(Deranty & MacMillan, 2012, p. 387). Work is a challenge to human cognitive
and emotional abilities and can be a means of self-development (Deranty &
MacMillan, 2012, p. 396).
The assumption that work is not a commodity laid the foundations of ILO.
G. Standing even pointed out that institutional activities of ILO limit the
objectified nature of work (Standing, 2008, p. 358). ILO Centenary
Declaration for the Future of Work clearly states that labour issues should
focus on the individual. The rights, needs and aspirations of the individual
should be at the heart of economic, social and environmental policies (ILO,
2019, pp. 4–8).
The activities of ILO contributed to the gradual extension of the scope of
work covered by international standards of protection. Currently, this
extends beyond the employment within the formal economy, i.e., under the
employment relationship and in the industrial sector (cf. separate ILO
conventions on work, e.g., work in agriculture, work on the farm, domestic
workers). Before the 2030 Agenda was adopted, on 12 June 2015, the 104th
Session of the International Labour Conference in Geneva adopted the
Transition from the Informal to the Formal Economy Recommendation (2015,
No. 204). It states that member states should adopt, review and enforce
national laws and regulations or other measures to ensure adequate
coverage and protection for all categories of workers. They should also
ensure that the integrated policy framework facilitating the transition to the
formal economy is included in national development plans or strategies.
Activities undertaken by countries should address, inter alia, the promotion
of strategies for sustainable development, poverty eradication, social
inclusion growth and creation of decent jobs in the formal economy (ILO,
2019). Sustainable development goals promote sustainable economic growth,
higher productivity levels and technological innovation. To reach this, it is
necessary to encourage entrepreneurship and job creation. The aim is to
achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all by 2030.
Social protection is an important tool to prevent and reduce poverty,
social inequalities and social exclusion, to promote equal opportunities,
gender and racial equality, and to support the transition from informal to
formal employment. Having this in mind, the Social Protection Floors
Recommendation (2012b, No. 202) was adopted. It was designed to
complement existing ILO standards on social protection. It provides
guidance to member states on establishing social protection floors within
comprehensive social protection systems in line with national needs and
development levels (ILO, 2012b, No. 202).
Finally, in order to eliminate gaps in the implementation of the Forced
Labour Convention (1930, No. 29), the Forced Labour (Supplementary
Measures) Recommendation (2014, No. 203) was adopted. It advises member
states to take protective measures for the benefit of migrants who have
fallen victim to forced or compulsory labour, regardless of their legal status
on the territory of the country, and to conduct coherent policies,
employment and labour migration with due regard to the risks faced by
particular groups of migrants, including those in an irregular situation, and
circumstances which may result in forced labour (ILO, 2014, (No. 203).
Conclusions
The 2030 Agenda addressing full and productive employment and decent
work for all is largely consistent with the approach to work adopted by the
Catholic Church. However, as briefly discussed earlier, there are also some
differences since man and his work are perceived differently.
Common points include the empowerment of employees to increase their
participation in decision-making and the shared responsibility for setting
organisational objectives and strategic planning (cf. Blewitt, 2018, p. 146).
The latter is particularly consistent with the Catholic doctrine of business
economics, which defines an enterprise as a community of people who seek
to achieve a common goal. Decent work is work performed by people who,
through associations and trade unions, have a greater influence on
employment policy and working conditions. In this case, social dialogue also
plays a huge role.
Other common concepts include activities to eradicate injustice, violence
and modern forms of slavery, and to provide all working people, including
those in informal work, with basic social protection, and recognition of the
need to ensure good labour productivity to foster economic growth.
Enterprise growth and profit can be indicators of good work organisation
and of the pursuit of creating good living conditions for all people. There are
some inconsistencies regarding the nature of development (Elliott, 2013, pp.
20–21).
However, note that they result from different anthropological foundations.
The Catholic Church emphasises that focus on improving only the material
conditions of life makes man alienated from his primary goal, God, another
man and himself. It is therefore necessary to maintain a proper axiological
order and the integrity of development for the proper formation of the
socioeconomic reality. These tasks can be implemented, inter alia, by
appreciating the value of voluntary poverty or by devoting time to acquiring
true human wisdom based on the experience of the Church’s people and
beyond. In the issue of work, the Church emphasises the need to see the
dignity of man since, in a rapidly changing world, the knowledge-based
technological processes stopped following the organisation of life based on
this widely understood human wisdom. Wisdom is a factor which often held
mankind back from the technical imperative: the technically capable must
become morally acceptable.
Note that, in some of the issues discussed earlier, the actions taken under
the 2030 Agenda also become, to a certain degree, consistent with Catholic
social teaching. The issues concerned include, inter alia, the broader
understanding of work and guidelines to take actions directed specifically
towards man. The problem which remains unresolved is the perception of
man and his primary goal. It should be also noted that the 2030 Agenda has
institutional and legal tools to address and implement a great number of
objectives defined in Catholic social teaching. For these reasons, dialogue
and joint action in this respect are undoubtedly highly desirable.
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9 Development or revolution?
Industrialisation in the perspective of
Andrzej Rudowski, Marek Robak and Piotr
Łuczuk
Introduction
In the 19th and 20th centuries, industrialisation – with all its consequences –
became one of key milestones (and challenges) in the social development.
Still, it has a considerable impact on people’s lives both in the field of
technology and management, as well as in the social sphere. In practice, it
touches all dimensions of human existence, asking such questions as what its
purpose is and how we should live in this reality. The fundamental nature of
these questions makes the issue of industrialisation one of the most
important threats of the Catholic social teaching. In this chapter, we will
analyse how far and in what direction the social changes caused by
technology have evolved in the last two centuries, i.e., from the industrial
revolution in the 19th century to the information revolution in the 21st
century, looking from the perspective of both Sustainable Development
Goals and Catholic social teaching, and showing how these perspectives
complement, but sometimes also how they differ in some priorities.
The first part of this analysis concentrates on more general questions,
based on the analysis of papal encyclicals – from Pope Leo XIII’s Rerum
Novarum (1891) to Pope Francis’ Laudato Si’ (2015), which allows us to
capture the entire cross section of the Church’s social teaching on this
subject. In subsequent parts of the chapter, the impact on the society of the
digital revolution in communication will be analysed, including its ethical
and moral aspect. The Catholic social teaching will be referred to the
examples of issues related to the digital divide, information overload, fake
news and FOMO (the fear of missing out); it will trace the impact of
industrialisation in the context of media, communication sciences and
theology.
Documents of the Catholic Church addressing the issue of

industrialisation
One of the central goals of the sustainable development policy, formulated
both in theory and in strategic documents, such as the Transforming Our
World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UNGA, 2015), Goal 9,
is to promote sustainable industrialisation, to build related resilient
infrastructure and foster innovation. It is, therefore, justified to state that it
was unrestrained industrialisation of Europe and then of other regions, and
its complex – economic, sociopolitical and cultural – effects that constitute
the starting point for the sustainable development thinking. The 19th-
century European economic miracle, for which the steam engine, both
metaphorically and literally, was the flywheel, followed by subsequent
revolutions (electricity, digitisation and the Internet), determined the
changes that shaped the contemporary world, improving the quality of life
but also bringing huge imbalance. In the global scale, it was most intensely
manifested in the 20th century, dividing the world practically into the
industrialised and the developing parts. These euphemisms masked the real
abyss dividing people in many dimensions of their existence, ranging from
the access to potable water in their places of living (approximately 33% of
the world population are deprived of it) to the access to the Internet (used by
merely a half of the humankind, i.e., 57%).1
How are the problems linked with industrialisation, including the
accompanying development of infrastructure and the innovation
conditioning its durability, perceived by the authors of the Agenda?
Analysing the tasks formulated under Goal 9, it can be seen that their
leitmotif is the attempt to limit inequalities among various entities
(especially states and regions). This is to be supported by the following:
Development of both regional and trans-border infrastructure;

Further development of industry and even increasing its share in
economy;
Support of small-scale enterprises by offering them credit facilities
and thus improving their position in value chains and on markets;
Support of technological changes enabling greater efficiency of
resources management and greater use of ecology-friendly solutions;
Enhancement of scientific research by supporting innovativeness,
increasing the number of research and development (R&D)
employees and private spending on development;
Increase in the access to information and communication
technologies (ICT), with particular emphasis on providing universal
(and thus affordable) access to the Internet.
The 2030 Agenda emphasises that, in the context of these tasks, the
African countries, i.e., the least-developed inland countries and small
developing island countries, require external support in order to accomplish
these tasks.
To sum it up, the creators of the 2030 Agenda perceive further
development of industry, both qualitative (related to innovations and
research) and quantitative (especially in poorer counties), as an important
factor allowing them to decrease the imbalance in the contemporary world.
What is the Catholic social teaching in this area? To what extent does it
constitute a reference point, giving us an opportunity to look at the
previously described challenges/tasks formulated in the 2030 Agenda from a
new perspective?
“Fill the earth and subdue it” (Genesis 1:28) is the first and fundamental
guideline directing the Church teaching on development. In this context, it is
understandable that the reflection on modernisation, including
industrialisation, found in consecutive encyclicals, beginning with Pope Leo
XIII’s Rerum Novarum, looks favourably at the development itself, despite
critical attitude to some selected effects.
What is then the source of anxiety? Apart from the issues undertaken
with reference to current challenges, there is visible and constant
ambivalence in the popes’ attitude to the problem of the development of
techniques and technologies determining the industrialisation process. On
the one hand, we can see them being accepted and accompanied by (not
only) theological justifications – it usually happens when the development
(industrialisation and its consecutive stages of development) and inseparably
related innovations or changes in the infrastructure are the instruments used
by mankind to improve living standards, enhance peace, justice and
solidarity. On the other hand, they are always considered with some anxiety
related to the risk that mankind becomes an instrument in the unhindered
development (industrialisation and consecutive stages of development),
freed from moral, social or political control. It is this kind of a progress that
finally becomes a source of revolution, bringing us nothing but destruction.
How is the Catholic social teaching manifested in this context? The
theologically and morally adopted assumption that people and their well-
being should be in the centre of reflection on development and its
implications has governed consecutive documents of the Catholic social
teaching. The first and the most important encyclical devoted to social
issues, in which the Church related to the broadly understood industrial
revolution, was Leo XIII’s Rerum Novarum. The document emphasised that
the development of industry is one of the main sources of common welfare
of a state (Leo XIII, 1891, section 26). The awareness of the scope and the
nature of changes that accompanied the industrialisation encouraged the
pope to adopt a complex position on the principles governing the social
order. Thus, in Rerum Novarum we can find statements on human dignity,
regardless of people’s status, as well as on the common good, family
property or the state’s tasks resulting from it, e.g., “Among the many and
grave duties of rulers who would do their best for the people, the first and
chief is to act with strict justice – with that justice which is called
distributive – towards each and every class alike.” (Leo XIII, 1891, section 27)
The proposals included in Rerum Novarum are echoed in both economic
thought (Freiburg School) and the political doctrines of Christian
Democratic and Social Democratic parties, which, like the Pope Leo XIII,
referred to social solidarity.
The next encyclicals upkeep and develop proposals included in Rerum
Novarum (for example Quadrogesimo Anno), but also supplement it in the
context of new challenges. Of particular importance is Mater et Magistra, an
encyclical published by Pope John XXIII 70 years after the publication of
Rerum Novarum. In this encyclical, we can find the whole catalogue of
proposals, which closely correspond to the then–sustainable development
agenda and its goals, concerning industrialisation, development of
infrastructure and innovation. The pope believed that “Scientific and
technical progress, economic development and the betterment of living
conditions, are certainly valuable elements in a civilization” (John XXIII,
1961, section 175). He warns, however, “But we must realise that they are
essentially instrumental in character. They are not supreme values in
themselves” (John XXIII, 1961, section 175). Thus, the personalistic
perspective remains valid. And this perspective gives rise to the following
proposals: justice between branches of economy (especially activities aimed
at reducing the rural development negligence), restoration of economic
balance and support for underdeveloped areas, both inside the country and
globally. The pope indicates that help should result not only from excess, but
from “the solidarity of the human race and Christian brotherhood” (John
XXIII, 1961, section 155). Moral and religious considerations should
encourage us to support underdeveloped states through technology transfers
and financial support, but also by educating the personnel; all this should
lead to strengthening economic growth in these countries. These actions
should be accompanied, on the side of the beneficiaries, by development
planning, understood both as taking advantage of the experience of the
countries advanced in progress and even of sector development.
The significance of economic development for the human community was
equally clearly emphasised in the constitution of the Second Vatican Council
(SVC) – Gaudium et Spes, which stated that:
technical progress, an inventive spirit, an eagerness to create and to

expand enterprises, the application of methods of production, and the
strenuous efforts of all who engage in production – in a word, all the
elements making for such development – must be promoted. The
fundamental finality of this production is not the mere increase of
products nor profit or control but rather the service of man, and indeed
of the whole man with regard for the full range of his material needs
and the demands of his intellectual, moral, spiritual, and religious life.
(SVC, 1965, section 64)
In order to accomplish this goal, we must respect the principles governing

social life, such as honest and fairly rewarded work, with the associated
right to rest; the subjectivity of relations between an employer and an
employee; responsible private ownership; honesty in investment and credit
relations.
In Centesimus Annus, an encyclical announced by Pope John Paul II just
after the fall of the communism, he emphasised particularly the significance
of proper diagnosis of the human state, which cannot be reduced to the role
of an element in the socioeconomic machinery of the state. The subjectivity
of an individual and the society lies at the foundations of shaping the
economic order, which is not only socially desirable and acceptable. The apt
diagnosis of who man is and what principles govern the social life allows
for, according to the pope, humankind development and offers hope for good
relations between nations. Pope John Paul II even admitted, “Therefore
‘development’ is the second name to peace” (John Paul II, 1991, section 52).
John Paul II points at the factors related to zeitgeist, which further
contribute to the already-diagnosed causes of the development imbalance; it
is not only land and capital, but most of all knowledge (ownership of
knowledge, technology, technique and skills) which accounts for the distance
(and even its growth) between developed countries and the Third World
countries. This concept, however, should be mainly used to describe all areas
where there are phenomena of ill use of human potential, resulting from
inability to keep up with modernity, either due to economic conditions,
education deficits or discrimination, as often experienced by women (John
Paul II, 1991, section 33).
Eighteen years later, Pope Benedict XVI in his encyclical Caritas in
Veritate diagnosed the world which – following the breakdown of the
bipolar order – develops polycentrically. In spite of the increasing global
wealth, the inequalities are still growing. Apart from the phenomena
observed earlier, we are witnessing the movement of production, which
creates new areas of poverty where there has been no poverty before.
Therefore, Benedict XVI emphasises that globalisation processes,
properly understood and managed, offer a great opportunity to

redistribute wealth all over the planet, and this is something that has
never been seen before; however, if badly managed, they may contribute
to the growth of poverty and inequalities as well as bring crisis to the
whole world.
(Benedict XVI, 2009a, section 42)
Pope Benedict XVI also points at one more dimension of responsibility, i.e.,
the one referring to the relations between generations. We must seek
technological capabilities which will allow us to balance human economic
activity so that we leave this world not deprived of its riches to the future
generations (Benedict XVI, 2009a, section 50).
Christian anthropology remains the ceaseless source of hope which
permeates consecutive social encyclicals. As Pope Benedict XVI wrote in his
encyclical Spe Salvi, Christian hope is the synonym of progress (Benedict
XVI, 2007a, section 16). He draws our attention to the fact that
if technical progress is not matched by corresponding progress in man’s

ethical formation, in man’s inner growth (cf. Epistle to Ephesians 3:16;
Second Epistle to Corinthians 4:16), then it is not progress at all, but a
threat for man and for the world.
(Benedict XVI, 2007a, section 22)
Without knowing what is good and what is bad – here the pope quotes T.
Adorno – progress will mean moving from a slingshot to a mega-bomb. This
makes Benedict XVI believe that our mind (which stands behind all
revolutions, not only technological ones) needs faith so that it does not
become the source of self-destruction.
This is the source of the warning developed in all previously quoted
documents – against the tendency to adopt the vision of the world in which
the man is treated like an object. These fears are best expressed by Pope
Francis, who refers to his predecessors in his encyclical Laudato Si’. He deals
with the interdependence between the contemporary anthropocentrism
(where man is perceived as freed from social bonds and as a master of the
universe), and the purposes for which the knowledge of technology and
economics is used. Pope Francis states that development which led people to
release nuclear energy and analyse DNA was not accompanied by
“development of humankind in such areas as responsibility, values and
conscience” (Francis, 2015, section 105). This is evidenced not only in the
atomic bomb, but also in the whole range of technologies used by Nazism,
Communism and other regimes that led to annihilation of millions of
human beings. Man deprived of references to transcendence becomes
powerless to his own power, which is continuously growing (Francis, 2015,
section 105). It is not only humankind, but also the whole world around us
that is the victim of this situation. By concentrating on possessing,
dominating and transforming, we look at the surrounding reality as
shapeless and susceptible to unlimited interference. Thus, we no longer
accept what nature offers us, but we confront it and cause its degradation in
practice (Francis, 2015, sections 106–107). However,
in fact technology aims at leaving nothing outside its iron logic, and “the
contemporary man knows very well that technology is not about
usefulness or welfare, but only about power and the ruling over the new
structure of the world.”
Lost man destroys himself and his surroundings – this is what the Church
seems to be saying through the writings of Pope Francis – and therefore
needs transformation more than ever.
There is a deficit of common origin, mutual belongingness and mutual

future for all people. This basic awareness will facilitate the development
of new beliefs, attitudes and styles of living. And thus we are faced with
great cultural, spiritual and educational challenge marking lengthy
processes of renovation.
Digital revolution in communication and its impact on society

The Internet is a good example of the phenomenon where a technical tool
first turns into a means of communication and then becomes a social
environment in which it is difficult to clearly separate social phenomena
from technical processes (Robak, 2010, pp. 9–14). Initially launched in 1969,
the ARPANET network was simply an advanced technical invention,
although the latest research shows that its creators were aware of the social
consequences of using this technology and even at that early stage
understood its global potential and risks (Orliński, 2019, pp. 195–204). The
rapid adaptation of the Internet by the scientific community in the Seventies
began to affect the way knowledge is shared in the scientific environment. It
began the process of creating the idea of open science in the technical
environment; the hacker movement of the time led to the later phenomenon
of open source software (Castells, 2001, pp. 17–27; Himanen, 2009), a
technology based on which Google and Facebook would not be invented.
However, this process was not yet a social breakthrough; the Internet was
little known, unavailable and specialised.
A social change occurred in the second half of the 1990s, a few years after
the British physicist Tim Berners-Lee developed the World-Wide Web
foundation for CERN. The development of a graphical web browser and
navigation with the help of links gave the opportunity to place the
technology outside the narrow circle of specialists. In just a few years,
Internet from an elite form of communication acquired a mass character,
and within a decade, it became the basic tool for exchanging thoughts.
Innovations like Google Search, YouTube and Facebook have changed the
perspective of using, creating and publishing information.
However, when we call this process a digital revolution, we do not mean
that a new invention appeared. Rather, we mean that a completely new way
of communication was created that deeply changed the society and even
became part of it. The duration of this process was record-breaking, and
there was not enough time to adapt societies to the new reality (Baldwin,
2019, p. 16). Suffice it to mention that in 2019 Facebook, according to official
statistics, had nearly 2.5 billion users, which means that in 15 years its range
has become larger than the number of followers of any major religion in the
world. It also means that, regardless of how familiar with the Internet, too
little time has passed to predict the long-term effects of this invention, as
well as to create good practices or sound ethical standards.
It is noteworthy that the information revolution is not just about
communication, but it has an impact on the entire “real” economy. Already
Toffler predicted the creation of a “third wave society,” in which the post-
industrial economy is based more on the exchange of information than on
industrial raw materials (Toffler, 1980). A characteristic feature of the
Economy 4.0 is a change in its geographical, or rather ageographical,
distribution. This can be seen both on a small scale, when online sellers in
small towns deliver much more goods via the Internet than they could sell
locally, as well as on a large scale – when rich Northern countries with
reduced industry order many goods outside their borders (Baldwin, 2016, pp.
2–16).
However, the information revolution does not end with the impact of
information exchange on the smoothness and globality of delivering goods.
An even more serious challenge seems to be that a large proportion of new
technologies are developed based on information-processing. This
observation is not limited only to the information technology–related areas,
such as Big Data, artificial intelligence or blockchain technologies. Several of
the current research projects in the field of chemistry, physics, pharmacy,
materials engineering and device construction are based in large part on
computer simulations, knowledge bases and the increasingly better ability to
analyse large data sets that allow not only to discover new things, but also
improve their performance and limit the negative impact of technology on
the environment. Currently, the development of industry is not based on
building monumental plants, but rather on enabling the creation of new
technologies and their sharing through initiatives, such as technology
clusters, cross-border cooperation, supporting science and business
cooperation and private-public partnerships. Such initiatives enable the
development of not only typical digital immaterial technologies, but also
solutions in the field of biotechnology, nanotechnology, 3D printing
(including medical applications), green technologies, drones and satellites
(UNCTAD, 2018).
Network and information society

The increase in the degree of the Internet use in more and more spheres of
life raises many questions in the area of society, psychology, health,
communication, ethics and religion. These questions are even more difficult
because communication via the Internet is a complex system, whose degree
of complexity and difficulty of forecasting resembles weather phenomena.
Studies of the 1990s have already shown that the basis of such a
communication system is the interpenetration of the technical layer with the
social layer, which means that technology can interact or even shape
societies, or – in some sense – influence ethical decisions (Johnson, 1994, p.
84). Already then, there was a concern about the impact of the Internet on
the quality and security of communication among people and online
identity (Turkle, 1997, pp. 233–270). A playful illustration of these dilemmas
was the most often cited illustration of Peter Steiner, published in 1993 in the
New Yorker, i.e., a dog sitting in front of a computer screen who says to
another dog: “On the Internet, nobody knows you’re a dog.” Internet and
computers were seen as something outside of “real life,” which led to the
creation of a dualistic way of talking about the “real” and “virtual world.”
This way of thinking from the current point of view does not seem to be
accurate, but it is still present in the contemporary language.
At the same time, sociologist Manuel Castells proposed a theory of
network society, which explained the relationship between the electronic
network and society in a completely different way. As the network evolves,
Castells argued, it will gradually intertwine with the society, leading to the
phenomenon he called “real virtuality” – a situation in which the society
uses the network to the extent that it becomes its binder (Castells, 2000, pp.
403–406). Castells’s theory was confirmed in the following years and
decades. Currently, almost in every study, the Internet users asked about the
purpose of using the Internet mention contacting others (Batorski, 2015, pp.
386–388). Email and social networking sites (Facebook, Twitter, YouTube,
Instagram, Snapchat, LinkedIn) are among the most popular services on the
web. This is not just about the private sphere since several governments are
investing in building online services (official matters, taxes or medical
records). Today’s Internet is no longer just an interesting invention or an
entertainment tool; it functions as a nervous system of the society. It can
already be assumed that disconnection from the Internet could lead to
destabilisation of the functioning of individuals, companies, governments
and associations in many developed countries. This theory was confirmed
during the crisis caused by the coronavirus, when despite the mass isolation
of hundreds of millions of inhabitants of Asia, Europe and America, the
societies continued to function thanks to the Internet. Online
communication systems used in high-tech corporations became the main
way of conducting mass education. Some information-based companies
switched to online work entirely.
To the surprise of some, many social and religious organisations became
interested in the phenomenon of the Internet very early. In one of the
earliest publications on the subject (Fox, 1996), the author documented the
existence of hundreds of Catholic-related websites. Already in those early
years, Vatican sought to register its own. va global domain (Foley, 2001). In
both Protestant and Catholic circles, conferences on the phenomenon of the
Internet were organised. Contrary to appearances, this interest was not
limited to the topic of launching websites or online evangelism; social
changes caused by the network seemed to be a much more serious subject.
Since 2002 (John Paul II, 2002; PCSC, 2002b), the Catholic Church has
published more than 20 documents concentrated on the Internet
communication issues. The supra-religious and universal nature of these
works is surprising. They discuss issues, such as the impact of the Internet on
building society (Benedict XVI, 2013; Francis, 2019), new collaboration
opportunities (Benedict XVI, 2006, 2009b), Internet ethics (PCSC, 2002a),
protecting children (Benedict XVI, 2007b), the quality and accuracy of
information (Francis, 2018), and protecting the Internet users from
information overload (John Paul II, 2002; Benedict XVI, 2011; Francis, 2015).
Digital divide
Pretty soon, during the popularisation of the Internet, it turned out that the
development potential of the network is not evenly distributed and can
cause large social inequalities. At the beginning, the digital divide problem
was understood very technically as the lack of the Internet connection
leading to social exclusion. Therefore, over the past 20 years, many local and
global development programmes have set themselves a goal of increasing
the Internet availability and improving the quality of infrastructure, e.g., in
the Digital Agenda of the European Commission (EC, 2010), where the
improvement of the coverage and quality of the Internet access is mentioned
as one of the main goals.
The current understanding of the concept of digital divide is evolving.
First, more attention was paid not so much to the mere possibility of
connecting to the Internet as to its quality and bandwidth. As a result of the
development of broadband technologies (DSL, optical fibres, CDMA, 4G
Internet and future 5G), and backbone networks, the theoretical range of the
Internet has increased. From today’s point of view, the problem of digital
divide is rather social and much more difficult to measure. In the area of
communication, it is associated with the following phenomena:
1 Older people may have weaker skills in obtaining information by

electronic means.
2 People brought up in a pre-digital society can avoid digital services,
which in the long run slows down digitisation processes and the need
to maintain less effective paper processes only for this group of
people.
3 Children and adolescents, although technically demonstrating high
proficiency in using electronics, have difficulties with critical
reception of the Internet’s content and are unable to verify the
quality of sources.
4 Less-educated people and emigrants may experience difficulties
using some online content because of the language literacy; for this
reason, the obligation to use a simple basic language in public
services is being discussed in many countries.
5 People with lower levels of Internet skills may be more often victims
of cyber criminals (phishing attacks, network viruses etc.).
Truth, quality and objectivity on the web

Parallel to the development of the Internet, print press readership has
declined globally. The online form of providing information turned out to be
more efficient than on paper in many respects, so possible problems of
traditional publishers were explained by their stagnation. After several years
of steady decline in press readership, it began to be seen that this has
negative qualitative effects. Paper press has not been replaced by a parallel
digital press, and currently there are no similar law regulations like press
law, imposing publisher responsibility for the quality of the content and
guaranteeing the right to rectification.
From today’s point of view, you can see the negative sides of this process.
Traditional media played a social role known as the fourth power. Although
traditional media published more slowly than the current online publication
process, they were stronger focused on quality, like in texts which
underwent double review and language proofreading. The internal standards
of some public broadcasters, such as the BBC or many national news
agencies, obliged journalists to check information in two sources, which was
considered a model of journalism.
Throughout the Catholic Church’s teaching about the media, there is trust
in the social mission of journalists and the high value of truth and
objectivity in the message. In the case of the Internet transmission, many
phenomena can be seen, which are moving away from these values. The
digital information market has been greatly fragmented among small
entities with the quality difficult to verify; a large part of the circulation of
information has moved to social media and blogs, whose legal status in the
context of press law is widely discussed. From the perspective of the
Catholic Church, although the power of digital communication has many
advantages for society, the libertarian characteristic of absolutising freedom
of expression without taking into account other values is unacceptable
(PCSC, 2002a, section 8).
Content aggregators, such as search engines, have become one of the
major challenges for publishers. Search engines themselves do not create any
content; however, by providing cumulated information acquired from many
sources, they accustom recipients to their services, which publishers lose
(deep linking problem). In 2019, European Union was looking for a solution
to this problem through a digital tax imposed on large Internet companies
for the benefit of the content providers, for using the content the companies
do not create. However, this discussion seems to have taken place extremely
late.
Therefore, it can be observed that the process of digitising information is
accompanied by the phenomenon of quality reduction and strong content
dispersion. It is true that many arguments indicate that online content
engages audiences more than traditional media does. However, from the
recipient’s point of view, this can be an adverse and dangerous phenomenon.
Even if the Internet content is attractive from the entertainment point of
view, the recipient has no guarantee that the information is true and has
been carefully prepared. The Internet-dominant model of monetisation on
advertising gratifies a large number of clicks and recipients. This leads to the
phenomenon of publishing unproven sensational information on a large
scale; some also believe that this process leads to the degradation of
democracy (Crouch, 2004, pp. 1–30; Castells, 2018, pp. 9–13).
The phenomenon of fake news seems to be the most serious problem in
recent years. Pope Francis directly writes about this phenomenon in Fake
News and Journalism for Peace, claiming that even a slight distortion of the
truth can have dangerous consequences (Francis, 2018, section 2). Research
conducted in the United Kingdom in 2018 by the National Literacy Trust
shows that only 2% of British children can recognise fake news, and more
than half of teachers think that the school is unable to teach children to
recognise such news. Increasingly, attention is drawn to the fact that
professional media scholars currently do not have good research tools or
methods to detect false information and hidden attempts at social impact
(Robak, 2019, pp. 34–35). The Facebook scandal of Cambridge Analytica
(Davies, 2015) showed that the lack of transparency of Internet
communication processes can be used to precisely influence political views
and, consequently, the results of elections. Similar problems could appear
with low-quality educational materials or health information; thus, fake
news can lead not only to mistakes, but also to death. The problem of
misinformation in health became particularly apparent during the
coronavirus crisis: much of the information circulating on the Internet
turned out to be fake news, shared on a massive scale.
Information overload and contemplation

The huge amount of information available on the Internet for a long time
was considered its advantage. However, many authors – from philosophers
to psychiatrists – point out the potential danger of information overload
(Toffler, 1970; Virilio, 2015; Spitzer, 2014; Baldwin, 2019). This can lead – as
we assume – to some dangerous consequences. A large amount of
information may cause cognitive confusion for the recipients, who are
unable to create a coherent picture of the world, and, despite the
information flowing in, they stop understanding their surroundings.
Difficulties can be caused by separating important information from
insignificant information, which results in focusing on trivial matters in life.
The stream of information can cause severe stress associated with the lack of
ability to separate from them or, vice versa, with the anxiety associated with
overlooking something (FOMO syndrome). People who are bombarded with
information may also be more susceptible to the attempts of influencing
their opinions and forms of manipulation. There are also reports of a
negative impact of the stream of information from social media during
work, causing distraction of attention and loss of efficiency. For example, in
France, in 2017, the right not to reply to emails and phone calls outside of
business hours was introduced, after a long discussion about the burnout of
managers.
The problem is not only the technical ability to process a large amount of
information and maintain attention, but above all the ability to lead a
meaningful good-quality life, keep the work-life balance, use the possibilities
of personal development, and enjoy private time for reflection. Similar
demands can be found in the documents of the Catholic Church (Benedict
XVI, 2011). Pope Francis (2015, section 47) warns, for example, that when the
digital world becomes ubiquitous, it is not conducive to wise life and deep
thinking. Even before the massification of the network, the problem was also
signalled by John Paul II, who in a document devoted entirely to the
Internet, entitled Internet: A New Forum for Proclaiming the Gospel (2002),
drew attention to the value of contemplation for human development; a
decade later, Benedict XVI stated in Silence and Word: Path of
Evangelization (2012) that without silence man would not find himself and
would not be able to communicate with others.
Digital revolution in communication and its ethical and moral
context
When addressing the issues of industrialisation, and especially of the digital
revolution that has progressed in recent years, one cannot ignore the ethical
and moral aspect in the context of social communication. The authors of the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development rightly pointed out that in recent
years there has been a process of systematic departure from production and
industrial activities remaining at a low level of technological advancement
towards those technologically advanced.
It is worth noticing the fact that the term Economy 4.0, commonly used in
this context today, was announced by German scientists gathered as part of
a team of experts by the authorities during the Hanover Fair in 2011. Their
task was clear: to assess the effects of changes from the so-called high
technologies. It was at that time that the thesis was made, which showed
that the third stage of the industrial revolution, which is considered to be
computerisation, should be considered completed. It was in 2014 that the
need to develop a coherent strategy for the fourth industrial revolution,
understood as the digitisation of production and service processes, was
verbalised. To illustrate the complexity of the issue, it is worth mentioning
that industrialisation version 4.0 is synonymous with the unification of the
real world of production machines with the virtual world of the Internet and
new technologies. As a consequence, this means a real digital revolution in
communication, where the implementation of the processes described earlier
gives access to any information on a scale so far unimaginable, and this is
happening practically without time and geographical restrictions
(Grzegorzewski, 2020, pp. 116–117).
Ethical aspect of digital divide

The breakthrough cloud technology, social media and the entire mobile
market enabled customers to almost unlimited access to information literally
from anywhere on Earth, while guaranteeing choice options and greater
flexibility than ever before. As a result, more than half of consumers (58%)
admit that technology has significantly changed their expectations of how
companies should communicate with them; 55% of them count on
personalisation of the offer. Every fifth customer expects that by 2020,
companies will anticipate their needs and suggest the right product
accordingly (Łuczuk, 2017, pp. 86–89)
This, however, is related with the quite important issue of the demand for
products increasingly dependent on technology. This means that with the
increase in demand for technology-dependent goods, products and services
– from home appliances to computers and smartphones – their users also
become increasingly dependent on, and maybe even addicted to, such
technology and the access to its latest solutions. Interestingly, the ethical and
moral aspect of this phenomenon is not often raised in the context of
political, scientific and even media debates devoted to the development of
industrialisation, with particular emphasis on the digital revolution.
However, often referring to ethics, the thesis is raised that technological
development, especially in the context of artificial intelligence, carries the
risk of automating many jobs, and thus a situation in which a person would
be deprived of work by a machine. It is true that there are also voices that
this scenario is far from reality. The latest research and analysis provided by
Gartner, an independent analytical and research company specialising in the
issues of strategic use of technology and technology management, shows
that the development of technology and artificial intelligence in a similar
way as the creation and development of the steam engine and the Internet
will be not so much a threat as an opportunity and a consequence; it will
lead to the flooding of the market with jobs and new types of jobs, including
jobs that we do not even know today. As an example, in this context, the
jobs of employees responsible for training artificial intelligence and
inventing new ways of using it are given. At this point, it is worth noting
that the analysis of the 2030 Agenda clearly shows that the share of
intermediate and technologically advanced industries in the total Market
Value Added (MVA) increased from 40.5% in 2000 to 44.7% in 2016, with
significant divergences between regions.
However, the data compiled by the statistics department of the United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs in relation to the
discussed subject lead to extremely intriguing considerations. In terms of
communication, indicators proving that although today virtually all people
on Earth live within the range of mobile cellular networks are particularly
important, for some access to this technology significantly improving
communication is still out of reach. The fact is that in recent years, both the
range of mobile signal and broadband Internet has significantly expanded. In
2018, as much as 96% of humanity was within the range of a cellular signal
and 90% could connect to the Internet thanks to 3G or higher-quality
networks. However, it turns out that nowadays not so much the access to
modern technologies, but basically the lack of technologies is the main
problem. As usual, it is the bulging wallet of the users that decides whether
they can or cannot have access to modern technologies and the necessary
equipment. The quoted data clearly show that the cost of access to
broadband mobile Internet and mobile telephony is too expensive for many
inhabitants of our planet. The actual level of access to broadly understood
communication is about 50%, and in the case of least developed countries, it
reaches only 20%.
Figure 9.1 Manufacturing value added share in GDP, 2008 and 2018 (percentage)
Source: unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2019/goal-09/ (23.01.2020]
Meanwhile, according to the content of the 2030 Agenda, it is

“information dissemination, communication technologies and global
connectivity that bring enormous potential in accelerating progress in
eliminating digital exclusion and building knowledge-based societies, as well
as scientific and technological innovations in such various fields as medicine
and energy” (UNGA, 2015, section 15).
One of the key assumptions of SDG9 was striving to provide affordable
and, above all, universal access to the Internet in the least-developed
countries. A deadline has been set for this goal, i.e., 2020. At this point, we
reach the ethical aspect of technological and economic development, which
was already mentioned by Pope Paul VI in the Address to FAO on the 25th
Anniversary of its Institution. Already then, he was talking about the threat
of “provoking a veritable ecological catastrophe,” which could be greatly
influenced by the “explosion of industrial civilisation” (Paul VI, 1970, section
3). What deserves special attention is the warning that shows that “the most
remarkable scientific advances, the most amazing technical achievements,
the most wonderful economic development, if they are not connected with
real social and moral progress, they ultimately turn against man” (AAS 62,
1970, section 833).
Figure 9.2 Number of people covered by a mobile network, by technology, 2007–2018
(billions)
Note: LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is a standard for high-speed wireless communication
that allows for faster speeds than 3G technologies but does not meet the technical
criteria of a 4G wireless service.
Source: unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2019/goal-09/ (23.01.2020)
Table 10.1 Number of people covered worldwide by a mobile network, by technology, 2007–
2018
LTE or Internet World

Year 3G 2G
higher users population
2007 0 1,029,477,787 4,450,768,783 1,359,130,442 6,667,003,342

2008 0 1,352,359,898 4,289,014,094 1,560,602,869 6,747,362,592
2009 72,854,841 2,159,083,065 3,681,098,807 1,750,662,808 6,828,253,046
2010 171,865,643 2,545,924,305 3,303,310,524 2,014,187,440 6,919,905,230
2011 385,234,312 2,774,867,882 3,100,753,184 2,215,526,594 6,993,272,164
2012 775,254,948 2,855,165,341 2,815,738,745 2,458,832,540 7,075,255,649
2013 1,327,222,287 2,663,871,160 2,715,766,728 2,660,184,259 7,157,204,343
2014 2,690,509,662 2,284,786,180 1,868,771,036 2,892,092,636 7,236,018,690
2015 3,471,518,613 2,342,923,782 1,189,910,506 3,169,827,121 7,377,915,424
2016 4,867,764,406 1,431,269,138 819,175,609 3,416,851,943 7,461,848,723
2017 5,238,436,048 1,318,804,270 686,775,229 3,666,926,142 7,545,115,520
2018† 5,524,498,541 1,375,766,195 444,356,399 3,907,565,321 7,631,963,519
Digital revolution – blessing or curse for humanity

The analysis of the 2030 Agenda and Catholic social teaching in the context
of ethical challenges shows that there is an overall agreement in noting
industrial development, technological changes and related challenges. The
thought taken by Pope Paul VI today is continued by Pope Francis, who,
unlike the UN documents, draws more attention to the issues related to
ethics and morality. For example, the Holy Father indicates that global
changes are inextricably linked to effects on entire societies. The Pope warns
against the consequences of some technological innovations; he indicates,
among other things, social exclusion, and inequality in the availability of
certain technological products, and even the emergence of completely new
forms of social aggression and the threat of losing identity. (Francis, 2015,
section 46).
Pope Francis points out in his teaching particularly that the development
observed over the past two decades, contrary to many predictions and
assurances of individual governments and international organisations, often
has not meant real progress aimed at improving the quality of life. In this
context, the Catholic social teaching is quite seriously accused; in many
respects, instead of social integration, progress has given way to degradation
and has led to “breaking the bonds of social integration” (Francis, 2015,
section 46).
Particular attention in this aspect should be given to the dynamics of the
media and the digital world. In the context of the further development of the
digital revolution, we face a key moral challenge, which is the ubiquity of
modern technologies. Leaving its development without any ethical and
moral framework threatens human beings’ ability to live wisely and think
deeply. It should be noted, however, that the Holy See does not deny the
benefits of modern technologies. Pope Francis, however, calls for action to
ensure that these completely new technologies to humanity will be a
stimulus for new development and not sociocultural degradation. What are
exactly the threats? In the context of digital communication, it is even the
suppression of wisdom in the information jungle and the distracting noise of
overwhelming messages (Francis, 2015, section 47).
The digital revolution in the sphere of communication carries a specific
risk, which is highlighted by Catholic social teaching. We are talking about
the trend to replace real interpersonal relationships with relationships based
on a completely new type of communication via the Internet and new
technologies. To some extent, before our eyes, face-to-face relations have
been evolving into “Facebook-to-Facebook” communication, and we are just
on the threshold of the digital revolution in this aspect. This state of affairs is
burdened with a serious moral threat and the appearance of artificial
emotions that bind the user to technology and equipment much more than
the man on the other side of the screen (Francis, 2015, section 47).
In the field of communication, the concept of the global village of
McLuhan does not lose much relevance; however, in ethical and moral
terms, there is now a challenge of communication without direct contact and
separating users from the entire emotional layer of communication with the
screen of mobile devices (McLuhan, 1962). In order to present the whole
situation more vividly, Martin Ford gives an example of a moving car we get
in and gradually increase the speed. In the first minute, we drive the car at a
speed of 5 km/h. Next minute, we accelerate to 10 km/h. After driving
another minute at such speed, we double it. And so on, and so forth. How
does it work? In the first minute, we have driven about 83 metres. The
distance covered will already be 333 metres. In the fifth minute of driving
and at a speed of 80 km/h, we will have driven 1300 meters. The sixth
minute will require a much faster car and race track. And this is only the
sixth minute… . So, if we doubled the initial speed 27 times (since the
invention of the integrated circuit in 1958, it was possible to double the
computing power of computers); then after 27 accelerations, the vehicle
speed would be 671 million km/h. In the last minute, we would travel the
equivalent of over 11 million kilometres. This means that at such a speed, a
trip to Mars would take approximately only 5 minutes. This is more or less
what today’s information technology looks like as compared to the first
simplified integrated circuits that appeared in the late 1950s.
Conclusions
It is important to notice the constant interest of the Holy See in the question
of both industrialisation and the development of technology; however, the
attitude of the Pope towards the challenges of the modern times may be
described as conservative and reserved.
On the one hand, we are dealing with acceptance here, having its
theological (and not only) justifications. Development (industrialisation and
subsequent stages of development) and the inherent innovations or changes
in infrastructure are an instrument that serves people – by improving living
conditions, strengthening peace, justice and solidarity. On the other hand,
there is anxiety related to the risk that a human being becomes an
instrument in unfettered development (industrialisation and subsequent
development stages), freed from moral, social or political control. There is a
fear, therefore, that progress understood in this way will become a source of
revolution that brings a threat to humanity.
In many respects, Catholic social teaching is the same as the insights and
concepts contained in the 2030 Agenda. The main discrepancies consist in
the Holy See’s emphasis on ethical and moral issues in the development of
technology, which the authors of the United Nations study do not seem to
notice or simply ignore in their considerations, guiding the logic of
reasoning to a completely different path. Meanwhile, as the heirs of two
centuries of technological development and the industrial revolution, we are
at crossroads. In his teaching, Pope Francis clearly indicates that we should
draw on these achievements and enjoy new opportunities. He also warns
against ignoring the fact that “nuclear energy, biotechnology, IT, knowledge
of our DNA and other opportunities that we have gained, offer us terrible
power (Francis, 2015, sections 102–104).
The digital revolution that we are witnessing certainly requires not only
in-depth reflection of scientists and technology specialists, but also, and
above all, it cannot be deprived of ethical and moral reflection, which in this
aspect seems to be the key to sustainable development in future.
Note
1 According to the data available at: https://wearesocial.com/blog/2019/01/digital-2019-global-
internet-use-accelerates
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10 Reducing inequality (social inclusion,
social capital and protection of
migrants in the context of Catholic
social teaching)
Anna Fidelus, Elżbieta H. Morawska and Artur
Wysocki
Introduction
Goal 10 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Agenda) aims to
reduce inequalities within and among countries. The nature of these
inequalities is developed by the targets assigned to it, which show a very
broad understanding of them, especially when compared to the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs).
Existing differences in the world and among people are not always
something that should be levelled. They can be enriching, inspirational and
creative (e.g., many cultural differences), and sometimes they are almost
inviolable – related to the nature of the environment of human life and
people themselves (such as differences in personality or appearance).
However, differing in many respects, we are all together the same – equal in
dignity and fundamental rights we are entitled to, which give each person
appropriate opportunities to develop and shape their lives and relationships
with others.
These inequalities related to differences in basic human rights and
development opportunities undoubtedly need to be removed. The aim of
actions taken as part of sustainable development is to guarantee everyone,
regardless of the country of origin, social status, religion, race or sex, equal
opportunities for development, but also to provide the specific opportunities
necessary for this. This is due to the equal dignity of each person, very
strongly emphasised in the social teaching of the Church. Respect for human
dignity has been also secured at a global level by the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (1948). Inequalities are manifested in various spheres of
human life and concern both individual relations and relations between
nations or groups of nations.
Out of the many aspects of inequality, three important issues have been
addressed in this text. Firstly, from the perspective of social pedagogy, the
problem of inclusion will be presented – the inclusion in the socioeconomic
development of people living in its periphery because of experienced
inequalities, both individuals and entire social groups or nations. Secondly,
from the sociological and political perspective, the problem of reducing basic
economic inequalities will be analysed, which is associated with the pursuit
of the fuller development of human capital and supporting inclusive growth.
Thirdly, the legal perspective will be taken into account with reference to
one of the important groups still experiencing unequal treatment and
rejection, i.e., migrants. They will all be highlighted with relevant references
to the Catholic social teaching.
Social inclusion in reducing inequality

In line with Goal 10 of the Agenda, contemporary efforts for the
development should focus on tackling inequalities in all manifestations,
supporting the construction of a fair economic system and an inclusive
society. The need for inclusive actions has been very widely taken up in this
document, being present practically in most of the enumerated goals. One of
the Agenda’s main slogans is the phrase, “No one must be left behind”
(UNGA, 2015, section 26). “No one” means both an individual in a given
state and entire states and nations on the international stage. It relates to the
strong conviction that every person and every nation can contribute a lot to
building a better future together if they are provided with the right
conditions for development. At the same time, it should be remembered that
“inclusive growth, not inclusive misery” is promoted, i.e., that everyone
must care to build a common good that can be used by all (Ostry et al., 2019,
p. 108).
Circumstances of contemporary inclusive actions

Living in the 21st century, we constantly observe, on different continents
and in different countries, many people excluded from the possibility of
normal functioning in society, whether for economic, social, political or
religious reasons. More economically developed societies are not always
societies that allow everyone to participate properly in social life. Various
inequalities in them are often higher than in less-developed countries (Ostry
et al., 2019, pp. 15–19, 107–108). Moreover, progressing destruction of social
bonds and strong individualism can be frequently observed. There is a false
belief that it is enough to ensure an adequate economic level of life to solve
all problems. In this context, the so-called social entrepreneurship may play
a significant role in the process of building inclusive growth (Kummitha,
2017).
On the other hand, one must see the real needs of broad social groups,
especially in developing countries, related to the lack of basic livelihoods
and means for development. In these countries, there are often persistent
ideas about mutual differences between people of different ethnic groups,
races and religions, or about the negative perception of different sexes –
especially women, the disabled, the sick and the elderly. There is even a
statement of a stigmatisation of some groups. An example here may be one
of the analysed cases of stigmatising disabled people in the Zambian district
of Mbala (Caritas Africa, 2019 pp. 19–20). When showing the problem, it is
worth adding that 80% of people with disabilities live in developing
countries (UN, 2020a, p. 2).
For these reasons, the Agenda, presenting its idea of the world, speaks of a
vision of
a world free of poverty, hunger, disease and want, where all life can
thrive… . A world free of fear and violence. A world with universal
literacy. A world with equitable and universal access to quality
education at all levels, to health care and social protection, where
physical, mental and social well-being are assured.
(UNGA, 2015, section 7)
Important factors in transforming people’s attitudes in order to achieve

the adopted goals are strictly connected with such processes as getting to
know each other, developing knowledge, and teaching respect for the others,
even though we differ. The societies in which we live are not only societies
of inequality, but also societies of uncertainty (Beck, 2002). In conditions of
uncertainty and danger, a person often reacts in an uncontrolled, aggressive
manner, showing fears and anxieties that may seem unreasonable to an
outsider. They are often the reasons for isolation and exclusion.
Relational model of inclusion and the recommendations of the 2030

Agenda
Common concern over various problems of inequality and exclusion is

associated with the processes of increasing interdependence in development
(UN, 2020b, p. 2). The problems of others can no longer be left behind,
because they are becoming our problems to a greater or lesser extent. In the
inclusion process, many factors play a role, which can be basically divided
into internal, i.e., related to the person or group in the process of inclusion,
and external, regarding the conditions of their life and the actions of other
people. The fastest and best effect to achieve the goal of social inclusion set
in the Agenda can be achieved by properly combining these two resources,
i.e., diagnosing and “extracting” internal resources, as well as mobilising and
strengthening external resources. This approach belongs to the essence of the
relational model of inclusion understood as a systematic process of exchange
and cooperation between a person, community and culture, giving an
opportunity for the integral development of the individual and the society
(Fidelus, 2016, pp. 57–60).
The basic assumptions of the relational model of inclusion are universal;
they can strengthen the processes envisaged in the Agenda (cf. UNGA, 2015,
section 74d) and allow compliance with the principles included in it,
“irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or
economic or other status” (UNGA, 2015, Target 10.2). The assumptions of the
current Agenda focus on removing all barriers to the life and development
of people, in creating specific conditions that will also shape the motivation
for action on the part of excluded people (cf. Target 10.3). According to the
relational model, however, not only the assessment of the phenomenon and
necessary actions by those who help in inclusion, like the developed
countries, should be considered, but also the perspective of the countries to
which assistance is addressed (Francis, 2015, section 50).
In these actions, as mentioned earlier, proper upbringing, shaping the
right attitudes of people and entire societies, seems crucial. One needs to
transfer knowledge and sensitise people to the fate of excluded people,
without justifying oneself with improperly understood human freedom.
People living prosperously in developed countries, where there is a highly
concentrated resource of economic wealth (cf. Figures 10.1 and 10.2), often
do not realise the basic shortcomings of people living in poor countries as
well as the fact that sometimes it would be enough to allocate a small part of
their excess of goods to save the lives or health of these people. Few people
are aware that nowadays leprosy disease is taking a lethal toll in many
countries, such as Madagascar, despite the possibility of full recovery from it
today. Sometimes, it is a matter of relatively small financial resources and
basic medical infrastructure.
The process of upbringing and shaping attitudes also requires appropriate
institutional support, mass media cooperation and an appropriate system of
promoting fundamental values. Its implementation is supported by proper
legal regulations as well as a social control system resulting from the sharing
of the same values by the vast majority of the society. To this end, it is also
important to promote appropriate personal role models, just as the Catholic
Church does by proclaiming saints. A special figure that connects the
Church and everyone involved in ecological activities is St. Francis of Assisi,
who was declared the patron of ecologists and ecology by John Paul II in
1979.
Figure 10.1 World regions by total wealth in 2019 (trillions $)

Own elaboration. Data source: Credit Suisse, The Global Wealth Report, 2019a
Figure 10.2 World regions by wealth per adult in 2019 ($)

Own elaboration. Data source: Credit Suisse, The Global Wealth Report, 2019a
Inclusion in the social teaching of the Church

Shaping mutual relations between people, crucial for all social activities for
the common good, also belongs to the essence of the Christian religion itself,
whose guiding light left by Christ is love of neighbour. This means getting
rid by a human being of mutual attitudes of rejection and non-acceptance of
other people and related activities, and creating an atmosphere of mutual
respect, listening to the others and perceiving their needs.
Pope Francis very often describes these opposing attitudes and actions
called in the literature of social sciences as exclusion and inclusion in two
terms: culture of rejection and culture of encounter (Wysocki, 2014, pp. 347–
362). This is a very important issue in his social teaching, in which he shows
deeper sources of wrong attitudes related to rejection and, on the other
hand, a broader perspective of inclusion expressed not only in acceptance
and help, but in full brotherhood towards others. Although different
socioeconomic systems may favour one or the other approach, their main
source lies in shaping the right attitudes for the neighbour, also capable of
some sacrifices, limiting one’s comfort, and overcoming various prejudices
and bad emotions, perceiving universal bonds connecting all people and
even all beings as created by one Father (Francis, 2015, section 220).
On the initiative of Pope Francis, the Catholic Church celebrated World
Day for the Poor in 2017, which was to remind those who always feel
excluded from the possibility of a dignified life and development in the
society. In the first letter on this occasion, he wrote:
We are called to reach out to the poor, meet them, look them in the eye,
hug them so that they can feel the warmth of love that breaks the circle
of loneliness. Their hand stretched out toward us is also an invitation to
come out of our confidence and comfort, and to recognise the value that
poverty has in itself.
It shows not only the need to integrate them into social life, but the need to
truly approach them, as well as to learn the value of renunciation of material
goods, which emphasises the true dignity of man and allows you to discover
the depth of your own heart. Recalling Paul VI’s speech of 1963, Francis
stated that “All the poor belong to the Church through the ‘evangelical law’ ”
(Francis, 2017, sections 4–5).
The role of social capital in the inclusive growth

The Agenda in relation to the MDGs contains an expanded understanding of
inequality; it considers more aspects of inequality, i.e., not only economic,
but also social, legal or environmental. Nevertheless, economic inequalities
are still a basic indicator of inequality among people and countries, and are
a significant reference point for other differences. There is no doubt that the
vast majority of migratory flows in recent years are primarily due to
economic differences between and within countries.
The summary of the MDGs highlighted the fact that the assumptions
were substantially implemented; and one of the most important
achievements was the reduction in the number of people living below the
poverty threshold in developing countries from nearly 50% in 1990 to 14% in
2015 (this meant that nearly 1 billion people were recovered from extreme
poverty) (UN, 2015a, p. 4). Although this change has been significant and
demonstrates the importance of joint efforts to solve global problems, two
important points should be highlighted in a more complete assessment of
these achievements. Firstly, no change in the adopted poverty line has been
made during this period despite the actual change in the purchasing power
of money. Such a change was made by the World Bank in its methodology
only in 2015 (from $1.25 to $1.90). Secondly, these achievements did not
adequately take into account what the current Goal 10 and its Target 1
specifically address, namely the problem of the increase/decrease of
economic inequalities.
Discussion around economic inequalities

The issue of economic inequality is nowadays one of the most discussed
both among economists/scientists and among publicists dealing with the
economy. Undoubtedly, important studies of such economists as Joseph
Stigiltz, a Nobel Prize winner, or Thomas Piketty, with his groundbreaking
work Capital in the Twenty-First Century (2014) contributed to this. The
literature in this respect is indeed very vast; one can mention here even the
popular annual reports of the British organisation Oxfam (cf. Oxfam, 2020).
In journalism and among politicians, the dispute over the direction and
nature of these inequalities takes on more popularised versions that justify
their own positions. On the one hand, especially the supporters of the left
underline the steady rapid increase in the wealth of the most prosperous
and, consequently, an increase in inequality. In this regard, there are
numerous, sometimes even shocking lists which can be found. For example,
in the latest Oxfam report of 2020, the “22 richest men have more wealth
than all the women in Africa; only 2,153 people have more wealth than 4.6
billion people; the world’s richest 1% have more than twice as much wealth
as 6.9 billion people” (Oxfam, 2020, p. 10). These differences and their
highlighting are the source of new radical aspirations that coincide with
important sociopolitical changes and new social movements, as exemplified
by the idea of a new socialist manifesto (Sunkara, 2019).
On the other hand, it is necessary to show the position of those who
dispute the radical claims about the continuous increase in global economic
inequalities and, at the same time, point to the positive aspects of the
existence of certain inequalities. They emphasise the significant increase in
income of the poorest social groups, which, according to some of them,
contradicts the increase in differences, and then justify that inequalities are
necessary, especially at the initial stage of the economy’s development, in
order to accumulate investment capital. In this camp, you can find primarily
economists from the neoclassical school, supporters of liberal and
conservative-liberal parties. In his book The Price of Inequality, Joseph
Stiglitz explicitly points to the close connection of politics and economy in
creating differences and inequalities because, according to him, they are to
promote both strong business groups and party groups. He considers this
approach as a threat to the very essence of democracy and to the rule of law
(Stiglitz, 2012, chapter 5 and 7), as a denial of the idea of equal opportunities
(Stiglitz, 2012, p. 129).
Attempts to show their different nature, depending on the reasons for
their occurrence and their impact in specific socioeconomic conditions, are
also present in the debate on inequality. Therefore, some authors distinguish
them into so-called positive and negative inequality or constructive and
destructive inequality (Rewizorski, 2017, pp. 141–142). This means that
inequalities which result, for example, from various work commitments and
motivate to work, are something positive and do not give rise to protests and
social unrest, but are conducive to economic growth and development of the
country.
Efforts to level out differences, by their very nature, entail greater state
participation, which is difficult to be accepted by the liberal stance and the
supporters of a minimal state. Instead, they fall under the etatist approach
which, in turn, many radical thinkers and activists want to transform into a
strictly socialist construction. In this discussion between extreme
approaches, supporters of various moderate approaches are somewhat lost,
those whose political colour in individual countries depends on the cultural
and historical context. It is worth mentioning at least the example of the so-
called German ordoliberals, who for decades after World War II decided on
the socioeconomic order of Germany. The context of this system was, of
course, the transformation of the previous highly-controlled-by-state
national-socialist system; efforts were made to combine the principles of the
market economy with Catholic social teaching and social conservatism. The
concept of sustainable development also promoted in the 2030 Agenda seems
to be, however, the most in line with the concept of the welfare state, with a
broader focus on ecological, global and intergenerational issues.
The essence of the problem according to ’2030 Agenda’ and an

analysis of empirical data
Various assessments of existing differences in wealth and income depend
largely on the data and indicators chosen, which unfortunately are
sometimes instrumentalised to justify a given position. The basic idea related
to the sustainable development and supported by the current Agenda
indicates the need to shape inclusive growth, possibly covering every
member of the society and each state as “no one must be left behind”
(UNGA, 2015, section 26).
The increase in the income of the poorest does not, of course, mean a
decrease in inequality, as it results primarily from an overall increase in
income in the global economy and in individual countries. The current
document differently emphasises various aspects of this issue in comparison
with the MDGs, which mainly addressed the problem of eradicating hunger
and extreme poverty. Target 10.1 states that by 2030, it should be
“progressively achieved and sustained income growth of the bottom 40% of
the population at a rate higher than the national average” (UNGA, 2015,
Target 10.1). Not only the group below the poverty line, but as much as 40%
of the poorest are of particular interest. So, this Target promotes the
achievement and maintenance of faster-than-average growth of income by
this segment in relation to the entire population, which in turn is to lead to
narrowing the differences. Therefore, it is not only about the absolute
increase in the income of the poorest, but also about eliminating the relative
increase in poverty.
This approach refers to recent research and analysis carried out by the
World Bank and OECD experts, which shows the special vulnerability of the
entire segment to economic exclusion and, as a consequence, little chance of
development and levelling of differences. These analysts point to empirical
data from many countries as a basis for stating that larger inequalities mean
weaker economic growth (OECD, 2015, pp. 26–27, 60–70; cf.; Ostry et al.,
2019, pp. 31–33). The fundamental justification associated with these
observations indicates that growing inequality “reduces the capacity of the
poorer segments – the poorest 40% of the population, to be precise – to
invest in their skills and education”, to develop their potential, which
weakens the basic human capital for economic development (OECD, 2015, p.
27).
The inclusion of the 40% segment of the poorest population is particularly
related to the study of income differences and the resulting indicator of the
British economist José Gabriel Palma (Palma ratio). The indicator he created
compares to the income of 10% of the richest with the income of 40% of the
poorest. His analysis of data from 135 countries showed that the 50% middle
segment is the most stable in terms of income (Palma, 2011, 2016). This
indicator is becoming more and more popular, although it is not as common
as the most-known Gini coefficient.
It is therefore worth analysing the data collected by the World Bank
regarding the situation of the 40% segment of people with the lowest income
and consumption. Looking globally, based on data from the Global Database
of Shared Prosperity (GDSP) from 2010–2017, it can be stated that the
achievement of the set goal is realistic because in this period, in the 60 out of
the 94 studied countries, the income per capita of the poorest 40% increased
faster than on average for the entire population. Here are a few selected
changes in the countries with different levels of income and from different
continents: in the UK, in the studied segment, there was an average annual
increase in per capita income by 0.42% against 0.27% for the entire
population; in Poland, it was 2.54% against 2.10%; in the PRC – 9.13% against
7.39%; in Bolivia – 2.63% against 0.77%; in Rwanda, an increase of 0.31%
against a decrease of 0.17% for the entire population; and in the US – 1.31%
against 1.67% (World Bank, 2011–2017). The reverse is the case only for the
USA; i.e., the average annual income per capita for the entire population has
grown faster than the income of 40% of the poorest. Such a change in the
world’s largest economy was the basis for some economists’ claims that the
time of the last crisis was a time of increasing differences, especially that a
similar trend took place in other countries important for the global economy,
such as Germany, Italy, Spain, Canada, Mexico or even Sweden and Norway.
The observed increase in income of the 40% segment versus the income
for the entire population, although worth appreciating, is generally,
however, except for some countries, relatively small. In this context, when
thinking about eliminating economic inequalities within and among
countries, it is necessary to realise not only the existing differences in
current income, but also in the wealth possessed. The summary of data for
the most important regions is shown in Figure 10.1.
This comparison shows huge differences in existing wealth, which is
further compounded by considering the number of inhabitants in the region,
i.e., possessed wealth per capita (Figure 10.2).
However, significant changes are possible, as shown by the example of the
Chinese economy, in which between 2000 and 2019, there was on average
more than ninefold increase in wealth per capita. In the same period, similar
growth in Europe was just over 1.5 times, and in North America less than 1.5
times (CSRI, 2019b, p. 143). However, surprisingly for many, the PRC, and
therefore the country in which the communist system still officially prevails,
is characterised by very large social inequalities, even higher than in the US
(cf. Wysocki, 2015, p. 290).
The perspective of Catholic social teaching in the face of economic

inequalities
The issue of ensuring a dignified life for every human being and the need for
joint action to this end are at the heart of the social teaching of the Church.
However, this does not mean communist equality because both private
property and subsidiarity in action are appreciated in it. The problem of the
development of nations and the need to eliminate inequalities between them
in a broader dimension was initiated by Pope Paul VI, who introduced the
concept of integral development understood as “the development of each
man and of the whole man” (Paul VI, 1967, section 14). He pointed to the
need for an integral approach to the problem of inequality, which can also be
seen in the 2030 Agenda.
Considering the differences in the development of societies, Pope John
Paul II stated, among others, that “the frontiers of wealth and poverty
intersect within the societies themselves, whether developed or developing”
(John Paul II, 1987, section 14), which remains valid today and to which the
formulation of the Goal 10 of the current Agenda is close. Bridging
differences and creating opportunities for the development of every person
was associated by him with the belief that man is the main capital in the
economy (John Paul II, 1991, section 32).
This thought was taken up very strongly by Pope Benedict XVI, who
wrote that “the primary capital to be safeguarded and valued is man, the
human person in his or her integrity” (Benedict XVI, 2009, section 25). In the
face of the financial crisis since the end of 2007, he pointed out that
inequality was one of its sources. Benedict XVI argued that it is not true that
such significant inequalities must exist, and the need to reduce them is
determined by the dignity of the person and the requirements of justice, but
this is also the requirement of the “economic reason”:
the massive increase in relative poverty …, not only does social cohesion
suffer, but so too does the economy, through the progressive erosion of
‘social capital,’ … structural insecurity generates anti-productive
attitudes wasteful of human resources… . Human costs always include
economic costs, and economic dysfunctions always involve human costs.
Other aspects of the issue of economic inequality were also pointed out by
Pope Francis in the encyclical Laudato Si’, which presents the concept of
integral ecology, in which he combines the issues of economic inequality
with ecological issues, i.e., access to water and other basic resources (Francis,
2015, section 46). In addition, the problem of inequality should be linked to
the history of development to our time and the issue of so-called ecological
debt, which concerns not only the issue of pollution, but also the robbery
export of raw materials from underdeveloped countries or the export of
toxic waste to these countries (Francis, 2015, section 51). After all, the
problem of differences is not only the impossibility for some to use their
potential, but also the inefficient use of goods by those who have them in
excess (Francis, 2015, section 90).
Dignity and protection of migrants

Migration has become a global phenomenon over the last century. This is
because in recent years, millions have decided to leave their current homes.
Some did so because of poor living conditions; others because of justified
fear for their lives caused by war or other armed conflicts (Panizzon &
Riemsdijk, 2019, pp. 1225–1232). As a result, an unprecedented number of
migrants with different customs and cultural traditions have reached the
high-income countries, which sometimes creates serious social tensions.
This situation has not gone unnoticed of the international community,
which realised the need to include migration as such and migration-related
issues in the 2030 Agenda. It was not an easy task, especially given the fact
that the MDGs had failed to do it. Furthermore, the UN Road Map Towards
the Implementation of the United Nations Millennium Declaration (UN,
2001) refers to migration only in negative terms.
The credo of the 2030 Agenda

Turning to the 2030 Agenda, it should be emphasised that it recognises “the
positive contribution of migrants to inclusive growth” (UNGA, 2015, section
25) and thus defines its significant contribution to achieving sustainable
development goals. Furthermore, it obliges states to strengthen international
cooperation to ensure safe, orderly and legal migration in full respect of
human rights and humanitarian treatment of migrants, irrespective of their
status.
Finally, it stresses the vulnerability of migrants, refugees and Internally
Displaced Persons (IDPs), and recognises that migrants should be considered
under the cross-cutting principle of leaving no one behind, the credo of the
SDGs (Nijenhuis & Maggi, 2017, p. 57), which strongly reflects the human
rights principles of equality and non-discrimination (Filskov & Feiring, 2018,
p. 4).
Thus, the 2030 Agenda proposes a new approach to international
migration. Above all, it assumes that migration directly benefits individuals
and societies (O’Reilly, 2015, p. 9). It is not treated as a problem which
should be solved, but as a mechanism that can contribute to the achievement
of many of the goals (Foresti & Hagen-Zanker, 2017, p. 3).
The cornerstone of migration in the 2030 Agenda

The 2030 Agenda refers to international migration-related issues in a
number of SDGs. The cornerstone of migration is, however, Target 10.7
under the Goal 10. It calls for the facilitation of “orderly, safe, regular and
responsible migration and mobility of people” and the implementation of
“planned and well-managed migration policies”. As a result, migration
should be “managed in an integrated and holistic manner” (IOM, MiGOF,
2020, p. 20).
So, the Target 10.7 is addressed exclusively to states and shows a valuable
and important central point: migrant issues are inherently political (Betts &
Lescher, 2011, p. 134). That is why Target 7 is considered as a guideline of
good migration management since “effective governance and regulation of
migration is manifestly essential to realising orderly, safe and regular
migration” (IOM, MiGF, p. 1). On the other hand, however, Target 10.7 is
recognised to be “both the most and in many respects, the opaquest call to
action on migration” (Solomon & Sheldon, 2018, p. 584). This is due, inter
alia, to the lack of precision in the previously given terms, although it has
been the subject of multilateral consultations since 2004. This justifies
presenting the definitions of the previous terms included in the IOM
glossary (IOM, 2011). Thus, the term orderly migration refers to
the movement of a person from his or her usual place of residence to a

new place residencies, in keeping with the laws and regulations
governing exit of the country of origin and travel, transit and entry into
the host country.
(IOM, 2011)
Under Target 7, the sovereign power of the states to control their borders
and to regulate the conditions of entry and transit of migrant remains
unchanged (Morawska, 2017, pp. 15–18)
A similar pro-state approach can be seen in the definition of regular
migration as it means “migration that occurs through recognised, authorised
channels” (IOM, 2011). In other words, the regularity of migration shall be
based primarily on the method used to cross a country’s border as migrants
can enter a country in a regular manner (through regular channels). Whereas
the condition of safe migration seems to have complex structure covering
many dynamic aspects of migration, it is strongly oriented to migrants: their
life, their well-being and reduction of risk for them. And, in this regard, it
could be closely linked to the condition of reasonable migration. The safety
of migrants depends on several factors, such as the nature and extent of the
risk, but the vulnerability is the most important of all. It should not be
considered as a permanent state for it is a process consisting of many stages
(IOM, 2016).
The final issue under Target 10.7 is the states’ obligation, namely
facilitation, and the measures of performing the obligation in question.
These measures include migration policies that are to be planned first, then
implemented and finally well managed by states. It follows that this
obligation requires taking the indicated actions, and therefore has a positive
character. Hence, if the states are obliged to facilitate, then their authorities
may not create risks, difficulties or restrictions on migration. They cannot be
passive, either.
The migration itself should not be associated with great effort. In view
thereof and considering the remarks set out previously, the obligation in
question is essential for combating migrant smuggling and human
trafficking (UNODC, 2020). At this point, it should be noted that the Addis
Ababa Action Agenda (AAAA), an integral part of the 2030 Agenda, calls on
states to ensure that migration is governed with full respect for human
rights, to combat xenophobia and to facilitate migrant integration through
education of migrant and of refugee children and through social
communication strategies (UN, 2015b).
The migration-related SDGs and the migration cross-cutting
connections
In addition to Target 10.7, many other targets have references to migration;
for at least 10 targets migration-related issues are explicitly stated and for
others migration is a cross-cutting issue.
All of them should be considered because the 2030 Agenda is indivisible
in a sense that it must be implemented as a whole, in an integrated rather
than a fragmented manner, recognising that the different goals and targets
are closely interlinked. They also help to understand properly a central
principle of the 2030 Agenda. That principle is inclusivity; its very essence is
to “leave no one behind” and to try to reach the furthest behind first. To
achieve this aim, migrants must be considered inclusively in three
dimensions of sustainable development, i.e., economic, social and
environmental (UNGA, 2015, Preamble).
To sum up, the 2030 Agenda refers to migration-related issues in a
number of places, including in the Preamble and in the SDGs. It significantly
contributed to ensuring an important place on the international agenda for
the migration-related issues and thereby ensuring respect for the dignity and
human rights of migrants.
The real strength of the migration provisions in the 2030 Agenda is,
however, demonstrated by further steps taken to strengthen and improve
mechanisms for enhancing the good governance of migration. The first was
the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants (2016), and the
following were the Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
(2018) and the Global Compact on Refugees (2018).
It is, however, clear that all of the previously mentioned instruments are
just the beginning and not the end of the international community’s
renewed effort to enhance its capacity for good management of the
migration and mobility of persons while respecting their dignity and human
rights.
The migration issues in Catholic social teaching

Referring the migration issues developed in the legal analysis of Target 7
Goal 10 of the 2030 Agenda to Catholic social teaching, it should be observed
at the outset that the Catholic Church participated in a debate and
discussion, which was a follow-up to the migration crisis over the period
2014–2016. However, it is also worth noting that migration and its related
problems have long been a concern of the Magisterium of the Church.
Suffice it to say that in 2019, the World Day of Migrants and Refugees was
celebrated for the 105th time, and the Popes used to communicate special
messages for the Day.
Respect for migrants’ dignity, protection of their rights and ensuring
adequate living and development conditions are the key issues for the social
teaching of the Church. From the very beginning, the Church has
encouraged states to have a positive view of persons changing place of
residence or immigrating to the other countries and has strongly underlined
that they cannot be considered solely as representing danger, but also as a
chance for the common good. By developing themselves, they can also
contribute to the good of the region or country in which they settled.
In Caritas in veritate, Pope Benedict XVI stated that “every migrant is a
human person who, as such, possesses fundamental, inalienable rights that
must be respected by everyone and in every circumstance.” Respect for these
persons is also connected with rejection of treating them only as an
instrument, solely as cheap labour. Their situation requires proper
cooperation of all countries, introduction of relevant international
regulations, so as “to safeguard the needs and rights of individual migrants
and their families, and at the same time, those of the host countries”. The
Pope recognised that migrants, “despite any difficulties concerning
integration, make a significant contribution to the economic development of
the host country through their labour, besides that which they make to their
country of origin through the money they send home” (Benedict XVI, 2009,
section 62).
There is no doubt that Pope Francis treats this issue in a unique way, also
in connection with the crisis, indicating the need from everyone, in
particular from someone who believes to “welcome, protect, promote and
integrate” everyone who is in need. In his message, on the last Day of
Migrants and Refugees, Francis stressed the great indifference towards
migrants, which he combined with individualism and utilitarian mentality,
stating that
the most economically advanced societies are witnessing a growing

trend towards extreme individualism which, combined with a utilitarian
mentality and reinforced by the media, is producing a globalization of
indifference. In this scenario, migrants, refugees, displaced persons and
victims of trafficking have become emblems of exclusion.
(Francis, 2019)
Conclusions
Catholic social teaching, as the encyclical of Pope Francis Laudato Si’ shows
very well, coincides in many respects with the concept of sustainable
development, which finds its special expression in the current 2030 Agenda.
The various aspects of inequality related to its Goal 10 analysed in this
chapter show these convergences very fine.
The basis and starting point for the reflection for each of these aspects
from the perspective of Catholic social teaching is respect for a human
person, firstly because of the very fact of being a human, and secondly
because of the human capital that they contribute to the life and functioning
of the society. The concept of sustainable development, by the very fact of
being one of the models of socioeconomic development, emphasises to a
greater extent this aspect of the practical significance of every human being,
the wealth that they bring into the life of the society.
Given the richness inherent in a human being, the interests of every
society and – looking globally – of all of us, there are activities that will
ensure that the differences between individual people and countries are
properly levelled to enable everyone to participate properly in social life.
This relates to the need to ensure an adequate level of income in those
segments that do not provide opportunities or pose a high risk of lack of
development opportunities. Goal 10 sets a broad 40% segment in this respect,
whose revenues should increase more than the average for the entire
population.
Bridging economic disparities is undoubtedly an essential tool in
alleviating the tensions associated with mass migration of people. However,
there is also a need for protection related to the adoption of relevant
regulations by international institutions and accepted by individual states.
They must include safeguarding the fundamental rights of every migrant, as
well as safeguarding the rights of the host country. This issue can never be
solved unilaterally or at the expense of others; joint action by all concerned
is needed here (cf. Benedict XVI, 2009, section 62). Perhaps the least so far,
apart from discussing the rights of migrants, their importance for the
countries they come to and the situation arising there, the situation in the
countries from which they emigrate is discussed. Their support in
development, real – not just declared willingness to help, is something
extremely important and urgent, contributing to levelling simultaneously
inequality within and between countries.
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11 The Church vs. the issue of cultural
heritage and social integration in the
context of the Agenda 2030
Katarzyna Flader-Rzeszowska, Grzegorz Kęsik
and Henryk Skorowski
Introduction
Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG11) of the UN document
Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
(Agenda) (UNGA, 2015) calls to “make cities and human settlements
inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.” It deals with different areas of life,
including infrastructural, cultural and natural issues. Each case, however,
has a social dimension and assumes care for people in need and those who
are most affected by unfavourable changes. The demand to ensure
accessibility of flats and services seeks to improve living conditions in the
poorest districts. The call for improving road infrastructure pays special
attention to the needs of women, children, the disabled and the elderly. The
sustainable urbanisation requirement is intended to foster the involvement
of local communities in the spatial planning and promote the widest possible
public interest. The only point which lacks “social remark” is the protection
of cultural and natural heritage. The social aspect of environmental
protection is raised further in SDG11 of the Agenda. The focus is made on
how a city affects the natural environment. The call is to reduce the effects
of natural disasters, increase air quality and improve municipal waste
management. The Agenda also promotes easy and universal access to safe
green and public spaces conducive to social integration with primary focus
on the previously mentioned people in vulnerable situations.
Following this brief overview, special attention should be paid both on the
areas which can be further discussed by Catholic social teaching for moral
guidelines and on insufficiently defined issues requiring in-depth analysis.
The area of the Agenda, which undoubtedly requires a more detailed social
discussion, is the protection of cultural heritage. The reference to cultural
heritage, general in content, tends to bring us to the documents prepared by
circles of architects and monument conservators. This is because experts and
professionals have adequate tools and are authorised to provide detailed
guidelines. However, professional paradigms adopted over the last century
by architects and conservators are often highly inconsistent with social
expectations regarding the shape and character of heritage spaces. The
strong ideological influence of modernism on these paradigms can, and
should, be balanced by Catholic social teaching. This is in the interest of
local communities which are increasingly demanding respect for their
cultural traditions. The communities expect a coherent historical space
which will significantly help them shape local identity, both individually
and collectively.
Therefore, in addition to the issue of protection of cultural heritage, this
chapter also addresses the social aspect frequently mentioned in SDG11 of
the Agenda. In this respect, some clarification is made since the
interpretation may vary depending on the ideological and moral perspective.
The chapter also discusses the concepts and assumptions of Catholic social
teaching to make an attempt to respond to the SDG11’s social integration
challenges with regard to sustainable development of the contemporary city.
Functions of cultural heritage in the context of the Agenda

UN recognises the importance of integration of urban areas and promotes
understanding and respect for the natural and cultural diversity of the
world. The Agenda indicates that all cultures and civilisations can contribute
to promoting sustainable development. The specific targets of SDG11 call for
strengthening efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and
natural heritage. However, as mentioned before, the issues of protection of
cultural heritage require further clarification.
This is because the interpretation based only on contemporary
conservation paradigms does not provide a full, socially inclusive answer to
the question of what cultural heritage is. In simplified terms, the
contemporary approach to historic space and monument preservation
originates from materialistic concepts dated back to the beginning of the
20th century which put particular emphasis on preserving tangible values
and ignoring or diminishing the meaning of other monument values,
especially aesthetic and cultural ones (Riegl, 1903, p. 9. At the same time,
throughout the 20th century and nowadays, there is a tendency to improve
the aesthetics of monuments and enhance their cultural influence. These
trends, ideologically analogous to reconstructions, especially in the face of
two world wars, are accelerated by strong social expectations which in some
cases translate into political decisions.
However, the conservation community decided to maintain the
materialistic approach of monument care. In 1964, the so-called Venice
Charter was adopted, and a large part of demands of modernist architects
were accepted. As a result, monument care was virtually devoid of
traditional art and, in the event of damage or destruction, the reconstruction
process had to follow the spirit of the times (2nd International Congress of
Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, 1964, article 9). The
subsequent doctrinal documents, e.g., The Charter of Kraków, largely
followed the Venice pattern, also in terms of the extension of monuments
(International Conference on Conservation “Kraków 2000”, 2000, sections 1–
4). However, as practice shows, the actions which incorporate modern
architecture into a historic building retain its tangible values, but at the same
time permanently destroy its stylish and cultural values.
Paradoxically, then, strictly expert monument care devoid of social
dimension is a real threat for the protection of cultural heritage. Local
communities and nations are often deprived of the right to assess the
aesthetics of monuments, constituting their cultural carriers, especially if
they are destroyed or damaged. R. Scruton points out that contemporary art,
including architecture, manifests a strong tendency to “escape from beauty”
caused by our moral burden of aesthetic judgement, which assumes that art
is supposed to elevate man and challenge man to face a certain perfect world
(Scruton, 2011, p. 84). According to Scruton, this escape takes the form of
kitsch (trivialised view of aesthetics) or profanity (rejection of aesthetics). As
a result, modern architecture exposes monuments, i.e., important
determinants of cultural identity of local communities, to the event “of
escape from beauty.” This process adds certain elements to the monument or
its surroundings and thus can seriously disrupt or even preclude its
ideological message for a contemporary human being. This clearly shows
that conservation paradigms are not sufficient to take care of the cultural
heritage for the benefit of the local community, and further moral
interpretation is required.
The goals and challenges for states and world organisations set out by the
Agenda have been recognised by the Catholic Church for years. The
documents of Catholic social teaching address the cultural, social and
economic challenges of the city. The city is a place where people live and
work, but also an architectural space and area of cultural, artistic and
natural development. In recent years, Catholic social teaching has put a
great emphasis on the right for every person to use the city. Contemporary
anthropologists and sociologists of varying worldviews pay attention to the
progressing city consumerism, exclusion of individuals and narrow social
groups appropriating the right to city centres (Harvey, 2012; Tagg, 1994). This
is one of the reasons why both Catholic social teaching and contemporary
social thought consider the right to the city as an essential human right. The
aim is to eliminate poverty and social exclusion as well as to provide access
to housing and ensure the protection of cultural assets and the natural
environment.
According to Pope Francis, contemporary multicultural cities (understood
here either as the interpenetration of cultures or complete separation of
cultures) are formed by groups of people preferring similar lifestyles. These
people build cultural territories referred to as “invisible cities” (Francis,
2013b, section 74). Urban multiculturalism promotes the coexistence of
different forms of culture and at the same time contributes to segregation
and violence. The city brings both opportunities and threats. It develops
individuals and fosters social integration, but also generates divisions and
perpetuates unfair differences. The modern city is a place and object of
consumption in which the subject experiences pleasure and fear, mobility
and confinement, spaciousness and fragmentation. This trend is particularly
visible in commercial leisure areas (Tagg, 1994, p. 22). Contemporary cities
reveal unequal divisions caused by financial resources which categorise
people into citizens and second-class citizens or, as emphatically called by
Francis, “urban waste.” The Pope denounces a prevailing dominant culture of
rejection and, in return, proposes a culture of encounter which has the
potential to be effectively implemented in urban spaces. The culture of
encounter has become the leitmotif of the ministry of Francis.
He devotes one of the chapters of Evangelii Gaudium to the challenges of
urban cultures (Francis, 2013b, section 75). The serious problems, the so-
called urban diseases, include, inter alia, human trafficking, drug trafficking,
harassment, exploitation, corruption, and neglect of the elderly and sick.
Instead of being meeting spaces, cities become areas of escape and division.
Contemporary houses, housing estates and districts are designed to separate
rather than merge, integrate and host. This is one of the most important
contemporary problems, critical for both the Agenda and Catholic social
teaching. The right to the city is understood as a “unity in extraordinary
diversity.” Cities should foster the integration of different environments and
cultures. That is why Evangelii Gaudium strongly highlights the role of
urban spaces in sustaining and deepening the culture of encounter. It is
necessary to create areas which promote the meetings of local cultures with
foreign ones and forge a cultural synthesis. Rome is an example of the city
which preserves its heritage and promotes social integration (Francis, 2019).
The capital of Italy has been integrating people of different social and
economic status for almost 3,000 years without prejudice to the cultural
heritage and identity of particular groups. It is a place of intercultural
dialogue and the resulting new identities. Rome combines two diverse
civilisations, Germanic and Latin, and diverse cultural areas, continental in
the north and Mediterranean. It also mixes the sacred and the profane. The
Pope equates it with a treasure chest in which spiritual, historical, artistic
and institutional elements are stored. However, this does not mean that the
city does not have to constantly take care of its heritage, stability, balance
and social integration. The ongoing extension of line C of the Roman metro
between San Giovanni and Colosseo, which runs under the oldest part of the
city, fully respects the existing cultural heritage and provides an opportunity
to improve communication and encourage further development (Romani et
al., 2019, p. 167).
The city is part of culture and at the same time a place where culture can
be created and preserved. John Paul II emphasises that the world is given by
God to people and at the same time constitutes a commitment, as is also
mentioned in the Book of Genesis. “Be fertile and multiply; fill the earth and
subdue it” is the most basic definition of culture. Culture develops people
and reinforces their “being.” A nation is governed by the same rules. It is
primarily united by culture. “The nation exists because of its culture and for
its culture.” Thanks to culture, we exist in the community, and the
community has a much longer history than the family (John Paul II, 1980,
section 14; John Paul II, 2005, p. 79). Therefore, cultural identity and cultural
heritage require special care. They cover different categories of culture,
including group, nation, human and global culture. The protection of
cultural and natural heritage takes an important place in Catholic social
teaching and the teaching of subsequent popes; e.g., John Paul II, An Address
to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) delivered in 1980 in Paris; John Paul II, The Church and Culture:
An Address to the UNESCO Ambassadors, delivered in 2004 in Paris;
Benedict XVI, An Address to the Members of the Pontifical Institute of
Christian Archaeology; Francis, A Speech in Puerto Maldonado, delivered in
2018.
Francis strongly emphasises that
together with the patrimony of nature, there is also a historic, artistic
and cultural patrimony which is likewise under threat. This patrimony is
a part of the shared identity of each place and a foundation upon which
to build a habitable city.
Building new urban spaces or reorganising the existing ones should take
account of the original identity of the place determined by its history,
architecture or culture. Cultural heritage includes both monuments of the
past which shape human being and human generations, and growing,
dynamic and vibrant local cultures specific to a given place. It should be
fostered, especially in the face of cultural homogenisation which currently
takes place. The Pope claims (which was already mentioned in the teaching
of the Church, e.g., Redemptoris Missio) that cultural diversity is the heritage
of mankind which constitutes an essential element of development. Every
national and local culture has its value and must not be forgotten when new
areas of the city are created. This point of the Agenda is fully in line with
Catholic social teaching. When solving local problems, the voice of
inhabitants should be taken into account, respecting their identity and
special character. The use of the same technical or legal solutions in each
case is inadvisable. The solutions found beneficial in a given space or at a
given level may not be suitable for another. As was stressed by David
Harvey in Rebel Cities, the measures taken require flexibility and dynamics.
Fostering the development of local and global culture and their sustainable
coexistence as well as enhancement, preservation and transfer of cultural
heritage constitute a part of cultural ecology.
The rights of local communities to participate in deciding about their
nearest environment, including aesthetics, clearly emerge from these
considerations. The historical space and cultural heritage of the city cannot
be deprived of an expert voice, i.e., architects and conservators. However, it
must be balanced with a clear social voice. To this end, local politicians who
are representatives of the interests of the local community have a significant
role to play. Contrary to appearances, this role is not clear. Contemporary
politicians tend to delegate the spatial planning to experts, often virtually
not associated with the space concerned, and are influenced by individual
investors who focus on the maximisation of profits. External experts and
profit-oriented developers may significantly reduce the essential factors of
cultural heritage or even deprive the local community of them by
transforming or destroying the carriers of cultural heritage, i.e., monuments
and the surrounding cultural landscape, as a result of the ignorance of local
rules or the lack of interest. John Paul II calls for the proper relationship
between economy and culture “without destroying this greater human good
for the sake of profit, in deference to the overwhelming power of one-sided
market forces” (John Paul II, 2005, pp. 83–84). Therefore, a responsible local
government official should act in line with the goals of the Agenda and
Catholic social teaching by standing up for the local community and its
cultural heritage, and protecting it from uniformisation, exploitation and
degradation.
In the face of deepening environmental problems and the Earth’s
shrinking resources, Catholic social teaching makes a loud call for integral
ecology (Francis, 2015, section 137) with a significant focus on culture and
its products. The exploitation and degradation of nature threatens local
livelihoods and destroys social resources used to sustain lifestyles and
cultural identities. This is why Francis strongly insists on the holistic
protection and care of the Earth. The Amazon synod emphasises the problem
of the so-called ecological sin understood as a sin against the environment
and thus against God, neighbour and future generations. The protection of
plant and animal species is equally as important as the maintenance of those
human products which originate from the compliance with nature. Francis
calls for the care of the indigenous cultures, especially in those areas which
introduce new economic projects for cultivation, breeding or extraction
(Francis, 2015, section 146). Due to the local character of cultures, sustainable
development and respect for vulnerable and less influential groups are
required. Culture can be stored and transmitted only if it is created freely
(John Paul II, 1979, section 2). The heritage of local groups contributes to the
cultural heritage of humanity. If this principle is not followed, the global
balance is upset.
The Church also perceives the role of the city in preserving the cultural
heritage. Similarly to Scruton’s philosophy, she refers to the concept of
beauty, i.e., aesthetic category with theological connotations, the idea being
once strongly developed by John Paul II. Her dimension of the city differs
slightly from the one proposed in the Agenda. Pope Francis provides a
strong comment to this issue:
How beautiful are those cities which overcome paralysing mistrust,

integrate those who are different and make this very integration a new
factor of development! How attractive are those cities which, even in
their architectural design, are full of spaces which connect, relate and
favour the recognition of others!
(Francis, 2013b, section 210)
Real urban spaces for the culture of encounter are needed, especially given
the digital equivalents of contemporary cities (Mitchell, 2003). Digital cities
eliminate the need to leave home, meet with others and integrate into the
society. The question that arises, however, is whether these places can be
solid and safe, and serve social inclusion. The issue seems clear both for the
Agenda and Catholic social teaching. On the other hand, thanks to advanced
technologies, digital city twins may be used to test essential urban solutions
without disturbing everyday life. Digital cities can test prospective urban
solutions in the field of architecture and communication and enable precise
reconstruction of destroyed components of urban architecture. For example,
the digital twin of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris can rebuild the temple,
down to the smallest detail, without the need to reuse architectural plans
(Purdy et al., 2020).
Catholic social teaching also recognises faith-based metaphorical,
symbolic, contemplative and eschatological dimensions of the city, which is
beyond the scope of the Agenda. The encyclical Lumen Fidei combines
human cultural heritage with the metaphor of building. Those who believe
in the one God and build on his foundation, e.g., Noah and Abraham, hope
for a city prepared by God who is an architect and builder (Francis, 2013b,
section 50) since “the fullness of humanity and of history is realised in a city”
(Francis, 2013a, section 71). The Letter of St. Paul to the Hebrews reads that
God has prepared the city that awaits them after death. This does not mean
that one should not care for the temporal city. On the contrary, the Earth
should be a place where spaces conducive to human development are
established to build human trust and social stability. Faith, having the power
to provide integration between different cultures, is understood as a
common good that helps to build society as well as develop and transmit
cultural heritage (Delbrel, 2016, pp. 697–702).
The Agenda is largely in line with Catholic social teaching with respect to
sustainable urban development. However, Catholic social teaching also
strongly emphasises the importance of human dignity and the resulting
rights of local communities and nations to respect their cultural diversity. A
huge role in this respect is played by local politicians who act for and on
behalf of their communities. It is their duty to meet the challenges of
sustainable development at the design stage and take appropriate measures
in the field of land use and larger density of city centres to prevent
development of suburban areas and enable residents to commute to work by
bike or on foot. They should also take care of the cultural aspects of urban
space and protect the identity of local communities from economic
exploitation and aesthetic devastation. Similarly to contemporary
philosophers, Catholic social teaching treats the category of beauty as an
essential factor of sustainable urban development and a challenge for future
generations.
The role of social integration in the context of the Agenda

SDG11 of the Agenda obliges its signatories to make cities and human
settlements safe, solid, sustainable and inclusive. Its targets call to provide
easy access to safe, inclusive and accessible green and public spaces,
especially for women, children, the elderly and persons with disabilities. Its
vision of the world assumes that human rights and human dignity are
respected, regardless of gender, race or ethnic origin. Special attention is
paid to the most vulnerable people, especially those who are at risk of
exclusion, and need protection and support. It also strongly indicates that
economic growth and wealth affect social inclusion. Sustainable economic
development and rational use of natural resources are essential conditions
necessary to combat poverty and hunger, and ensure that the international
community lives in harmony with nature.
The Agenda reveals various social inequalities in the contemporary world
which may, and do, result in social disintegration. Disparities in access to
wealth and power, the issue of equal opportunities, poverty, gender
discrimination and unemployment constitute a real threat to life of an
individual and directly undermine human dignity. There are also other
global threats which people face, including natural disasters, terrorism and
climate change. For all these phenomena and processes, the Agenda
discusses opportunities and challenges. It lists the achievements in the field
of development challenges and indicates the need to continue activities for
building more peaceful and inclusive societies.
Social integration and counteracting social exclusion are the issues
addressed by a great number of scientific disciplines. The notion of social
exclusion was disseminated in the 1970s in France as an alternative to the
Anglo-Saxon definition of poverty. During the presidency of François
Mitterrand, it was institutionalised and officially defined as “severing social
bonds, rupturing social tissue and impairing solidarity” (Silver, 2019, pp. 1–
6). Further, Giddens claims that exclusion is “not about gradations of
inequality, but about mechanisms that act to detach groups of people from
the social mainstream” (Giddens, 1998, p. 104). Currently, the achievements
of social sciences include a great number of publications relating both to the
theory of social exclusion and the problems of particular social groups:
women, children, the elderly and the disabled (Peleah & Ivanov, 2013;
Burchardt et al., 2002; Jordan, 2003; Prattleya et al., 2020; Pannilage, 2012).
These issues are also of interest to Catholic social thinking. It seems that
the Agenda and Catholic social teaching have a similar view on the
condition of the modern world, opportunities and threats of globalisation,
and related new phenomena. However, the Church puts a strong emphasis
on complexity of the processes of globalisation. She firmly and decisively
addresses all threats to the individual and society, and the unpredictability
of the processes. Particular emphasis is placed on the acceleration of
beneficial development processes at the economic level accompanied by
increasingly deeper social inequalities (John Paul II, 1987, section 14). John
Paul II claims that “the challenge … is to ensure a globalisation in solidarity,
a globalisation without marginalisation” (John Paul II, 1998, section 3). The
Pope repeatedly refers to global issues and problems relating to particular
groups at risk of exclusion. At the threshold of the millennium, in the
Apostolic Letter to bishops, clergy and lay faithful on preparation for the
Jubilee of the year 2000, the Pope clearly stresses the tasks of the Church:
Thus, in the spirit of the Book of Leviticus (25:8–12), Christians will have
to raise their voice on behalf of all the poor of the world, proposing the
Jubilee as an appropriate time to give thought, among other things, to
reducing substantially, if not cancelling outright, the international debt
which seriously threatens the future of many nations. The Jubilee can
also offer an opportunity for reflecting on other challenges of our time,
such as the difficulties of dialogue between different cultures and the
problems connected with respect for women’s rights and the promotion
of the family and marriage.
The social consequences of globalisation are also pointed out by Pope

Francis. Social exclusion, inequality in the availability and consumption of
energy and other services, social divisions, violence and aggression prove
that the technological progress and civilisational development of humanity
are not integral parts of all areas of life (Francis, 2015, section 35). Moreover,
they lead to the breakdown of the harmony which is needed to initiate
integration processes. The pope makes a clear reference to the issues
discussed in SDG11 of the Agenda. Large makeshift neighbourhoods of
extreme poverty on the outskirts of cities encourage antisocial behaviour, a
sense of uprooting and violence (Francis, 2015, section 120). The pope insists
on the rights of the weak and excluded. Sustainable development entails the
necessity to address the problems of the poor: “true ecological approach
always becomes a social approach; it must integrate questions of justice in
debates on the environment, so as to hear both the cry of the earth and the
cry of the poor” (Francis, 2015, section 49). The pope points out that
Christians “are called to care for the vulnerable of the earth” (Francis, 2013b,
section 209). He puts a great emphasis on women and children who have
fewer opportunities to defend their rights and thus are at greater risk of
exclusion. True social peace is established only if social life is organised in a
way to respect human rights, promote the inclusion of the weak and the
poor, and ensure a fair distribution of goods. The pope clearly opposes the
neoliberal logic leading to the economy of rejection and alienation of
different social groups:
The culture of relativism is the same disorder which drives one person to
take advantage of another, to treat others as mere objects, imposing
forced labour on them or enslaving them to pay their debts. The same
kind of thinking leads to the sexual exploitation of children and
abandonment of the elderly who no longer serve our interests. It is also
the mindset of those who say: “Let us allow the invisible forces of the
market to regulate the economy, and consider their impact on society
and nature as collateral damage.” In the absence of objective truths or
sound principles other than the satisfaction of our own desires and
immediate needs, what limits can be placed on human trafficking,
organised crime, the drug trade, commerce in blood diamonds and the
fur of endangered species? Is it not the same relativistic logic which
justifies buying the organs of the poor for resale or use in
experimentation, or eliminating children because they are not what their
parents wanted? This same “use and throw away” logic generates so
much waste, because of the disordered desire to consume more than
what is really necessary. We should not think that political efforts or the
force of law will be sufficient to prevent actions which affect the
environment because, when the culture itself is corrupt and objective
truth and universally valid principles are no longer upheld, then laws
can only be seen as arbitrary impositions or obstacles to be avoided.
Pope Francis shows commitment to sustainable development when he

makes a direct reference to the Agenda in the Annex to the letter dated 25
September 2016 from the Permanent Observer of the Holy See to the United
Nations addressed to the Secretary-General. The pope expresses his support
for the Agenda’s development goals, but he also stresses that the actions
cannot end with empty declarations. The document gives hope that the
world’s problems can be solved, but for this to happen, reliable and effective
action of the international community is required. It formulates a number of
general principles, including those relating to SDG11 of the Agenda. It refers
to the problems of the poor and those at risk of social exclusion due to
poverty. It indicates that they should not be objectified and should be
responsible for their integral development. Full exercise of human dignity
cannot be imposed on them, but rather allowed for them by shaping right
relationships in social life (UNGA, 2015, section 7). It also highlights a huge
role of women in society. Due to their role as mothers, in physical and
spiritual terms, they should be protected from all forms of violence to foster
both their informal development and formal participation in public life.
Conclusions
SDG11 of the Agenda sets out a number of tasks to be fulfilled for
sustainable urban development. Each of them assumes a specific social
commitment. The call to protect cultural heritage is the only one which was
not adequately discussed in the Agenda and thus requires in-depth
interpretation which goes beyond the conservation paradigms. As evidenced
in this chapter, conservation paradigms, i.e., internal documents of particular
professional groups, do not fully meet contemporary social expectations
towards monuments. This is because local communities do not treat
monuments as buildings with tangible values only and demand that local
politicians make sure that cultural space is not devastated by modernist
transformations and its ideological code is preserved as opposed to what
contemporary architects and conservators often do.
The vision of a multicultural city of the future presented in the Agenda is
largely identical to the years-old vision of Catholic social teaching. The
Church recognises the right to a city for all individuals, and sees the city as a
place of integral ecology, culture of encounter, area of culture production
and storage, and space for nature conservation. People create cities while
cities create and develop people. Therefore, it is extremely important that
urban space is organised and managed in a way to promote meetings,
cultural exchange, and the transmission of cultural and natural heritage to
future generations. With a view to the sustainable development of the city,
Catholic social teaching also recognises two more aspects, i.e., the category
of beauty (the city should generate and promote beauty) and faith (a well-
organised and friendly worldly city which takes care of culture and shows
respect for nature should guide us to the eternal city of God).
The sustainable development seen from the perspective of social
integration and counteracting social exclusion is discussed both in the
Agenda and by Catholic social teaching.
Both approaches recognise the need to protect people at risk of social
exclusion. However, the UN documents more strongly emphasise the
achievements of the international community in this respect and see the
challenges as an opportunity for the future. Catholic social teaching, on the
other hand, focuses on the threats arising from contemporary globalisation
and integration processes and related social phenomena. It clearly defines
current world problems and refers to the needs of all social groups requiring
support and protection.
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12 Harmony, consumption and lifestyle in
Mariusz Boguszewski, Piotr Burgoński and
Małgorzata Starzomska-Romanowska
Introduction
“Consumer” and “consumption” are the commonly known terms widely
associated with goods and services. Modern societies have developed a
consumption pattern based on the conviction that the more goods or
services we produce, own and use, the better. However, currently, the
negative effects of this approach on man and the environment are also
widely recognised.
This chapter discusses the issues set out in section 12.8 of the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development (Agenda) (UNGA, 2015), which recognises the
need to adopt lifestyles in harmony with nature in the face of the threats
posed by modern consumption patterns. There are three aspects of the
problem which are discussed here. First of all, the chapter defines human
needs and discusses how they should be satisfied to ensure that the lifestyle
is in harmony with nature. Then, moral principles which should govern the
activity and behaviour of human as a consumer are examined. Finally, the
potential consequences resulting from the lifestyles of contemporary
consumers are discussed.
The issue of the modern consumption pattern is explored not only by the
UN, but also by the Catholic Church. Like the UN, she addresses the human
good and concentrates on universal values and global matters. The aim of
this chapter is to compare the approach of the UN set out in the Agenda with
the approach of the Catholic Church expressed in its social documents with
reference to those three aspects.
The measure of human needs

The Agenda says that people can develop properly and live lifestyles in
harmony with nature only if their human needs are fulfilled (UNGA, 2015,
section 12).
The classification of needs proposed by Epicurus (Zalega, 2008, p. 23) is
considered to be the oldest. He distinguishes between three types of desires:
natural and necessary (e.g., breathing and eating), natural but non-necessary
(e.g., sexual need), and empty (e.g., the pursuit of popularity). Over the last
two centuries, many other classifications of needs have been established.
Pieter offers a classification of existential needs (livelihood), freedom needs,
erotic needs (sexual partner) and faith needs (beliefs, ideals) (Obuchowski,
1983, p. 93), while McClelland indicates the needs of power, affiliation and
achievements (Zalega, 2007, p. 168). Kocowski refers to existential needs
(food, recreation, health, safety, housing and clothing), procreation and
development needs (reproduction, care for offspring, education, upbringing,
family and self-fulfilment), functional needs (information and freedom of
choice), social needs (belonging, communication with other people,
emotional bond, individual autonomy and submission to social norms) and
mental needs (organisation of personality, aesthetics, entertainment and
socialisation) (Kocowski, 1982, p. 145).
The theory, which is among the most widely recognised theories of needs,
is Maslov’s hierarchy of needs. Maslov (Zalega, 2008, p. 26) is one of the
main representatives of humanistic psychology. His hierarchy of needs
includes physiological needs (e.g., hunger, sleep and species propagation),
safety (e.g., care for health, protection against physical and emotional harm),
belonging (e.g., love, friendship and sense of acceptance), self-esteem (e.g.,
independence and respect from others) and self-actualisation. According to
Maslov, human behaviour is governed by two principles: homeostasis and
reinforcement. The homeostatic principle seeks to achieve a balance for
lower-order needs, i.e., the first two categories of needs. Failure to satisfy the
lower-order needs violates the balance of the human body, while their
satisfaction restores it, and the state of tension disappears. Higher-order
needs, i.e., the remaining three categories of needs, are governed by the
principle of reinforcement. It assumes that higher needs do not disappear
even if satisfied. Instead, the human recognises them as pleasant and strives
to reinforce them. In order to satisfy the higher needs, it is necessary to
satisfy the lower ones.
A similar categorisation is proposed by the UN Research Institute for
Social Development (Zalega, 2008, p. 28). It distinguishes between basic
material needs (food, housing and health), cultural needs (leisure and social
security) and higher-order needs which can be satisfied only if lower-order
needs are met. The same classification is adopted by Hodoly and Jevons
(Zalega, 2008, p. 28). Maslov emphasises that in the case of failure to meet
one of the basic needs, we primarily focus on this need and stop fulfilling
higher needs. He also claims that a satisfied need ceases to have a
motivational effect, and the human starts to “aim higher” (Zalega, 2008, pp.
27–28). Maslov states that another need cannot be met if the earlier one is
not satisfied (Lester, 2013, p. 1027; Taormina & Gao, 2013, p. 155). However,
whether he is right remains questionable. His view is widely accepted and
considered universal, but it sometimes may be the case that people seek self-
actualisation even if their basic needs are not met. This phenomenon is
closely related with transgression.
Mature people meet all the needs mentioned previously in a harmonious
and consistent manner. Giving the preference to one of the needs over others
may slightly or severely affect mental health. For example, people who
concentrate on earning money or self-actualisation at the expense of the
need to strengthen a bond with others may begin to feel emptiness or even
despair, while people who achieve fame feel very lonely and unhappy inside
(Sękalski, 2017, pp. 38–39).
Głaz claims that humans struggle to satisfy different needs. For example,
the need for safety and security is a basic mental need which determines
normal human functioning and development in every period of life.
However, people are often forced to make a choice between satisfying this
need and supporting their development, for example. Similarly, people often
have to choose between satisfying the need for affiliation and demonstrating
maturity. These issues are not easy and often require addressing the moral
dimension of human functioning (Głaz, 2009, pp. 107–108; Kahoe &
Meadow, pp. 8–9; Wenger & Yarbrough, 2005, p. 5).
From the Christian perspective, the help of the Holy Spirit is also
necessary to resolve all the difficulties with satisfying needs and to enter the
path of spiritual development. In this respect, pastoral ministry, confession
and spiritual direction may play a huge role (Sękalski, 2017, pp. 38–39).
According to John Paul II, basic human needs cannot remain unsatisfied
and human lives cannot be destroyed in the name of justice and truth. It is
also necessary to help people in need to acquire knowledge, join the system
of interconnections and develop appropriate habits so that they can better
manage their abilities and resources. John Paul II points out that “even prior
to the logic of a fair exchange of goods and the forms of justice appropriate
to it, there exists something which is due to man because he is man, by
reason of his lofty dignity” (John Paul II, 1991, section 34). He also draws a
clear distinction between human needs and so-called artificially created
needs. Unfortunately, the economic system lacks criteria needed to make a
correct differentiation, and thus the Church has a huge prophetic, evaluative
and educational role to play in reducing the consumption-based lifestyle
(John Paul II, 1991, section 20).
According to the Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, an
economic system does not possess criteria for correctly distinguishing new
and higher forms of satisfying human needs from artificial new needs which
hinder the formation of a mature personality. Thus a great deal of
educational and cultural work is urgently needed, including the education of
consumers in the responsible use of their power of choice, the formation of a
strong sense of responsibility among producers and among people in the
mass media in particular, as well as the necessary intervention by public
authorities (PCJP, 2004, section 376). The document says that
serious ecological problems call for an effective change of mentality
leading to the adoption of new lifestyles, “in which the quest for truth,
beauty, goodness and communion with others for the sake of the
common good are the factors that determine consumer choices, savings
and investments.” … There is a need to break with the logic of mere
consumption and promote forms of agricultural and industrial
production that respect the order of creation and satisfy the basic human
needs of all. These attitudes, sustained by a renewed awareness of the
interdependence of all the inhabitants of the earth, will contribute to
eliminating the numerous causes of ecological disasters as well as
guaranteeing the ability to respond quickly when such disasters strike
peoples and territories.
“The human being is a person, not just an individual. The term ‘person’
indicates ‘a nature endowed with intelligence and free will”; he is therefore a
reality that is far superior to that of a subject defined by the needs arising
solely from his material dimension.
The human person, in fact, although participating actively in projects

designed to satisfy his needs within the family and within civil and
political society, does not find complete self-fulfilment until he moves
beyond the mentality of needs and enters into that of gratuitousness and
gift, which fully corresponds to his essence and community vocation.
According to the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern Word

“Gaudium et spes” adopted by the Second Vatican Council in 1965,
any way of organising and directing it which may be detrimental to any

working men and women would be wrong and inhuman. It happens too
often, however, even in our days, that workers are reduced to the level of
being slaves to their own work. This is by no means justified by the so-
called economic laws. The entire process of productive work, therefore,
must be adapted to the needs of the person and to his way of life, above
all to his domestic life, especially in respect to mothers of families,
always with due regard for sex and age. The opportunity, moreover,
should be granted to workers to unfold their own abilities and
personality… . They should also all enjoy sufficient rest and leisure to
cultivate their familial, cultural, social and religious life. They should
also have the opportunity freely to develop the energies and
potentialities which perhaps they cannot bring to much fruition in their
professional work.
It should be stressed that
the obligations of justice and love are fulfilled only if each person,
contributing to the common good, according to his own abilities and the
needs of others, also promotes and assists the public and private
institutions dedicated to bettering the conditions of human life. Yet, there
are those who, while possessing grand and rather noble sentiments,
nevertheless in reality live always as if they cared nothing for the needs
of society. Many in various places even make light of social laws and
precepts, and do not hesitate to resort to various frauds and deceptions
in avoiding just taxes or other debts due to society. Others think little of
certain norms of social life, for example those designed for the protection
of health, or laws establishing speed limits; they do not even avert to the
fact that by such indifference they imperil their own life and that of
others.
To sum up, psychological theories propose the classifications of needs and

in some cases discuss the principles governing the fulfilment of needs, while
the documents of the Catholic Church stress the importance of respect for
human dignity and point out that national governments should demonstrate
such respect.
Justice and solidarity in the context of consumption

This section addresses moral principles, especially justice and solidarity,
which should govern human consumer behaviour. Pope Francis reminds us
that “every effort to protect and improve our world entails profound changes
in ‘lifestyles, models of production and consumption, and the established
structures of power which today govern societies’ ” (Francis, 2015, section 5).
Catholic discussion on consumption compels us to think about the rules
governing society and, above all, justice, solidarity and the role man has to
play in the society. “Human” and “giving” are the key concepts here.
Pope Benedict XVI reminds us that
“charity goes beyond justice,” because to love is to give, to offer what is

“mine” to the other; but it never lacks justice, which prompts us to give
the other what is “his,” what is due to him by reason of his being or his
acting. I cannot “give” what is mine to the other, without first giving him
what pertains to him in justice. If we love others with charity, then first
of all we are just towards them. Not only is justice not extraneous to
charity, not only is it not an alternative or parallel path to charity: justice
is inseparable from charity, and intrinsic to it. Justice is the primary way
of charity or … “the minimum measure” of it, an integral part of the love
“in deed and in truth” (1 Jn 3:18), to which Saint John exhorts us. On the
one hand, charity demands justice: recognition and respect for the
legitimate rights of individuals and peoples. It strives to build the earthly
city according to law and justice. On the other hand, charity transcends
justice and completes it in the logic of giving and forgiving.
Justice understood in this way, inseparable from charity, requires “the

logic of giving and forgiving.” This logic seems to guard the logical order of
the world, i.e., the sensible order of the world. Ultimately, this logic is
revealed and explained by the One who comes into human society and is the
Logos (cf. Gospel of John 1:1–14), who reveals love and gives himself to man
and God.
The discussion on justice helps us understand solidarity. Note that proper
understanding of the concept of “solidarity” and the related “duty of
solidarity” (John Paul II, 1987, section 9) enables us to ensure “united
cooperation” (John Paul II, 1987, section 22) in the international order to
create conditions for a happy life, peace and access to goods for all, and
facilitates full development of every human being. The duty of solidarity
implies a moral duty of those representatives of rich countries who are
responsible for public affairs of the human community reaching beyond the
local scope. Their decisions should be guided by a moral evaluation of all
actions with a focus on universal values. Failure to fulfil the duty of
solidarity leads to selfish attitudes which give rise to the forms of power
over one another contrary to justice and cause various forms of imperialism
and neocolonialism from the political point of view. The duty of solidarity
which refers to the interdependence between individuals and groups of
people means that one should seek a sense of the common good and reject
all other ideologies. John Paul II describes the contemporary world in the
following way:
A world which is divided into blocs, sustained by rigid ideologies, and in

which instead of interdependence and solidarity different forms of
imperialism hold sway, can only be a world subject to structures of sin.
The sum total of the negative factors working against a true awareness
of the universal common good, and the need to further it, gives the
impression of creating, in persons and institutions, an obstacle which is
difficult to overcome.
Solidarity based on free will, love of neighbour and understanding of the

common good in its universal dimension is particularly close to the
Christian tradition, but, due to its universality, it transcends the boundaries
of the religious community. Solidarity, therefore, should not be interpreted
on the basis of subjectivism or psychologism implying a temporary fight
against injustice to others or interim gesture of philanthropy, for example.
Instead, “it is a firm and persevering determination to commit oneself to the
common good; that is to say to the good of all and of each individual,
because we are all really responsible for all” (John Paul II, 1987, section 38).
Based on this discussion, we can proceed with the issue of consumption.
Note that ecclesiastical texts, e.g., those of John Paul II, also often use the
term “consumerism” (John Paul II, 1987, section 28; John Paul II, 1991,
sections 36, 37, 57), which is a broader concept than consumption.
Consumerism not only defines consumer behaviours, but also reflects the
ideology of shaping individuals in society so that they become perfect
consumers of goods and services and perfect consumer of sociopolitical
ideas, i.e., perfect voters, in the systems of representative power.
Consumption determines the “being” and “having” of individuals and their
social forms of existence. The consumption centres on man and their relation
to other people, processes, ideas and things rather than what is consumed.
This is a personalistic approach to man which highlights the “being” and
focuses particularly on human development. Human development is
threatened when people become slaves of consumption correlated with
economic relations, productive forces, produced items and conceived ideas.
This is because freedom of man is closely related to economic relations,
productive forces, produced items and conceived ideas. In this regard, the
primacy of person over things and the primacy of spirit over matter are
required. This issue is raised by John Paul II:
All phases of present-day progress must be followed attentively. Each

stage of that progress must, so to speak, be x-rayed from this point of
view. What is in question is the advancement of persons, not just the
multiplying of things that people can use… . Indeed there is already a
real perceptible danger that, while man’s dominion over the world of
things is making enormous advances, he should lose the essential
threads of his dominion and in various ways let his humanity be
subjected to the world and become himself something subject to
manipulation in many ways – even if the manipulation is often not
perceptible directly – through the whole of the organization of
community life, through the production system and through pressure
from the means of social communication. Man cannot relinquish himself
or the place in the visible world that belongs to him; he cannot become
the slave of things, the slave of economic systems, the slave of
production, the slave of his own products.
The enslavement of man is a particularly important concept here because

it puts emphasis on the personal freedom of man. A free person can fully
reveal the truth about him- or herself and become the one who bestows
others. The discussion on justice and solidarity, which are the concepts of
particular interest for us in this place, would be incomplete if that particular
human capacity to give was not taken into account. A human being can
make a gift of her- or himself and give all kinds of material and spiritual
goods. These goods should include conceived ideas, produced items, human-
oriented economic relations and productive forces.
The discussion on consumption requires us to focus on human
development rather than multiplying the things we use. It is reasonable to
assume that human development can occur only if man is allowed to be
himself at the very beginning of the process. A person who is not able to
cooperate with justice and solidarity is not her- or himself in full. The
cooperation with justice and solidarity takes place through giving oneself,
one’s own products and collective products and at the same time building
capacity for accepting a gift, i.e., other people and communities (e.g., work
community, political community, economic community), their products and
collective products. Following the Catholic approach to common life and
creation of culture of common life, actions for justice and solidarity require
prior reflection on man and his freedom so that “being” rather than “having”
constitutes the basis for a gift, either given or received. This aspect of actions
for justice and solidarity seems to be particularly distinctive in the Catholic
approach. It is “being,” individual and collective, and not “having,” that
initiates and determines the ability to give.
A person deprived of freedom, unable to give and receive a gift and
guided by the consumption principle of “having,” becomes inevitably
objectified. In such a case, interpersonal contacts are reduced to physical
contacts between things and cease to form a state of being with other
people, i.e., a relationship. Relationships can only be formed by free people.
This reduction occurs because the role and the very existence of things are
wrongly interpreted. The correct interpretation of the role and existence of
things is essential for creating a culture of common life based on justice and
solidarity because things are the means to be used in this process.
When “having” is the goal of human life, the quality of life will be
measured solely by the level of consumption, the economic growth and the
amount of pleasure. As a result, the concepts which undermine the economic
and materialistic values of human existence are marginalised. In practice, if
there is no ontological and ethical basis for balancing the proportions
between “being” and “having,” people struggle to achieve ever higher levels
of possession. This leads to a radical dissatisfaction and growing desire for
things. John Paul II describes this process in the following way:
All of us experience firsthand the sad effects of this blind submission to

pure consumerism: in the first place a crass materialism, and at the same
time a radical dissatisfaction, because one quickly learns – unless one is
shielded from the flood of publicity and the ceaseless and tempting offers
of products – that the more one possesses the more one wants, while
deeper aspirations remain unsatisfied and perhaps even stifled.
Radical dissatisfaction and stifled deeper aspirations easily prove to

inhibit the promotion of justice and solidarity in relationships between
people and in society.
A person perceived through the prism of consumption and reduced to a
consumer is deprived of the ability to establish relations of solidarity and
community with others. Through various kinds of efforts, works and actions
in society, man can give himself, which plays a pivotal role in the process of
building human solidarity.
As a person, he can give himself to another person or to other persons,

and ultimately to God, who is the author of his being and who alone can
fully accept his gift. A man is alienated if he refuses to transcend himself
and to live the experience of self-giving and of the formation of an
authentic human community oriented towards his final destiny, which is
God. A society is alienated if its forms of social organisation, production
and consumption make it more difficult to offer this gift of self and to
establish this solidarity between people.
A world of exacerbated consumption is at the same time a world which

mistreats life in all its forms.
Christian spirituality proposes an alternative understanding of the

quality of life, and encourages a prophetic and contemplative lifestyle,
one capable of deep enjoyment free of the obsession with consumption.
We need to take up an ancient lesson, found in different religious
traditions and also in the Bible. It is the conviction that “less is more.” A
constant flood of new consumer goods can baffle the heart and prevent
us from cherishing each thing and each moment. To be serenely present
to each reality, however small it may be, opens us to much greater
horizons of understanding and personal fulfilment.
Consequences of the contemporary lifestyles of consumers

Both the Agenda and Catholic social teaching show that the consumption-
based lifestyle leads to negative consequences. Both approaches assume that
the modern human being does not use goods in a sustainable way (UNGA,
2015, section 28) because s/he is “unable to set limits on their immediate
needs” (Francis, 2015, section 11).
With respect to unlimited consumption, the Agenda and Catholic social
teaching define the types and the extent of consequences of consumption in
a different way. With respect to the consequences for individuals, the
Agenda refers to the degradation of physical health only (UNGA, 2015,
section 12.4). The Church implies a much broader range of consequences. In
addition to the degradation of physical health, she assumes damage to
mental, moral and spiritual life (John Paul II, 1991, section 36). The Church
claims that immoderate consumption comes from an attitude of selfishness
since “human beings place themselves at the centre [and] give absolute
priority to immediate convenience.” She indicates that this results in the
development of an attitude of practical relativism which “sees everything as
irrelevant unless it serves one’s own immediate interests” (Francis, 2015,
section 122). People’s subordination to the ad hoc needs and egoism also
results in a distortion of freedom because people become “slaves of
possession and of immediate gratification” and can be easily manipulated
(John Paul II, 1987, section 28). In addition, the obsessive focus on
consumption makes man stop thinking and acting with a view to great goals
and values, and his life becomes superficial (Francis, 2015, section 113–114).
“The culture of consumerism, which prioritises short-term gain and
private interest, can make it easy to rubber-stamp authorisations or to
conceal information” (Francis, 2015, section 184). Moreover, individuals find
it difficult to develop habits other than consumption (Francis, Laudato Si’
209). The Church also points out that focus on unlimited consumption can
deprive people of inner peace, reduce their ability to appreciate reality,
resulting in a loss of the ability to enjoy life, and even cause sadness about
what they do not possess (Francis, 2015, section 222).
Social effects of uninhibited consumption perceived by the Agenda and
the Church are consistent. In both cases, it is claimed that the current model
of consumption threatens whole societies, especially the poor (UNGA, 2015,
section 12c; Francis, 2015, section 50). The Church more clearly defines the
mechanism which leads to this threat and describes the nature of this
phenomenon. According to the Church’s teaching, negative effects are
caused by the individual’s focus on oneself, which entails the inability to
perceive problems and think about others. Moreover, the logic of
instrumental reason is transferred from the way things are treated to the
way people are approached. Uninhibited consumption leads not only to the
treatment of goods in terms of usefulness, but also to the objectification of
man (Francis, 2013, section 53; Francis, 2015, section 162). There is also
indifference to other people’s problems which results from the desire to
maintain a consumer lifestyle (Francis, 2013, section 54). This attitude leaves
no space for the common good. The Church argues that if the society is
dominated by self-centred people, the norms will be respected “only to the
extent that they do not clash with personal needs,” which will certainly
result in a social crisis (Francis, 2015, section 204). Another reason why the
consequences of uninhibited consumption affect poor societies is because
they find it more difficult than rich countries to cope with the climate
change caused by consumption, e.g., global warming, especially since many
of them are located in places where climate conditions have been difficult
for centuries. There is also the damage caused by the export of toxic waste
from rich countries and the pollution produced by companies which operate
in developing countries in a way they could never do in rich countries
(Francis, 2015, section 51). Another consequence of the current consumption
pattern for the poor countries is that almost a third of the food produced in
developed countries is discarded. Pope Francis reminds us that “whenever
food is thrown out it is as if it were stolen from the table of the poor”
(Francis, 2015, section 50). The Agenda also raises the issue of food waste. It
argues that food waste occurs not only during the consumption, but also
during the harvest, production, distribution and retail sale (UNGA, 2015,
section 12.3). Both the Agenda and Catholic social teaching recognise the
consequences of the consumer lifestyle for future generations (UNGA, 2015,
section 2; Francis, 2015, section 160).
In contrast to the Agenda, the Church discusses the consequences of the
consumer lifestyle for the culture which, shaped by the consumer lifestyle,
becomes a culture of rejection. The culture of rejection encourages the quick
use of objects so that they become rubbish, and promotes an attitude of
rejection towards people so that they become “leftovers” (Francis, 2013,
section 53). Moreover, a consumer culture supported by the mechanisms of
today’s globalised economy becomes a hegemonic lifestyle, weakens cultural
diversity and contributes to the cultural homogenisation of societies
(Francis, 2015, section 144). Interestingly, Pope Francis expresses the
conviction that contemporary architecture, its megastructures and drab
apartment blocks reflect consumerism, combining “new products” with a
“tedious monotony” (Francis, 2015, section 113). In contrast to the Agenda,
Catholic social teaching discusses political consequences. The culture of
consumption makes politicians reluctant to undertake actions which could
affect the existing consumption levels or threaten foreign investments. As a
result, politics focuses on immediate results and fails to develop farsighted
programmes, including environmental agenda (Francis, 2015, section 178).
The Agenda and Catholic social teaching are fundamentally consistent in
the way they address the environmental consequences of consumption. The
Agenda points out that pollution by chemicals and all types of waste and the
release of harmful substances into the air, water and soil adversely affect
human health and the environment (UNGA, 2015, section 12.4). The Church
also raises the issue of waste-induced pollution, with particular attention to
hazardous waste and its effects on human health. It also indicates negative
climate change, global warming, depletion of natural resources, drought and
decline in crop productivity (Francis, 2015, sections 21–27, 51).
The unlimited consumption and its consequences are a new challenge for
the Agenda as it was not included in the preceding Millennium Development
Goals. Catholic social teaching explored this issue before. In particular, John
Paul II discussed it in his encyclicals, e.g., Centesimus Annus. This previous
message is, however, significantly expanded to include consequences for
poor societies and the environment. The Church’s discussion on the negative
consequences for the natural environment is expanded in a way consistent
with a trend that emerged in non-ecclesiastical circles. Currently, the
growing interest in the issue is evident in these circles.
The previously mentioned differences between the way the consequences
of consumption are discussed in the Agenda and by Catholic social teaching
reflect different anthropological assumptions. The Agenda reduces the
discussion on humans to the physical and mental dimensions, while the
Church explores it in more depth. It extends the approach of the Agenda to
the spiritual dimension, including the moral sphere, and suggests the
possibility of human degradation in this respect. It is also worth adding that
a brief reference to the human is made in the introduction to the Agenda,
which emphasises a fundamental role of human dignity. Both approaches
widely accept human relations and treat the human as a social being.
Different anthropological assumptions are reflected by different suggestions
on types of consequences of the consumer lifestyle. The Agenda focuses on
human health and the natural environment, while the Church goes beyond
that to discuss the inner life of a human being. In the Church’s teaching,
human good, especially the spiritual good, is the primary goal of all
activities. Therefore, it should be assumed that she treats the consequences
of the consumer lifestyle for the spiritual sphere of man very seriously.
Despite these differences, both approaches recognise that the
responsibility for the negative consequences of the consumer lifestyle lies
with man. In their calls for actions aimed at changing lifestyles, neither
approach objectifies a human being. They agree that a person is able to make
conscious choices on consumption (UNGA, 2015, section 12.8). Both
approaches also assume the principle of the primacy of human being in the
event that actions to change reality are undertaken. This view is not
explicitly expressed in the Agenda in its section on consumption, but its
introduction clearly states that the actions set out in the Agenda are taken
for human reasons (UNGA, 2015, section 2). The Church’s teaching, on the
other hand, has always treated a human being as an end in themselves and
argued that all activities must be subordinated to the human good (PCJP,
2004, section 132).
Conclusions
In view of the rapid changes in the life of a modern human being, the issue
of consumption seems increasingly important and topical. It is more and
more often the case that the way man operates in the contemporary world is
described as “instant.” This term reflects the attitude and behaviour which
demand immediate satisfaction of, often artificial, needs. On the other hand,
the question that arises is whether man living in this superficial culture is
free from unconscious enslavement. The objectification of the contemporary
man becomes more and more visible. This is because the requirements of
contemporary decision-makers are very stringent and recognise only the
value of money and possession. Therefore, the call of the Catholic Church
seems extremely important, or even urgent, here. She warns against
consumerism enslavement and encourages a contemplative lifestyle that
brings true joy. The difference in how the Agenda and the Catholic Church
approach the consequences of consumerism should be also clearly
emphasised. The Church’s view is much deeper. She says much more than
the Agenda about the influence of consumerism on man and concentrates
not only on the body, but also on the psyche, spirituality and morality. Pope
John Paul II was particularly sensitive to this threat. In his encyclical
Redemptor Hominis, he warns against a new form of man’s enslavement
caused by economic relations, things, production and even his own products.
It is possession and not existence that matters. Man focuses on “having” and
not on “being.” In this respect, emphatic words of Pope Francis are worth
noting. He uses strong metaphorical terms to show how much contemporary
consumerism objectifies man. The Catholic Church has the courage to look
at the real situation of contemporary people who become “rubbish” for those
who have reached a high social position.
The previous analysis leads to the conclusion that further research is
required to understand specific problems which occur when the subjective
needs of consumers are confronted with moral principles of the Church’s
teaching. It should be assumed that consumer needs are often largely
consistent with Catholic social teaching. However, there are probably also
such areas which are completely contrary to it. Further analysis may require
the used in social sciences and reaching beyond theology. The tasks set
before the research teams should be to resolve issues arising out of the
drama of human life and to provide common and coherent answers with the
participation of scientists representing different fields of knowledge.
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13 Climate changes as a challenge in the
Anthropocene in the context of
Dominika Dzwonkowska, Izabella Olejniczak and
Kazimierz Pawlik
Introduction
People have a tremendous impact on the natural ecosystems of our planet.
There is even a discussion that could possibly lead to naming the geological
era after humankind. The name “Anthropocene” sounds quite ironic in this
context because we have led to irreversible changes in many ecosystems,
and yet the geological era’s name will commemorate us. However, there is
also the other side of the coin, namely if we have led to the changes, we are
responsible for making an effort to care for what is left and not allow any
further destruction. This needs a joint effort of all people and a dedicated
support of governments. We, however, claim that any willingness to make a
change needs a determination that arises not from outer force, but from an
inner one, i.e., from morality. Thus, ethical and religious motivations are, in
our opinion, a crucial factor in taking care of the Earth.
This chapter aims at presenting the extent of human impact on climate
changes (Part 3) and the influence of climate changes on the well-being of
the poorest (Part 2). The latter is the reason why there arises a moral
obligation to care for the poorest along with the care for the Earth. This
obligation is strongly emphasised in Catholic social teaching, which we
present in Part 4. The Catholic perspective is described and presented along
with the ethical and political perspectives. These two provide a wide
background and ability to compare the position of conservative and liberal
perspectives.
Climate change in the age of humans

Human activity is one of the major causes of the observed climate warming
since the mid-20th century (IPCC, 2018, p. 53). From 1880 until 2012, the
global surface temperature has risen by 0.85 °C. This has a very profound
impact on many ecosystems. The most serious ones include increase in
droughts, floods and other extreme weather events, biodiversity losses and
sea-level rise (IPCC, 2012, p. 214). Global warming has influence not only on
natural ecosystems, but also on people, especially those most vulnerable. As
it is presented in the SR15,1 many regions of the world experience greater
warming than 0.85 °C, and 20–40% of the global human population
(depending on the temperature dataset used) have experienced over 1.5 °C of
warming in at least one season (IPCC, 2018, p. 51). This creates
unprecedented risk for vulnerable people and has a severe impact on
numerous ecosystems. In this chapter, we will focus mostly on the social
aspect of climate changes, emphasising the human factor in contributing to
the occurrence of these extreme conditions and its agential power in the age
of humans, the Anthropocene. Human influence is recognised as a major
cause; thus, people are obliged to take a responsibility for their actions and
for the decision to either mitigate or adapt to climate changes.
The “human influence has become a principal agent of change on the
planet, shifting the world out of the relatively stable Holocene period into a
new geological era, often termed the ‘Anthropocene’ ” (IPCC, 2018, 53). The
term “Anthropocene” itself presupposes a great human impact on the Earth
systems and has been proposed by Paul Crutzen (Crutzen & Stoemer, 2000).
Even though the time when our species has been present on the planet is
just a tiny slice of the Earth’s history, human activity has already altered or
severely unbalanced some ecosystems. Geological arguments for the new
geological epoch are analysed by the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG)
for the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), which is to decide
about the formalisation of a new geological era. The beginning of the
Industrial Revolution was believed to be the official start of the
Anthropocene. This date has been competing with another possible starting
time for the Anthropocene – the co-called early-Anthropocene proposal.
According to this concept, the beginning of the new era is connected with
the “expansion of agriculture and livestock cultivation more than 5,000 years
ago, or a surge in mining 3,000 years ago” (Monastersky, 2015, p. 146).
However, neither the Industrial Revolution nor early-Anthropocene
proposal as a starting date for the new geological era were supported with
unambiguous geological evidence. Thus, the Working Group came up with
the idea of treating the atomic age as a start of a new era (the so-called late-
Anthropocene proposal).
Between 1945 and 1963, when the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty took
effect, nations conducted some 500 above-ground nuclear blasts. Debris
from those explosions circled the globe and created an identifiable layer
of radioactive elements in sediments. At the same time, people were
making geological impressions in a number of other ways – all part of
what has been called the Great Acceleration of the modern world.
Plastics started flooding the environment, along with aluminium,
artificial fertilizers, concrete and leaded petrol, all of which have left
signals in the sedimentary record.
(Monastersky, 2015, p. 147)
The group even suggested choosing the day of the first atomic-bomb blast
(16.07.1945) for the official date when the Anthropocene has been started,
since the sediments after the blast are a compelling geological evidence for
future geologists.
Human activity and climate changes

Biogeochemical cycles (e.g., of carbon and nitrogen) and water cycles have
been taking place on our planet for billions of years, generating mutual
interactions between land, water and atmosphere. As a result of human
activity, these cycles have been disturbed, the consequences of which are
already visible. Huge amounts of greenhouse gases (GHG) (e.g., CO2, CH4,
N2O), especially CO2, emitted into the Earth’s atmosphere as a result of
fossil fuel combustion, and land use have contributed to climate changes
unprecedented in the last 800,000 years (Boyle, 2018, p. 759). The effects of
climate changes are already being felt not only globally but also regionally
or even locally, i.e., global temperature increases, regional weather
anomalies appearing with varying degrees of intensity and frequency,
desertification, rising oceans levels and biological changes, such as a
decrease in biodiversity.
The data contained in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) reports clearly indicate that the temperature of both air and oceans is
rising. The average land surface air temperature recorded between 1999 and
2018 increased by 1.44 °C as compared to the pre-industrial period, i.e., to the
years from 1850 to 1900 (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 141). The effect of global
warming is the massive melting of glaciers and snow cover, thereby
reducing freshwater resources. Permafrost melting due to rising
temperatures can lead to the release of carbon into the atmosphere,
enhancing the greenhouse effect. In the permafrost, a huge amount of coal is
stored. According to Tarnocai et al. (2009, p. 11), it accounts for about 50% of
the underground coal reserve.
With global warming, changes in the length of the growing season and
plant phenology are observed. For example, in the Himalaya acceleration of
vegetation was found by 10 days in the spring, while shortening by a few
days in autumn. Such a shift of the growing season can adversely affect the
survival and reproduction of plants (Bawa et al., 2003, p. 877). In addition,
the consequence of phenological changes may be the movement of
vegetation into areas previously covered with glaciers and snow. Satellite
research conducted at the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in the Himalaya
showed a significant decrease in ice and snow cover, which in 2004 covered
only 35% of the area as compared to 90% in 1986. Such a change caused the
plant cover in the study areas of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve to increase
from 1% to over 22% of the area (Singh, 2008, p. 56). Similarly to high
mountain areas, also in high northern latitudes the earlier melting of snow
and greening of areas are observed (e.g., Goetz et al., 2005). The lengthening
of the growing season in some regions corresponds in others to its
shortening due to high temperatures and low rainfall.
Extreme weather conditions related to climate change negatively affect
crops, which is associated with a threat to food security. Studies carried out
in recent years indicate a decrease in yield, of 18–43%, of four staple crops,
i.e., maize, soybeans, rice and spring wheat (Shevliakova et al., 2019. p. 143).
Fires are considered to be an important factor shaping terrestrial ecosystems
because they affect the abiotic and biotic properties of the environment.
Climate can significantly affect the occurrence and severity of the fires
through the production and structure of vegetation, and thus – by the fuel
availability – its distribution and flammability (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p.
148).
With temperature rise and precipitation decline, frequent, prolonged and
severe fires can be expected (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 149) in spite of
strenuous actions aimed at limiting the risk of fires by controlling the
amount of fuel, preventing the spread of fire or finally extinguishing fires.
For example, between 1979 and 2013, the fire period increased by 18.7%
(Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 149). In addition, researchers indicate that by
2050, the frequency of fires will increase by almost 27% as compared to 2000
(Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 150). It can be assumed that mainly forest
ecosystems will be exposed to fires. For example, in recent decades, there
has been observed an increase in burnt areas in the boreal forests
(Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 150).
Similar scenarios are predicted for the tundra, where a considerable
intensity of occurrence of severe fires can be observed. An example might be
the 2007 tundra fire at Anaktuvuk River in Alaska, with the strength
unprecedented for at least 5,000 years, which resulted in the burning of an
area of 100,000 hectares (Jones et al., 2009, p. 309). The amount of carbon
released in this fire corresponded to the average amount of carbon absorbed
by the Arctic tundra during the year throughout the last 25 years of the 20th
century (Mack et al., 2011, p. 489). However, not only climate changes but
also human activity is a common cause of fires around the world
(Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 148), although both of these factors appear to
favour the emergence of fires. An example would be the tropical forest fires,
which are caused on the one hand by weather anomalies (reduced rainfall,
drought) and on the other by human activities related to agricultural
expansion and deforestation (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 149).
Huge amounts of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere
contribute to the observed global warming. We have a decisive share in this
because the main source of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), such as carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), is agriculture,
forestry, urbanisation and industry.
It is estimated that areas for food production occupy 25% to 33% of the
Earth’s surface. Agricultural areas emit huge amounts of CO2 into the
atmosphere. Unfortunately, further areas are deforested, drained and
managed for agriculture, which contributes to the increase in the already
high greenhouse gas emissions, especially CO2. Agriculture also contributes
to the enormous emissions of methane and nitrous oxide to the atmosphere.
It is believed that half of the global emissions of CH4 are the result of
agricultural production, particularly livestock and rice cultivation
(Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 159). For example, in the last decade, as much as
61% of methane emissions were of anthropogenic origin (Van Dingenen et
al., 2018, p. 9). Grazing lands have been found to contribute to high N2O
emissions (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 132). It is believed that more than 1/3
of the total anthropogenic N2O emissions originate from grazing lands
(pastures and rangelands) (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 132). Emission of
nitrous oxide is associated with the use of excessive doses of nitrogen
fertilisers, often not synchronised with plants phenology (Shevliakova et al.,
2019, p. 162).
Other sources of greenhouse gases are the cities and the urbanisation
processes. Although cities constitute only 0.4–0.9% of the Earth’s surface,
over half of the human population lives in them (according to United
Nations (2018, p. 1), by the mid-21st century, about 70% of humanity will
live in cities), contributing to nearly three-quarters of global carbon
emissions (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 186). Degradation of vegetation
(forests, waste agricultural or semi-natural areas), both within and outside
cities, contributes to the increased emissions not only of CO2, but also of
other greenhouse gases (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 186). Cities are heat
islands. It is believed that in cities and their surroundings, the average
annual temperature near the ground can increase by up to 2.6 °C, while in
the cities themselves, even by 4 °C (Shevliakova et al., 2019, p. 187). The
increase in temperature is accompanied by deterioration of air quality,
which is a major threat to the health of urban residents (Shevliakova et al.,
2019, p. 187).
If we do not realise the enormity of threats resulting from climate changes
and do not take quick actions, even with optimistic scenarios (i.e.,
implementation of the Paris Agreement 2015), it will be difficult to keep the
temperature rise below 2 °C (Boyle, 2018, p. 760), which will be catastrophic
for the life of our planet.
What could be done to mitigate and adapt to climate changes?

Ethical and Catholic social teaching perspective
Climate changes are one of the biggest threats for the quality of lives of
vulnerable people. Even though the poor have very little impact on global
emissions, they will suffer climate changes the most, since most of them earn
their living working in agriculture and fisheries; thus, any changes in the
weather, especially extreme weather events, can threaten their crops or
catch. This is the reason why climate variabilities and extreme weather
events are declared as factors that contribute to “inequalities, especially for
those disadvantaged by gender, age, race, class, caste, indigeneity and
(dis)ability” (IPCC, 2018, p. 451). The latest research shows that there is a
link between socioeconomic status and climate change, and climate change
will exacerbate poverty (Fankhauser & Stern, 2016). Exposure to floods or
drought influences food and water security; it is also a factor that might
have negative influence on health, exposing poor people to diseases (due to
the weather conditions like heat stress or lack of proper sanitary conditions).
On the national scale, any extreme weather event will influence the
country’s economy, and low- and lower-middle-income2 economies are
especially vulnerable to such changes. According to research, the rise of
temperature to the level of 1.5 °C, in comparison to the level from pre-
industrial revolution, could lead to 8% loss of GDP per capita; if the
temperature rises to 2 °C, the loss in GDP per capita may reach 13% (Pretis et
al., 2018). This will affect mostly poor countries, thus increasing inequalities
between nations. We decided to approach this issue from two perspectives,
i.e., the ethical and political one. Both of them apply to the Catholic social
teaching and the conservative thought.
The ethical and Catholic social teaching perspective

The situation of the most vulnerable raises the issue of global justice.
Definitely, the global wealth distribution is extremely unequal. The so-called
bottom of the pyramid or Base of the Pyramid (BOP), which denotes the
lowest socio-economic segment, refers to two-thirds of the economic human
pyramid. The term “BOP” was coined by Prahlad and his colleagues (cf.
Prahlad, & Lieberthal, 1998; Prahlad & Hammond, 2002; Prahlad & Hart,
2002; Prahlad, 2004), who “define the BOP segment as people with an annual
income in 2005 PPP3 terms of less than $3,260” (Ramdorai & Herstatt, 2015,
p. 8). Since the 1980s, the number of extremely poor has been reduced
significantly; however, still most of people at risk of poverty and BOP form
the biggest group in the human economies pyramid. Such a shape of the
pyramid raises a very serious question about global justice and whether we
have a moral obligation to take care of the least-privileged ones.
Since the publication of John Rawls’ book A Theory of Justice (1971), the
question of social justice is widely discussed in philosophy. Even though
Rawls himself did not mean to discuss justice in international terms, many
philosophers analyse his theories in terms of global moral obligations. The
very crucial ethical questions in this context are whether we are morally
obliged to all people; whether the disproportions between people’s income
all over the world are of any moral relevance; and whether the world’s
wealth should be distributed in a more equal way. These questions about
global justice are answered in various ways by moral philosophers (cf.
Gillian, 2017). For example, some claim that Rawlsian principles (mainly fair
equality and opportunity and difference principles) should be applied on a
global scale (Caney, 2005a, 2005b; Moellendorf, 2002), while other thinkers
believe that we should ground justice on the basis of capabilities (Nussbaum,
2006) or human rights (Pogge, 2008). Apart from philosophers, also
theologians are more and more concerned about the issue of global justice.
The care for the poor has been always an important issue for Catholic
social teaching. The encyclical Laudato Si’ has pushed theologians to employ
a new perspective on this issue, namely, to frame the care of the poorest in
the context of climate changes. The encyclical sheds also a new light on
previous environmental ethics’ discussions since it strongly emphasises the
care for the poor as intertwined with climate changes. Thus, the encyclical is
unique in both ways: it offers an ecological background for the situation of
the poor, and it emphasises the necessity for care of the poor in the context
of climate changes. The biggest inspiration for this pontificate and for the
encyclical is Saint Francis of Assisi, who “shows us just how inseparable the
bond is between concern for nature, justice for the poor, commitment to
society, and interior peace” (Francis, 2015, section 10). And the main claim of
the encyciclal is that we are obliged to care for nature as God’s creation;
however, in our endeavours, we should always remember about the least-
privileged ones and take care of the poor whom climate changes influence
the most. In other words, the pope reminds us that “ecological crisis is not so
much talk about the extinction of polar bears and exotic pandas, but about
the plight of millions of our less fortunate brothers and sisters, members of
our common household” (Kureethadam, 2019, p. 35).
The harm that is done to the environment is defined by the pope as a sign
of terrible social injustice, and is a sign of myopia (Francis, 2015, section 27).
Caring for nature demands farsightedness that will enable one seeing
further benefits not only as temporary economic gains. It needs appreciation
of the intrinsic value of species and resources. It needs recognition of the
kind of value that cannot be calculated in financial terms: the value that is
unprecedented for current and future generations. The terrible social
injustice mentioned previously is that we try to benefit “by making the rest
of humanity, present and future, pay the extremely high costs of
environmental deterioration” (Francis, 2015, section 27). We simply
overestimate the value of economic gains and allow the economies to
worsen the possibilities of using resources by many people in present and
future generations. This is nothing else but a sign of intra- and inter-
generational injustice that ignores the right of other living and future
generations to have access to natural resources.
As the pope writes, these “have caused sister Earth, along with all the
abandoned of our world, to cry out, pleading that we take another course”
(Francis, 2015, section 39). However, the problem is that we lack the culture
that is able to deal with the care for current and future generations. In a
moral sense, we lack moral competencies, character traits or simply virtues
that will enable us protecting nature (Dzwonkowska, 2019). Thus, the pope
introduces in his encyclical the concept of ecological virtue that is a moral
competence enabling one to act for goodness in nature and in society. As he
emphasises,
only by cultivating sound virtues will people be able to make a selfless

ecological commitment. A person who could afford to spend and
consume more but regularly uses less heating and wears warmer clothes,
shows the kind of convictions and attitudes which help to protect the
environment. There is some nobility in the duty to care for creation
through little daily actions.
In other words, this is only the virtue that makes us undertake activities
which serve the goodness of all humanity and nature. What is more, this
virtue also serves as an instrument to shape human excellence and the moral
progress of a moral agent that cultivates them. Thus, environmental virtues
serve as a tool to eradicate social injustice and as medium of personal moral
progress.
The political and Catholic social teaching perspective

The fight against climate changes due to the complexity of the factors
influencing the temperature change and the unpredictability of the
effectiveness of the measures taken, as highlighted in the scientific debate
and literature (Lever-Tracy, 2010), must be based on long-term, integrated
and multilateral measures taken by different actors with a special role for
states. Their obligation and the postulated directions of change have been
variously evaluated by political actors. As Pope Francis emphasised, “a
healthy politics is sorely needed, capable of reforming and co-ordinating
institutions, promoting best practices and overcoming undue pressure and
bureaucratic inertia” (Francis, 2015, section 133).
Efforts made by representatives of state governments, particularly since
the 1970s, have been inspired, at least in part, by local protests and
campaigns staged by newly formed ecological organisations. Their activities
have formed part of a broader current of contestation against the existing
political and social order which has brought together socialists,
representatives of the far left, anarchists and ecologists. This way,
environmental problems have entered the traditional domain of left-wing
politics (Dośpiał-Borysiak, 2019, p. 40).
Naturally, of fundamental importance for the analysed topic are the
programs of green parties which have set the direction and pace of pro-
ecological changes in each country. In particular, the activity of the Green
Party in Germany should be noted as it was one of the first such parties in
Europe to enter the Parliament in 1983. It popularised the direction of
energy transformation (Energiewende), which postulated such changes as
would result in the domination of energy from renewable sources combined
with improved energy efficiency. The name of this current was first used in
1980 in a publication of the German Institute of Applied Ecology. Since then,
the Energiewende direction has been recognised as a major issue by most
German political parties.
The increasing significance of ecological parties and their electoral
successes in the 1980s and 1990s, coupled with the growing social pressure,
have resulted in environmental issues, including prevention of climate
change, being included in the political agendas of not only social democratic
parties, but liberal and conservative ones as well. This does not mean,
however, that the positions of the left and the right wing are identical. An
analysis of this aspect of the political agendas of centre-left and centre-right
parties in Western Europe shows that all of them present both postulates
aimed at climate protection and proposals whose implementation in fact
contradicts the pro-ecological approach. Taking into account these two kinds
of postulates, climate policy is more explicitly and consistently emphasised
by left-wing parties (Minas & Ntousas, 2018), even though this does not
automatically translate into a commitment to pro-ecological policy after
they win the elections.
In theoretical terms, efforts aimed at counteracting climate change are
based on the principle of sustainable development, which is also referred to
in the Agenda. It is worth noting that this principle is a relatively new
concept, which only gained wider recognition in the last two decades of the
20th century. The principle of sustainable development and the principle of
ecological modernisation (ecological modernism) are two concepts related to
the current of environmental reform (Buttel, 2003). Ecological modernism,
whose assumptions have been developed by the German sociologist Joseph
Hubner, argues that the interest of economic development and industrial
growth needs to be integrated with the interest of environmentalism by
employing market economy mechanisms used in active state
interventionism (Dośpiał-Borysiak, 2019, 49). In this approach, also the
market should overcome the ecological crisis, which has already grown to an
extent that it represents a threat to mankind. This concept implies changes
which are not radical and do not undermine the existing social order
(Rokicka & Woźniak, 2016). An entirely different, more comprehensive
concept is that of sustainable development, which has been popularised in
the context of concern for climate protection by Barbara Ward (Satterhwaite,
2006). The British economist stressed that if humankind is to survive, its only
chance is to rationalise the management of resources present on the Earth,
against the conflict of two, competing factors: humanity’s drive towards a
high standard of living (internal factor) – on the one hand – and the
physically limited natural resources (external factor) – on the other. She
linked the duty of a rational management of these resources to Christian
values, which suggests a degree of convergence between the concept of
sustainable development and the social teaching of the Church.
The concept was developed in Our Common Future, a report of the World
Commission on Environment and Development, which defined the term,
emphasising the need for cohesion and balance between three areas: ecology
(the environment), society and economy – for the sake of intergenerational
solidarity. This did not result in the establishment of a uniform definition; it
was more of an introduction to the discussion held on the fora of
international conferences and the scientific community. Also, the mutual
relationship between the concepts of eco-development and sustainable
development is defined in various ways. Depending on the approach, they
may be seen as synonymous, or eco-development may be seen as broader, or
narrower, than the concept of sustainable development (Trzepacz, 2012).
When attempting to define sustainable development, reference is made to
the ideal, strong, weak and treadmill approach (Baker, 1997). The ideal model
postulates comprehensive changes in production and consumption,
decentralisation of political or economic institutions, and bottom-up
community control. The most popular model of weak sustainable
development, in turn, provides for such social and economic changes which
do not disturb the functioning of ecosystems (Dośpiał-Borysiak, 2019). Given
the divergent definitions, it is sometimes argued that it is not possible to
provide a fixed definition of the concept of sustainable development (Marx
& Wulsdorf, 2002). While taking into account these divergent tendencies, it is
possible to conclude, however, that in each model of sustainable
development, a significant role is played by the specific goal of achieving a
state of equity. This is reflected in the teaching of the Church. In Laudato Si’,
Pope Francis says that “we can no longer speak of sustainable development
apart from intergenerational solidarity” (Francis, 2015, section 118).
Some convergence is manifested in the perception of equity in the
literature of the subject, when it is claimed to have two dimensions: that of
equitable distribution of resources in the generational perspective (inter-
generational dimension) and of equitable distribution of resources within a
single generation alive at a time (intra-generational dimension). It should be
noted, however, that an appropriate balance between the goals of the inter-
generational and intra-generational dimensions is not easy to achieve as it is
not possible to precisely identify the needs of future generations. In its
extreme form, this may even lead to limiting consumption for the sake of
safeguarding resources for generations to come to such an extent that it is
not possible to achieve the expected improvement in the situation of less-
developed countries, and consequently the projected intra-generational
dimension becomes upset. The achievement of social equity postulated by
the principle of sustainable development requires active state participation.
The thesis, made from the perspective of political science, that equity in both
the intra-generational and inter-generational dimensions as regards the
climate may best be achieved in the conditions of national states seems to be
quite right; due to axiological and institutional reasons, however, an
international policy for climate protection is difficult to effectively
implement (Dośpiał-Borysiak, 2019). Despite concerns related even to the
very definition of sustainable development, it may be considered the most
significant concept to have become a motto of social, economic and first of
all environmental change over the past years. No wonder, then, that also the
2030 Agenda makes a reference to the postulate of sustainable development
when discussing the problems of counteracting climate change. The concept
is referred to not only in national or international documents, but also in the
social teaching of the Catholic Church. Pope Francis seeks equity in concern
for the poorest, which comes together with the commitment to protecting
the creation.
Conclusions
Particular responsibility for the proper implementation of climate policy and
cooperation in this regard rests on the states. Efforts made by governments
in this area have been particularly visible since the 1970s, to a large extent as
a result of grassroots initiatives of citizens staging local protests or becoming
involved in organised activities in the form of ecological organisations.
These organisations and the newly formed ecological parties have become
part of the traditional domain of left-wing political formations. In practice,
however, postulates to counteract climate changes and projects aimed at
preventing a further rise in temperature have also become reflected in liberal
or even conservative thought.
The fundamental difference between conservatives and liberals is their
approach to the social issues. Liberals tend to focus on environmental issues
and sometimes blame people for the situation; this can be seen in the
criticism of anthropocentrism. On the other side of the ideological barricade,
there are conservatives who include care for the poorest, thus making social
issues a part of the environmental problem. Pope Francis criticises a
distorted anthropocentrism and keeps a weak anthropocentrism, which is
very much in line with Catholic social teaching. This means that they keep
Catholic belief in the privileged position of people; however, this is only a
form of weak anthropocentrism that includes a certain obligation towards
nature. Namely, there is a qualitative difference between people and the rest
of creation, but this presupposes care for the Earth, not its exploitation. This
belief induced Pope Francis to take care of the poorest – the cornerstone of
the care for the environment. Thus, environmental strategy is much more
holistic because it includes caring for all beings without excluding any of
them.
Notes
1 Global Warming of 1.5 °C. IPCC Special Report on the impact of global warming of 1.5 °C above
pre-industrial level and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways in the context of
strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and
efforts to eradicate poverty.
2 Low-income economies are those with a GNI (gross national income) per capita of $1,025 or less
in 2015; lower-middle-income economies are those with a GNI of $1,026–$4,035 per capita (World
Bank, 2017). The World Bank includes in its reports two other types of economies: upper-middle
income ($4,036–$12,475) and high income ($12,476 or more).
3 PPP = Purchasing Power Parity.
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14 The protection of seas and oceans in
light of international law and Catholic
social teaching
Katarzyna Cichos, Barbara Strzałkowska,
Monika M. Brzezińska and Krzysztof Opaliński
Introduction
Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG14) of the UN’s Resolution 70/1
adopted on 25 September 2015 (2030 Agenda) (UNGA, 2015) addresses
inappropriate management of seas and oceans. Pollution and climate change,
including temperature rise and global warming, affect not only ecosystems
of seas and oceans, but also the lives of billions of people around the world.
The aim of this chapter is to compare the global policy and legal framework
with Catholic social teaching in the area of the protection of seas and
oceans. It discusses the reasons for the protection of seas and oceans from
the social and environmental point of view as well as from the perspective
of the Bible and Catholic social teaching. It also attempts to determine how
the protection of seas and oceans is addressed in international law and
documents of the Catholic Church, and to what extent these two approaches
are consistent with each other. The final section presents an example of the
Baltic Sea as a practical implementation of Target 14.5 and attempts to assess
the coherence of ideas, legal approaches and practical solutions in this
respect.
The need for constant environmental protection of seas, oceans
and marine resources, and the genesis of the idea
The oceans contain 97% of the world’s water, account for 99% of the Earth’s
living space and cover three-quarters of its surface. Since the 1980s, the
oceans have absorbed about 20–30% of total anthropogenic CO2 emissions
and become more acidified. Combined atmospheric and oceans processes
drive weather and climate on Earth. The oceans absorb most of the solar
radiation reaching Earth, and this can lead to extreme weather events, such
as drought and rain. Hurricanes and cyclones are also increasingly caused
by condensation of water. Most of the rain that falls on Earth comes from
the tropics. Over the last 50,000 years, large and sudden climate changes
have been caused by changes in oceans circulation (OL, 2020).
According to the IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a
Changing Climate, “it is virtually certain that the global ocean has warmed
unabated since 1970 and has taken up more than 90% of the excess heat in
the climate system” (Gattuso, 2019). In addition, the ocean warming trend
revealed in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report from 2015 continues. Since
1993, “the rate of ocean warming has more than doubled.” The consequences
of this are as follows:
Ice sheets and glaciers worldwide have lost mass.

Permafrost temperatures have increased to record high levels (1980s–
present), with the recent increase by 0.29 °C ± 0.12 °C from 2007 to
2016 averaged across polar and high mountain regions globally.
Anthropogenic climate change has increased observed precipitation
and extreme sea level events associated with some tropical cyclones.
Since about 1950, many marine species across various groups have
undergone shifts in geographical range in response to ocean
warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes (rates of
poleward shifts in distributions are 52 ± 33 km per decade and 29 ±
16 km per decade for organisms in the epipelagic zone, i.e., the layer
up to 200 m from the sea surface, and seafloor ecosystems,
respectively).
Nearly 50% of coastal wetlands (which protect the coastline from
storms and erosion and help buffer the impacts of sea level rise) have
been lost over the last 100 years.
Marine heat waves have already resulted in large-scale coral
bleaching events at increasing frequency causing worldwide reef
degradation since 1997. Prolonged periods of high environmental
temperature and dehydration of the organisms pose high risk to
rocky shore ecosystems (Gattuso, 2019).
Changes in marine ecosystems have a strong impact on human

communities. The areas particularly exposed to ocean and cryosphere
change include human communities in close connection with coastal
environments, small islands (including Small Island Developing States
[SIDS]), polar areas and high mountains. Other communities, i.e., those
which do not have direct access to the coast, are also exposed to changes in
the oceans, e.g., through extreme weather events. Today, around 4 million
people live permanently in the Arctic region. The low-lying coastal zone is
currently home to around 680 million people (nearly 10% of the 2010 global
population), projected to reach more than one billion by 2050. SIDS are
home to 65 million people. Another 670 million people (nearly 10% of the
2010 global population) live in high mountain regions (Gattuso, 2019).
Marine and coastal biodiversity keeps 3 billion people alive, about 200
million people in the world (largely from developing countries) are engaged
in fisheries and the market value of global industrial production is about 5%
of global GDP. For more than 3 billion people, marine resources are the main
source of protein. According to Constanza et al. (1997), the value of the
Earth’s ecosystem services is USD 33 trillion (33 × 1012) per year, which is
many times higher than the global GDP (about USD 85 billion), while the
value of the open ocean services is estimated at USD 22,832 per hectare per
year (Constanza et al., 2017). However, studies on the state of the seas and
oceans show that one-third (33.1%) of the world’s fish stocks are fished
unsustainably (FAO, 2018) and the size of the marine population decreased
by almost half (49%) between 1970 and 2012 (WWF, 2015).
Despite the fact that the relationship of seas and oceans with the life of
each individual is evident, it is widely believed that climate change is a
fabrication of lobbyists while Earth is subject to man and its resources may
be exploited without limitations. Climate change may become a direct
existential threat to life in seas and oceans, and affect the lives of millions of
people around the world. Therefore, given the role of the Catholic Church in
shaping social attitudes, it seems reasonable to look at how seas and oceans
are perceived in the Bible and Catholic social teaching.
Although, in biblical times, people were not aware of the existence of
oceans and their role in the whole ecosystem, as this knowledge was
acquired by mankind many centuries later, biblical narratives emphasise
that seas and all waters, and the creatures living in them, are an important
part of creation and emerged before the earthly creatures and man came
into existence (cf. Genesis 1:1–2:4a). In the biblical narrative of creation
(Genesis 1–3), seas and oceans (Hebr. Yam, Yammim; Genesis 1:10) are part
of the created world to be supervised, maintained and taken care of by man
according to God’s command. This interpretation of Genesis is also present
in the teaching of John Paul II (cf. John Paul II, 1990, section 3). Further,
according to the biblical narrative, many aquatic creatures were to serve as
food for man. Some seafood and many species of fish were deemed kosher
and edible by the Israelites (cf. Majewski, 2019). Some biblical stories imply
fishing (cf. the stories on Jesus’ disciples by the Sea of Galilee, i.e., the Lake
Tiberias, which, in fact, is a freshwater lake). Nevertheless, seas and oceans
is not a common topic in the biblical stories. This is because Israelites
belonged to the “peoples of the desert” and did not possess extensive sailing
skills in large areas of water, excluding lakes, in ancient times. Even more
surprisingly, it was believed that the great seas, i.e., the neighbouring seas of
Israel, the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, give rise to monsters and
dangers (cf. The Book of Job). This is also why the Bible does not tell about
great sea voyages (cf. one of a few such stories in the Book of Jonah and the
voyages of St. Paul described in the Acts of the Apostles). As a result, the
desire to “subdue” the seas to act in accordance with God’s commandment to
subdue the Earth is rarely expressed. The anthropocentric approach which
assumes that people “rule” the oceans was developed only after “new lands”
were discovered and the process of industrialisation was accelerated. At that
time, misinterpretations of biblical texts inspired some to exploit earthly and
marine resources (cf. L. T. White Jr., 1967, pp. 1203–1207). The expansion of
mankind led to the development of theological reflection in this respect. In
the mid-20th century, with the increase in the use of the natural
environment, the proper interpretation of the biblical text and God’s
command became an urgent need.
Among the new ways of biblical interpretation, the ecological
hermeneutics of the Bible is one of the possible contextual approaches to
Scripture recommended by the Pontifical Biblical Commission (PBC) in its
well-known document of 1993 The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church.
The concept was fully developed in recent years (cf. Palmer, 2006; Horell,
2008; Habel, 2012, 2013; Twardziłowski, 2015, 2017b). This new study
approach in biblical sciences resulted in the creation of the Earth Bible
Project, which was introduced at the Symposium on Ecology and Religion in
Adelaide, Australia, in 1997 (cf. Habel, 2012, p. 97). The document was
published in five volumes under the common title The Earth Bible (cf.
Readings from the Perspective of Earth; The Earth Story in Genesis; The
Earth Story in Wisdom Traditions; The Earth Story in the Psalms and
Prophets; The Earth Story in the New Testament). Currently, there are a
number of ecological studies of the Bible (e.g., The Earth Bible Commentary,
with its last volume published in 2016; cf. Tonstad, 2016; Błąd, 2016;
Twardziłowski, 2017a; Majewski, 2019).
The new interpretation of the Bible with reference to ecological issues
appeared in papal teaching long before that. Referring to Genesis 1–3, John
Paul II emphasises that biblical narratives “help us to understand better the
relationship between human activity and the whole of creation. When man
turns his back on the Creator’s plan, he provokes a disorder which has
inevitable repercussions on the rest of the created order” (cf. John Paul II,
1990, section 5). Human history recorded various abuses of the environment.
It should be stressed that the teaching of the Catholic Church has always
treated man’s failure to take care of creation or harm caused by man in this
respect as a sin which required conversion. As a result, the “ecological
problem” has become a relevant concept in biblical studies, moral theology
and Catholic social teaching. The urgent need for “ecological conversion”
from “ecological sin” has been highlighted (both terms, used for the first time
by John Paul II, have been widely developed by the current pope).
Catholic social teaching and legal framework for the protection

of seas and oceans
At the international level, regulations on territorial waters, sea routes and
ocean resources are defined as the law of the sea. They are primarily based
on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982 preceded by
the four Geneva Conventions of 1958. One of the aims of the Convention was
to clarify and define the scope of responsibility for marine resources in order
to encourage all signatories to the Convention to “protect and preserve the
marine environment” (Barboza et al., 2019). The Convention of 1982
established the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, the
International Seabed Authority responsible for the so-called Mineral
Exploration Code of Practice, and the Commission on the Limits of the
Continental Shelf engaged in scientific and technical advice.
Besides the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea, the international
community adopted the Convention of the International Maritime
Organisation (IMO) and a number of local conventions whose primary aim
was to reduce and combat marine pollution, i.e., the International
Convention on Oil Pollution, London, 1954; the International Convention
Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution
Casualties, Brussels, 1969; the International Convention on Civil Liability for
Oil Pollution Damage, Brussels, 1969; the Agreement for Co-operation in
Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil, Bonn, 1969; the Agreement
concerning Co-operation in Measures to Deal With Pollution of the Sea by
Oil, Copenhagen, 1971; the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution
by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972; and a number of other
instruments.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Regional
Seas Programme were also established to protect seas and oceans and to
promote the sustainable use of their resources. The Sustainable Development
Goal 14 (SDG14) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted
by the UN in 2015 addresses the protection of seas. Under the Agenda,
countries committed themselves, inter alia, to prevent and significantly
reduce the level of marine pollution, in particular from land-based activities,
including marine debris and nutrient pollution, protect and sustainably
manage marine and coastal ecosystems by strengthening their resilience and
take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive
oceans.
In addition to the pollution, climate change and, in particular, global
warming which rises, ocean temperatures are a big challenge for marine and
ocean ecosystems in future. Due to ocean warming, coral reefs will decline
by 70 to 90 percent at 1.5 degrees Celsius warming and become all but
nonexistent at 2 degrees Celsius warming. Therefore, as clearly indicated in
the IPCC Report, ocean warming can have tragic consequences for billions
of people on Earth (Gattuso, 2019). For this reason, it is reasonable to assume
that the Paris Agreement of 2015 is essential for the implementation of
SDG14. The Agreement proposes to reduce emissions, keep the increase in
global average temperature to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-
industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5
degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels to reduce the risks and impacts of
climate change.
For the commitments to be fulfilled, the consensus has to be reached not
only in legal terms (which probably has already been done over the last few
decades), but also at the level of ideas, goals and implementation activities.
In this respect, the attitude of the representatives of the Catholic Church
seems extremely important. The Catholic Church, which, over the centuries,
has raised issues essential for the international community, is currently still
perceived as an authority by many people. Since the protection of nature
results directly from the biblical texts, it seems vitally important to interpret
them correctly. This interpretation, in turn, falls within the area of expertise
of Catholic social teaching.
The passage of the Book of Genesis referred to earlier is also explored by
Pope Francis in his speech to the participants of the International
Conference on the Care of the Oceans in Malta. He argues that science and
faith can be fruitfully complementary to each other, for the common good:
“The Book of Genesis teaches that in the beginning ‘the Spirit of God was
hovering over the face of the waters’ ” (Francis, 2017, pp. 1–2). This verse
reminds us that the oceans hold particular importance for many religions.
Spirituality can provide powerful incentives for the protection of the oceans,
and, more generally, for the care of all creation (cf. Francis, 2015, section 216;
Francis, 2017). According to the principles of the integral ecology proposed
by Pope Francis in his encyclical Laudato Si’, man has a duty to commit
himself to the protection of a gift from God. Man’s failure to care for
creation has a number of consequences: “The complaint, cry and call of
creation are above all calls for the improvement of men. The fate of the
world is integrally connected with the spiritual and moral condition of
mankind, i.e. every man” (cf. Chrostowski, 2016, p. 165). Pope Francis
emphasises that
authentic human development has a moral character. It presumes full

respect for the human person, but it must also be concerned for the
world around us and “take into account the nature of each being and of
its mutual connection in an ordered system.”
The contemporary social doctrine of the Church follows the biblical

discussion on ecological issues. It recognises the need to protect the Earth,
oceans and their resources, and to take responsibility for the created world
and its stewardship (Chrostowski, 2016, pp. 164–165; cf. Müller, 2016). The
first reference in the teaching of the Catholic Church on the protection of
seas, oceans and other water resources within the framework of
environmental protection appears in the writings of Pope Paul VI. Ecological
discussion of the Church held by Leo XIII and Pius XI do not refer to oceans
at all. Note, however, that, in 1922, Pius XI created the so-called Apostleship
of the Sea to care for sailors, fishermen, their families, sea and port
personnel and those who travel by sea. In 1972, the Holy See prepared the
document for the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in
Stockholm (June, 5–17, 1972). It presents the opinion of a group of experts
who discuss the fundamental relationship between human life and care for
the environment: “Human dependence on the environment as directly
proportional to the rate of resource exploitation, environmental devastation”
(cf. Mazur, 1993, pp. 4–5). This idea was later expanded by successive popes:
John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis.
The pressing need to care for the oceans, which “contain the bulk of our
planet’s water supply, and also most of the immense variety of living
creatures, many of which are threatened for various reasons,” is underlined
in the papal video message accompanying the Holy Father’s intentions of
prayers for September 2019. Pope Francis proclaimed them on 31 August
2019 as part of the Pope’s Worldwide Prayer Network of the Apostleship of
Prayer (cf. Apostleship of Prayer, 2019).
The same idea is expressed by the Pope in his encyclical Laudato Si’,
combining the care for the oceans with concerns about the greenhouse
effect:
Warming has effects on the carbon cycle. It creates a vicious circle which
aggravates the situation even more, affecting the availability of essential
resources like drinking water, energy and agricultural production in
warmer regions, and leading to the extinction of part of the planet’s
biodiversity. The melting in the polar ice caps and in high altitude plains
can lead to the dangerous release of methane gas, while the
decomposition of frozen organic material can further increase the
emission of carbon dioxide… . Carbon dioxide pollution increases the
acidification of the oceans and compromises the marine food chain. If
present trends continue, this century may well witness extraordinary
climate change and an unprecedented destruction of ecosystems, with
serious consequences for all of us. A rise in the sea level, for example,
can create extremely serious situations, if we consider that a quarter of
the world’s population lives on the coast or nearby, and that the
majority of our megacities are situated in coastal areas.
Francis praises those countries which made large efforts to protect the
oceans, for example by creating the so-called “sanctuaries on land and in the
ocean,” i.e., places in which any human intervention which may disturb the
environment is prohibited (Francis, 2015, section 37). He emphasises that
such places must be under special protection because they are vitally
important for the entire global ecosystem and protect other forms of life
(Francis, 2015, section 37).
Characteristically, Pope Francis combines care for the oceans and seas
with care for the poor. In fact, most poor countries are to a certain extent
dependent on seas or oceans. This way, the concern for the environment
does not only affect ecology, but also fosters the development of societies, at
the national and international level, and every human being. It perfectly fits
into the Christian anthropology and gives the concern for the natural
environment a universal and integral value (Francis, 2015, sections 172, 175).
This point is also discussed by Pope John Paul II in the Message for the
Celebration of the XXIII World Day of Peace, especially in section 8, and in
the important Post-Synodal Exhortation Ecclesia in Oceania, which
emphasises, especially in section 31, that the entire Oceania is largely
dependent on seas and oceans, and the concern for them is a natural
extension of concern for man and society. When resources are exploited, the
poor coastal countries are those which suffer most, both economically and
existentially. The rise of ocean levels threatens the livelihoods of many of
them. The practical implementation of papal teaching is reflected in
initiatives undertaken by the Catholic Church and her organisations, e.g.,
Caritas in Oceania. Such Catholic organisations perfectly reflect the idea of
promoting sustainable and integral development in which the concern for
the environment assumes the concern for man and vice versa.
The teaching of the Catholic Church is largely consistent with
anthropology and remains open to the issues raised by international
organisations. This point is also explored by Pope Francis in his speech
addressed to people gathered at the Fourth International Conference on Our
Ocean, an Ocean for Life in Malta (Francis, 2017). With respect to oceans,
Francis strongly encourages a
concerted effort to address a number of pressing issues that directly

affect the welfare of countless men and women: human trafficking, slave
labour and inhumane working conditions associated with the fishing
industry and commercial shipping, the standard of living and
development opportunities in coastal communities and the families of
those who fish, and the situation of islands threatened by rising sea
levels.
(Francis, 2017)
In the letter, the pope uses a precise language similar to the one used in
documents of international organisations. This shows that the Church goes
beyond theoretical reflections on general topics. She proposes specific
actions and addresses real problems associated with seas and oceans. The
letter ends with two final conclusions, crucial for all the ecological teaching
of Pope Francis:
The first is recognition of our duty to care for the oceans as part of an
integrated vision of human development. The second concerns the need
for multilateral governance aimed at the pursuit of the common good
and equipped to operate at the global and regional levels, guided by
international law and inspired by the principle of subsidiarity and
respect for the dignity of each human person.
(cf. Francis, 2015, section 174; Francis, 2017)
According to the Pope:
The oceans are the common heritage of the human family. Only with a
deep sense of humility, wonder and gratitude can we rightly speak of the
ocean as “ours.” … We cannot pretend to ignore the problems of ocean
pollution resulting, for example, from plastic and micro-plastics that
enter the food chain and cause grave consequences for the health of
marine and human life. Nor can we remain indifferent before the loss of
coral reefs, essential places for the survival of marine biodiversity and
the health of the oceans, as we witness a marvellous marine world being
transformed into an underwater cemetery, bereft of colour and life.
(cf. Francis, 2015, section 41; Francis, 2017)
The documents of the Church referred to previously provide a clear and

coherent picture which confirms that the concern for seas and oceans, which
is part of the concern for the environment, should always be
multidimensional. It should extend beyond the integrated actions addressing
various elements of nature to include, above all, the concern for man who is
dependent on nature and at the same time acts as its caring guardian. This
vision is also underlined by Francis in the very current Message of His
Holiness Pope Francis for the Celebration of the LIII World Day of Peace on
January 1, 2020: Peace as a Journey of Hope: Dialogue, Reconciliation and
Ecological Conversion (cf. Francis, 2020). Seas and oceans are “a gift and a
task,” a guarantee of human existence and, at the same time, a subject of
human concern reflected in the concern for sustainable development.
Implementation challenges – the Baltic Sea case

The sea is the lifeblood of Europe. It has about 70,000 km of coastline
bordering two oceans and four seas, which accounts for about 40% of its
GDP and population. The EU waters are legally protected under Articles
191–193 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU).
Furthermore, the protection of Europe’s marine waters is based on four
regional sea conventions: the OSPAR Convention of 1992 (for the Atlantic),
the Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
Baltic Sea Area (HELCOM) of 1992, the Barcelona Convention (UNEP-MAP)
of 1995 (for the Mediterranean Sea) and the Bucharest Convention of 1992
(for the Black Sea). Interregional cooperation on marine and river basin
environment protection has resulted in several macro-regional EU strategies:
the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (2009), the EU Strategy for the
Danube Region (2011) and the EU Strategy for the Adriatic-Ionian Region
(2014). In addition, member states adopted the Marine Strategy Framework
Directive (17 June 2008, 2008/56/EC), the Directive on Ship-Source Pollution
and on the Introduction of Penalties for Infringements (7 September 2005,
2005/35/EC) and the amending Directive to Ensure That Persons Responsible
for Discharges of Polluting Substances into the Sea Are Subject to Effective
and Dissuasive Criminal or Administrative Penalties (21 October 2009,
2009/123/EC). Following the Erika accident in 1999, the EU established the
European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) to strengthen maritime safety.
The Agency is responsible, inter alia, for preventing and responding to
pollution caused by ships and installations. In response to the IPCC Report
(Gattuso, 2019), the Council adopted conclusions (19 November 2019,
14249/19) on seas and oceans emphasising that climate change is an
immediate existential threat to life in seas and oceans around the world. The
Council also called for increased political action at all levels of governance
to protect marine and coastal ecosystems.
It should be noted that the EU has been making efforts to protect marine
resources for years. Action to achieve Target 14.5 of 2030 Agenda, i.e., the
protection of coastal waters, is a notable example of such efforts. The EU
establishes, inter alia, Marine Reserves, i.e., strictly protected marine areas
in which the extraction and exploitation of living and mineral resources is
not permitted. According to the Atlas of Marine Protection, only 4.8% of the
world ocean is currently under protection, in any form, and only 2.2% is
covered by Marine Reserves. The percentage of marine areas under
protection in individual European countries varies between 5% and 30%.
Lunney et al. (1997) suggested that European countries should protect 20% of
their marine areas. In Poland, Nature 2000 Marine Areas, Marine Reserves,
National Parks and Marine Landscape Parks cover 20% of Polish Marine
Areas (Węsławski et al., 2010), which theoretically means that, locally, the
Target 14.5 of the 2030 Agenda has already been achieved in the Baltic
region.
Despite the legal protection, the Baltic remains one of the most polluted
seas in the world, which is due to a number of factors. Nutrients causing
eutrophication and pharmaceutical waste are the most dangerous pollutants
(Vieno et al., 2007). The Baltic Sea is surrounded by nine countries. Only
three of them, i.e., Denmark, Poland and Sweden, have a downward trend in
the amount of nutrients discharged into the Baltic Sea. Latvia and Russia
have increased their inflows. The agricultural inflow of nutrients has
remained at the same level or increased (ECA, 2016). The use of myogens in
agriculture has been slightly reduced, but this has not yet reduced the
eutrophication of the Baltic coastal waters. The effects may be visible after
several years.
The discharge of brine is yet another challenge for the Baltic Sea. Brine
waste is discharged to the Bay of Puck (South Baltic Sea) with a salinity of
4–8 PSU from wash-out deposits of salt of 300 PSU at 300 m3 per hour. The
investor (state company) measures the composition of brine, heavy metals
and other substances, but it does not make them available to the public,
claiming that the brine does not threaten the marine ecosystem (Sokołowski
et al., 2019). However, it can be observed that fish in the bay are all but
nonexistent as well as pinched and ulcerated.
Undoubtedly, the ecosystems will also be negatively affected by the
construction of the channel through the Vistula Spit to connect the Vistula
Lagoon with the open Baltic Sea and the creation of a 5-metre-deep
navigable channel through a lagoon with an average depth of 1.5 m. The
channel will be dug through semiliquid bottom sediments (detritus gyttja)
with a thickness of 10 m (Kotliński, 1991; Szymczak, 2019). The ecological
effects of this investment can be easily predicted. They include water
turbidity, reduction of primary production and collapse of the entire food
chain, including the destruction of the spawning grounds of Baltic herring
(Clupea harengus membras) (Fey et al., 2014). This may lead to a
hundredfold reduction of the value of Ecosystem Services of this marine
area from the estuary level (USD 22,832 per hectare per year) to the open
ocean level (USD 252) (Węsławski, Andrulewicz et al., 2006; Węsławski,
Urbański et al., 2010).
Dunes and beaches can be adversely affected by tourism. The littoral zone
has so far been considered as an insignificant biotope. However, recent
studies have shown that marine littoral and sandy beaches play an
important role in the transfer of energy and matter from the marine
ecosystem and act as effective biological filters (Urban-Malinga, Kotwicki et
al., 2004; Urban-Malinga Gherskire et al., 2008; Opaliński et al., 2010). The
human impact (tourism, recreation, trampling, cleaning, fertilisation) on this
biotope is not sufficiently understood (Węsławski et al., 2000).
The Baltic Sea may also be threatened by offshore wind farms. Until now,
they seemed to be the optimal solution for energy production. However, the
hardening of the sandy seabed for the foundations of windmills may have a
very negative impact on the benthic ecosystems of the coastal marine waters
(Węsławski et al., 2010; Vanaverbeke et al., 2020). According to Węsławski et
al., Polish coastal waters of the Baltic Sea are potentially the greatest asset of
the marine ecosystem of the Polish Economic Zone of the Baltic Sea as they
provide approx. EUR 700 million annually (Węsławski et al., 2006).
Environmentalists have cooperated with the Catholic Church in relatively
few areas so far. In 2003, the Fifth Symposium “The Baltic Sea, Common
Heritage, Shared Responsibility,” took place. The event was held by
Bartholomew I, the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. Representatives
of various churches and religions, scientists, politicians and experts spent
over a week on a ship sailing on the Baltic Sea to discuss ethical issues
related to the principles of eco-justice, development issues regarding the
world and the Baltic region, and specific issues on the state of the
environment of the Baltic Sea and the whole region. This was the fifth
edition of ecological symposium held by Bartholomew I, sometimes called
the Green Patriarch by the media. “Religion, Science and the Environment”
is a guiding principle of the symposiums. The first symposium took place in
1995 on a ship sailing on the Aegean Sea. In 2002, during the fourth
symposium held on the Adriatic Sea, Patriarch Bartholomew I cosigned the
joint Venice Declaration with Pope John Paul II. The declaration addressed
the need to articulate a code of environmental ethics (Jaromi, 2003).
Hopefully, more such initiatives will be launched, also on the part of the
Polish Church.
Conclusions
Although the 2030 Agenda and the teaching of the Catholic Church are
deemed mutually exclusive, the former being eccentric while the latter
purely anthropocentric, they seem largely consistent with each other and
with the current regulations of international law. Both approaches indicate
very clearly that the degradation of the environment indirectly affects man,
both economically and existentially. Pope Francis repeatedly addresses the
issues associated with the protection of the environment and indicates the
challenges which humanity has to confront to protect the world. Referring to
seas and oceans, he lists, like the 2030 Agenda, specific threats, such as
uncontrolled fishing, disappearing species of creatures living in seas and
oceans, especially in coral reefs, and other dangers which threaten man
(Francis, 2015, sections 40–41).
Unfortunately, extensive efforts to reduce pollution of seas and oceans,
protect coastal and marine areas, and restore their ecosystems face a number
of difficulties. The studies and statistics prove this. It is evidenced that the
state of seas, oceans and marine resources, e.g., the Baltic Sea, continue to
deteriorate. On the other hand, the growing awareness of the benefits which
humanity derives from seas and oceans seems optimistic. The data for 2000–
2018, which indicate the increase of protected areas of marine biodiversity
from 30% to 44% (UN, 2019, p. 13) and the protection of 104 out of 220 areas
of the coastline under target 14.5 of the 2030 Agenda (UN, 2019, p. 52), are
also promising.
To define and institutionalise the problems, and to create a legal order in
this respect, one needs time and appropriate tools and mechanisms. The
effectiveness of measures is determined by multilateral discussions and
negotiations at the international, national and local level. The aim is to deal
with the diverse national interests which often prevail over shared
responsibility for the common good. This is a complex and years-long
process. In light of these factors, the urgency for continuous ecological
conversion is even more highlighted. In his letter to the participants of the
conference on oceans, Pope Francis points out the need to establish a fruitful
collaboration between science and faith, acquire knowledge and express
concern in accordance with the principles of integral ecology; he says:
“Science and religion, with their distinctive approaches to understanding
reality, can enter into an intense dialogue fruitful for both” (cf. Francis, 2015,
section 62; Francis, 2017). Therefore, it seems necessary to intensify
cooperation regarding the implementation of the 2030 Agenda. The UN, the
EU, state authorities and the Church should endeavour to protect seas and
oceans at both the global and local level with the involvement of local
Church representatives who influence the awareness of coastal residents.
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15 Land and soil sustainable management
in SDG15 and in Catholic social
teaching
Bartosz Adamczewski, Krassimira Ilieva-
Makulec, Agnieszka Klimska and Agata
Kosieradzka-Federczyk
Introduction
One of the most important goals of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development concerns life on land (SDG15). It seems that
among the issues mentioned in SDG15, soil degradation and preservation is
the matter which is least studied in theory and most neglected in practice.
Therefore, this chapter particularly refers to the problems of soil degradation
and preservation in both SDG15 and Catholic social teaching, in the context
of the most recent ecological, theological, ethical and legal discussions on
this matter.
The role of soil to achieve SDG15 over other soil-related

Sustainable Development Goals
“Soil is the key to life on this planet – the foundation for all terrestrial
ecosystems” (Montgomery, 2012, p. 6). For centuries, soil has mainly been
seen as a source of goods. However, with the increasing human impact on
the environment, the close links between soil and a number of
environmental issues, such as sustainability, climate change, and loss of soil
organic matter and nutrients, have been recognised (FAO & ITPS, 2015, pp.
7–8). It became apparent that the importance of soil can be attributed to the
range of ecosystems’ functions and the services it provides. Apart from the
supplying of services (food, water, fibre and fuel supply, stable platform for
buildings, habitats for the huge variety of soil organisms) known for ages,
soil provides a number of very important regulating (storing and filtering
water, absorbing pollutants, acting as a carbon reservoir), supporting (soil
formation, plant production, nutrient cycles) and cultural (heritage values,
archaeological records, aesthetics and recreation) services (FAO & ITPS,
2015, pp. 10–11; EASAC, 2018, pp. 4–5; Keesstra et al., 2018, p. 3).
The unique role of soil and the sphere of its influence accounts for why
more than a half of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
adopted by the United Nations under the 2030 Agenda (UNGA, 2015) are
directly (SDG2, SDG3, SDG6, SDG11, SDG13, SDG14 and SDG15) or
indirectly (SDG7 and SDG12) linked to soil resources (Tóth et al., 2018, pp.
1–2; Keesstra et al., 2018, p. 3). For example, SDG2, which focuses on ending
hunger and achieving food security, and SDG3, which aims at ensuring
healthy lives for people, rely mainly on soil, which serves as a basis for more
than 95% of global food production. In addition, acting as a carbon pool, soil
can regulate emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases and
thus help to mitigate or reverse climate change, which are the tasks defined
in SDG13.
All soil functions depend on its physical, chemical and biological
properties. They determine the quality of the soil. This in turn guarantees
whether or not the soil can provide its services (FAO & ITPS, 2015, p. 34).
The declining ability of the soil to provide ecosystem goods and services
indicates its degradation (FAO, 2015, p. 3). According to different
assessments of the soil status, in 2015, when the SDGs were adopted,
degraded soils covered approximately from 24% (Karlen & Rice, 2015, p.
12492) to 33% (FAO & ITPS, 2015, p. VII) of the global land area.
The development of the concept of soil degradation and its recognition as
a major and complex global environmental challenge is addressed in SDG15.
This is the only soil-related SDG in which soil is viewed not through the
perspective of its productivity and fertility, but above all through its
sustainability. Some tasks of SDG15 are aimed to halt and reverse land
degradation and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems. And so,
the SDG Target 15.3 is entirely devoted to soil degradation. In this target, soil
degradation is characterised mainly in two aspects: physical degradation
(focusing on water and wind erosion, compaction and waterlogging) and
chemical deterioration (mainly focusing on loss of nutrients and/or organic
matter, salinisation, acidification, pollution). The third aspect of soil
degradation, namely, the decline in biodiversity, is taken into consideration
in the SDG Target 15.5, despite the lack of a direct reference to the soil.
Halting the loss of biodiversity is a very important task, especially as this
issue has been neglected for years, despite the great importance of soil fauna
and flora for proper soil functioning. Using a Soil Biodiversity Pressure
Index, Gardi et al. (2013, p. 1543) estimated that 56% of soil within the
European Union has some degree of threat to soil biodiversity.
It should be pointed out that although SDGs were adopted by the UN
members in 2015, the implementation of SDG15.3 and 15.5 is up to now still
under discussion (Keesstra et al., 2018, p. 2).
According to Tóth et al. (2018, pp. 1–4), in order to achieve the SDGs,
standardised assessments (based on physical, chemical and biological
indicators) and regular monitoring of soil properties that affect the threats to
soil should be carried out. Currently, the soil monitoring system is not fully
prepared, and there are no soil indicators assigned to soil-related SDGs (Tóth
et al., 2018, p. 1). Specific indicators need to be defined and monitored to
track ongoing changes in the soil.
Keesstra et al. (2018, pp. 7–11) proposed four concepts (systems thinking,
connectivity, nature-based solutions and regenerative economics) that
should be considered in order to achieve by 2030 the most important task of
SDG15.3, namely, land degradation neutrality, meaning that the balance
between ongoing land degradation and land restoration should be zero.
According to the earlier-mentioned authors, we should move from “excessive
exploitation” or “full protection” to the “sustainable use and management” of
natural systems. Furthermore, from a more anthropocentric point of view,
which is typical of Catholic social teaching, it can be argued that relevant
soil functions should be implemented in ways that are adapted to the social,
ecological and economic needs of human communities (Keesstra et al., 2018,
p. 14).
The human being and the soil in the theological perspective of

creation
The Catholic social teaching on soil degradation and preservation is
primarily based on the Bible, whose study is regarded by the Catholic
Church as the soul of all theology. Therefore, the analysis of human–soil
interrelationships in the context of Catholic social teaching should begin
with the analysis of the biblical perspective on the human being and the soil,
as it is presented in the biblical primeval history (Genesis 1–11). This
important text in an easily understandable, morally challenging and
universally applicable way presents the relationship between the man and
the soil as well as the role of humans in soil preservation, degradation and
restoration.
In the first account of creation, which is contained in the biblical book of
Genesis 1:1–2:3, the earth/land is presented as created by God (Genesis 1:1)
and transformed from the initial state of wasteness and emptiness (Genesis
1:2) to the state of abundant fertility (Genesis 1:11–12, 22, 24). This fertility of
the soil created by God is praised in various documents of Catholic social
teaching (e.g., John Paul II, 2001, section 6).
In the biblical account, the humans are presented as commanded by God
to have dominion (rādāh) over the land with its animals (Genesis 1:26, 28)
and to subdue (kābaš) the land (Genesis 1:28). In contrast to the ecologically
oriented views of many modern scholars (e.g., Hansjürgens et al., 2018, pp.
3–4), this military imagery of subduing the land (Genesis 1:28) causes a great
tension between the biblical and the modern ecological views of the
relationships between the humans and the land (Twardziłowski, 2017, pp.
10–19).
It should, however, first of all be noted that this imagery was borrowed
from the biblical narratives of the military conquest of the Promised Land
(Joshua 18:1; cf. Numbers 32:22, 29) and only by extension applied to the
human–land interrelationships in general (Genesis 1:28) (Adamczewski,
2012, pp. 36–38). Moreover, it should be noted that the first account of
creation (Genesis 1:1–2:3) depicts the relationship between the humans and
wild, not domesticated nature. Therefore, when confronted with wild nature,
humans are called to have dominion over the land with its animals and to
subdue the land (Genesis 1:26, 28), primarily in the sense of not being
terrified by them and not worshipping them as powerful gods (cf.
Deuteronomy 4:16–18) (Adamczewski, 2012, p. 39).
This biblical idea of not worshipping living beings which are on the land
(Deuteronomy 4:16–18) may also, however, generate tensions between the
Jewish and Christian doctrine of the world as created by God as a “Promised
Land” for humans (Genesis 1:26, 28) and some modern forms of caring for
wild nature up to the point of venerating it. In fact, the statement, “In the
Creator’s plan, created realities, which are good in themselves, exist for
man’s use” (PCJP, 2004, section 255) may seem controversial to those
ecological activists whose views border on what both Pope Benedict XVI,
widely regarded as more “conservative,” and Pope Francis, widely regarded
as more “progressive,” call ecocentrism and biocentrism (Benedict XVI, 2010,
section 13; Francis, 2015a, section 118; cf. Schindler, 2015, pp. 580–581).
In order to defuse this tension, modern Catholic social teaching
reinterprets the military imagery of subduing the land in more irenic terms
(e.g., PCJP, 2004, section 255). Pope Francis argues forcefully, “Soil, water,
mountains: everything is, as it were, a caress of God” (Francis, 2015a, section
84). In fact, modern Catholic social teaching usually reinterprets the biblical
idea of dominion over the land in theological-ecological terms of responsible
stewardship (Benedict XVI, 2010, section 13; Francis, 2014, section 9; Francis,
2015a, sections 116, 236; Hansjürgens et al., 2018, p. 3).
The second account of creation (Genesis 2:4–25) likewise presents the field
in the land as initially barren and wild because the Lord God did not send
rain upon the land and there was no man to till the ground/soil (Genesis
2:5). In this view, the soil, in order to be fertile, needs both non-human
(divine-natural) and human influence. In contrast to some modern ecological
views which advocate radical diminishing of human presence in the
environment, the humans are here perceived not as threatening the natural
state of the soil but as necessary for soil preservation. On the other hand,
this biblical account presents the human person (adam) as formed from the
dust of the soil (adamah), an idea which is also highlighted by Pope Francis
(2015a, section 2). Accordingly, in this view the human and the soil are
closely interrelated; they both need each other to produce their respective
fruits (Błąd, 2016, pp. 29–32).
The related biblical image of the Lord God taking the man and putting
him in the paradisiacal garden of Eden to cultivate/serve it and keep it
(Genesis 2:15) has significant ecological overtones (Hansjürgens et al., 2018,
p. 4). Catholic social teaching usually interprets the cultivation of the soil in
terms of wisely caring for it, being responsible for it and not abandoning it
to itself (PCJP, 2004, section 255), a view which greatly agrees with SDG15.
At times, however, Catholic social teaching goes beyond these ecologically
oriented terms to present the cultivation of the soil as a both practical and
spiritual task in which also the human soul is rendered fertile (Benedict XVI,
2007, section 15). This personal and spiritual dimension of cultivating the soil
seems to be neglected in SDG15, although it could greatly enrich its
understanding and applicability in various personalistically oriented
cultures.
On the other hand, the biblical curse of being expelled from this garden to
the dust of the desert (Genesis 3:14, 19), which only produces thorns and
thistles (Genesis 3:18), presents the danger of soil desertification and, in
contrast to the forested garden of Eden (Genesis 2:9), deforestation. In this
respect, the biblical imagery, which points to human sins as partly
responsible for living on a degraded soil, shows possible human causes of
the situation described in SDG15 and its Targets 15.2 and 15.3.
In the following account of the two brothers Cain and Abel (Genesis 4:1–
16), the reasons of the barrenness of the soil are described in more detail. It
is the blood of a murdered human which remains in the soil and cries from
the soil, and consequently makes it unprofitable for humans (Genesis 4:10–
12). This metaphor may be applied to all human conflicts which render the
soil unproductive, although the soil and subsoil, for example in Africa, often
contain in themselves abundant resources (cf. Benedict XVI, 2011, section
13). We should here especially think of the effects of the use of modern
weapons, including various forms of chemical and radioactive pollution,
which lead to soil contamination and degradation. Alas, SDG15 and its
targets seem to neglect this important negative effect of many modern
military conflicts and other misuses of economic and political power. It can
be argued that disregarding such root causes of ecological problems is one of
the weaknesses of the 2030 Agenda and many other UN documents (Sachs,
2017, p. 2582). On the other hand, these factors are taken into consideration
in modern Catholic social teaching. As Pope Francis formulates it, “the
violence present in our hearts, wounded by sin, is also reflected in the
symptoms of sickness evident in the soil” (Francis, 2015a, section 2).
The following biblical account of the flood (Genesis 6:5–8:19) presents a
natural disaster which causes the destruction of the soil and all living beings
on it as a consequence of human wickedness (Genesis 6:5). The problem of
the human involvement in causing great natural disasters which are
destructive for the soil (floods, fires etc.) again seems not to be adequately
reflected in SDG15 and its particular targets. On the other hand, the image
of the biblical hero Noah, who protected all land animal species from a
natural disaster, strongly agrees with SDG15 and its Targets 15.5, 15.7, 15.8
and 15.C, which promote conscious human interventions in natural
processes to protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species,
presumably including those living in the soil.
The subsequent biblical account of the planting of the first vineyard after
the destructive flood (Genesis 9:20–27) describes Noah as “a man of the soil”
(Genesis 9:20). His activity was intended to reverse the outcomes of the
natural disaster and to restore soil productivity. Therefore, the biblical idea
of conscious replantation (Genesis 9:20) broadly agrees with SDG15 and its
Targets 15.2 and 15.B, which promote conscious reforestation of degraded
soils.
Accordingly, the rather arid description of SDG15 and its targets could be
enriched by the biblical and Catholic theological ideas concerning the
human relationship to the land and the soil (Bernat et al., 2017, pp. 129–130).
The ethical message of Catholic social teaching in relation to

SDG15
The authors of Goal 15 of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
(SDG15) are facing us with such facts as continually shrinking forest areas,
loss of arable land, soil degradation and the threat of extinction of further
animal species. SDG15 proposes the urgent need for the protection of land
ecosystems and stopping environmentally harmful phenomena. These issues
need to be consistently updated, not only in terms of legislation, but also in
terms of meticulous ethical decisions, enhanced with the practice of
multifaceted educational implementations.
In classic Catholic anthropology, it is only man who, due to reason, can
control the world in a responsible and safe manner. This stance is related to
adopting the personalistic ethical principle, which emphasises the personal
character of man, relying on his constituent rationality and liberty. It is a
line of thinking accepted by Church doctrine, in which there is no consent
for absolutising the nature and exalting it above man. However, this is not
equivalent to allowing that nature be treated like an object, either. This
“weak” anthropocentrism views the ecological crisis as “an external
manifestation of problems related to the respect for human personal dignity,
as well as the broadly-defined ethical, cultural and spiritual crisis of modern
times” (Przybyłowski, 2019, pp. 141–142). Therefore, the crisis situations of
today form a single, global crisis, implicated by the human attitude towards
the environment and most heavily affecting poor people.
Pope Francis, when addressing the problem of global injustice, emphasises
that “the gravest effects of all attacks on the environment are suffered by the
poorest” (Francis, 2015a, section 48). With this in mind, he points out that
we must regain the conviction that we need one another, that we have a
shared responsibility for others and the world, and that being good and
decent are worth it. We have had enough of immorality and the mockery
of ethics, goodness, faith and honesty.
(Francis, 2015a, section 229)
These words of the pope are in line with the strategy for the poor which is
adopted in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Thus, the
postulates expressed in SDG15, e.g., those related to soil protection, are in
agreement not only with the pro-environmental strategy but also with
helping the poor. In fact, maintaining adequate resources of arable land and
making better use of its biodiversity is of key importance for guaranteeing
food security and the development of agriculture, which is the main source
of income for poor rural households (UNGA, 2015).
Similarly, deforestation and desertification resulting from human activity
are processes that “have affected the lives and livelihoods of millions of
people in the fight against poverty,” placing them among the biggest
challenges for sustainable development (UNGA, 2015).
Pope Francis states that we are facing a global degradation of the
environment (Francis, 2015a, section 3) and we have to realise that as
humans, “God has joined us so closely to the world around us that we can
feel the desertification of the soil almost as a physical ailment, and the
extinction of a species as a painful disfigurement” (Francis, 2015a, section
89).
Addressing environmental issues was already present in the teachings of
Paul VI, who is regarded as the first pope to recognise the importance of
environmental problems and connect them to the moral teaching of the
Church. In one of his speeches, he appealed for a responsible consideration
of the human being’s interference with nature and paying attention to the
consequences of such an activity. He also called for a change in the human
being’s moral attitude for the sake of preserving life on Earth (Paul VI, 1970,
section 62). His teachings were continued by John Paul II, who pointed to
the strict correlation between environmental protection and creating a
peaceful society. He saw this relationship primarily in the community of
moral values underlying those goals, determining a coherent moral vision of
the world (John Paul II, 1989, section 7).
Nowadays, it is more and more evident that the foundation of global
problems, including those related to threatening life on Earth and soil
degradation, has its source and cause in the moral attitudes of man. It was
indicated by John Paul II, when he said that “the seriousness of the
ecological issue lays bare the depth of man’s moral crisis” (John Paul II,
1990, section 13). Therefore, we need a true conversion both in thought and
action.
Gilles Lipovetsky remarks that we came to live in times with no clear
moral signposts, in the era of passivity, torpor, discouragement and piercing
void (Lipovetsky, 2005), which has led us to practicing postmodern morality
(Bauman, 1993) towards the environment and other people. The moral crisis
is thus manifested both in the distorted attitude of a person towards a
person, and a person towards nature. We can see here an illustration of
anthropology based on imperialistic anthropocentrism, which stems from
anti-ecological philosophies and which is in opposition to the pro-ecological
anthropology promoted by Catholic social teaching. Such an imperialistic
paradigm of human dominance over nature is unfortunately prevalent in
today’s political, social and economic life.
Pope Francis, preaching the need for environmental conversion, remarks
that “we can be silent witnesses to terrible injustices” (Francis, 2015a, section
36) or be driven by the ethical category of duty, responsibility and solidarity,
and start the changes with ourselves. The crisis of morality and the
destruction of normativity – so characteristic of contemporary societies –
make us aware of the need to develop axiological-normative programmes.
This is because pursuing the introduction of a global economic, social,
cultural and environmental order requires axiological foundations.
Sustainable development axiologies point to values that may become the
regulators of human actions and orient us, among other things, towards the
goals of sustainable development. Therefore, ethical justification for the need
to execute the postulates of sustainable development, including the
observance of legal acts concerning life on Earth and protection of soil from
degradation, is the groundwork of discussion on the future of the world.
Mutual relief for both human being and nature may be achieved, to some
extent, by global ethics. It focuses on problems that stretch far beyond the
limits of competence of local communities and require actions on the part of
all humanity. This surely includes the postulates of SDG15 and its detailed
tasks. In response to these goals, the biocentric and holocentric factions of
global ethics posit the preservation of all biological life (Lanza & Berman,
2009). On the other hand, proponents of the anthropocentric trend of global
ethics argue for the necessity of preserving the human community not just
as a biological entity, but also, or even more so, as a spiritual one (Boddice,
2011; Kortenkamp & Moore, 2001). In this context, they justify the need to
protect land ecosystems, restore biodiversity, combat desertification as well
as reverse the soil degradation process. The latter stream of ethics seems to
be more compatible with Catholic social teaching (Francis, 2015a, section
118). Global ethics, together with the related particular branches of ethics
(e.g., environmental ethics, ethics of duty, ethics of virtues, ethics of
responsibility and ethics of utility) maps out the lines of action, pinpoints
specific values and settles axiological disputes (Klimska & Leźnicki, 2017, pp.
169–173).
Caring for life on Earth requires establishing an axiological and
normative order, which identifies specific ethical values as available for
becoming the criteria taken into account in passing judgements and
decision-making, also in the process of formulating legal regulations
concerning sustainable development. The implementation of individual tasks
included in SDG15 is reinforced by legal regulations that might significantly
influence the social response and practice with regard to the protection of all
beings, especially when they are supported with ethical and axiological
arguments. Therefore, the ethical context may considerably extend the
contents of SDG15, e.g., by axiologies based on the premises of weak
anthropocentrism, which seeks to eliminate the anthropological error
consisting in man’s arbitrary use of the Earth not as God’s cooperator but as
tyrannising it. John Paul II pointed to this error as the root of the senseless
destruction of the natural environment (John Paul II, 1991, section 37).
The evolution of human attitudes is highly influenced by education in
ethics. It is thus imperative that the process of education advocating the
protection of the social and natural environment incorporate global ethics,
including environmental ethics prioritising efficient theoretical and practical
prevention of the negative effects of human activity (Kaniewska & Klimski,
2017). This ethics serves as a didactic and educational tool by stimulating a
proper mindset and reactions to the phenomena that endanger, among
others, land ecosystems. Ethics-based education shapes the awareness of
moral duties and integrates them with the principles of social, economic and
political action. Practical ethics should thus be part of education for
sustainable development, also with reference to the achievement of SDG15,
and it should aim to introduce sustainability-promoting rules and standards
in practical life and activity.
Legal perspectives
The first part of the chapter shows the progressive degradation of the soil.
From the legal point of view, although the soil was and continues to be
heavily degraded, so much as other environmental components, such as
water and air, the necessity for soil protection has not been recognised by
the international community as quickly as the latter components have.
Internationally, regulations in this area have appeared since the second half
of the last century. Now, soil protection regulations can be found in many
international documents of various legal natures. The existence and creation
of such acts of international law can both be based on global ethics and
serve as a basis for building global ethics, which was discussed in the
previous part of the chapter.
The role of the UN and its structures in building the foundations for soil
protection is significant, and the recourse to the need for soil protection in
SDG15 is the culmination of the needs expressed in this respect so far. The
protection of soil, mentioned in SDG15, cannot be seen in isolation from
other activities of the UN and its agencies.
The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm
in 1972, which for the first time put global environmental issues on the
international agenda, marked the first phase of international soil protection
law (Boer et al., 2017, p. 51).
The second international environmental conference, the Earth Summit in
Rio de Janeiro in 1992, issued Agenda 21, whose several chapters focused on
land management, desertification, drought and sustainable agriculture. This
document highlighted the fact that the most fundamental goals of
sustainable development are not only to maintain and improve the
productive potential of land resources for current and future needs of the
population, but also to maintain multiple use of critical ecosystems functions
and land resources (Fritzsche et al., 2018, p. 400).
Recognition that “desertification claims more and more fertile land” was
the achievement of the 2002 Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable
Development. In this document, land degradation in all forms was
recognised as a challenge “of a global dimension,” and the joint commitment
“to strive for a land-degradation-neutral world” was proclaimed. The
connection with SDG is here more than obvious as SDG15.3 adopts exactly
the same wording.
The second area of legal regulations indicating the need to protect the soil
are international agreements. They also contribute to the current need for
land protection in SDG15. Soil protection contained in such regulations is
dispersed. Undoubtedly, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification in
Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification,
Particularly in Africa (UNCCD), prepared under the framework of Agenda
21, deserves the most attention. According to this document, land
degradation is associated with loss of ecological, economic or agricultural
value. Placing human beings in the centre of actions taken to combat
desertification and mitigate the effects of drought betrays the decisively
anthropocentric approach of this convention.
The soil plays an important role in various ecosystem protection
strategies, e.g., protection of biodiversity and climate change mitigation
activities, which are expressed in various SDG targets. Therefore, when
considering soil protection, other legally binding regulations, like the
globally oriented Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) or the more local
Alpine Convention Soil Protection Protocol (ACSPP), should be applied.
Other documents also contribute to achieving SDG15. Soil protection was
a matter of concern of the Council of Europe, FAO Council, UNEP, EU and
others. The Revised Montevideo Programme identifies the conservation of
soil as a priority legal issue. Such documents, which indicate actions to
protect soil from degradation and to maintain the soil in good condition,
dominate among international regulations devoted to soil protection. They
are non-binding instruments establishing general guidelines, but they create
a basis for an axiological and normative ecological order.
In the European Union, the Sixth Community Environment Action
Programme 2002–2012 marks the beginning of the most important phase of
development legislation dedicated to soil protection. Consequently, in the
2002 Communication Towards a Thematic Strategy on Soil Protection, the
European Commission identified eight key soil threats: organic matter
decline, soil biodiversity loss, soil erosion, and soil contamination as priority
aspects, as well as the additional aspects of soil sealing, soil compaction, and
salinisation, as well as floods and landslides (Heuser, 2017, p. 457). A specific
thematic strategy for soil protection was presented in 2006. However, the
proposal of a soil protection framework directive was never adopted. Till
now, there has been no extensive, independent legal instrument for soil
protection in EU environmental law.
The previously cited international regulations are primarily focused on
solving selected problems regarding the soil, which include deforestation or
loss of agricultural assets. Among the few transnational regulations
regarding the removal of soil pollution, one should mention the EU
Directive 2004/35/EC on environmental liability with regard to the
prevention and remedying of environmental damage. Using the “polluter
pays” principle, it imposes an obligation to repair damages to nature, water
and soil, posing a significant risk to human health. The obligation to take
action covers preventive measures taken in the event of imminent threat of
damage.
The UN 2030 Agenda is first and foremost a political and not a legally
binding document, and this fact determines its role in environmental
protection policy. It should be read as giving directions to activities in
various dimensions: political, economic and social, but also legal. However,
until now, many gaps remain in the legal area of soil protection. One of the
main challenges is the lack of globally binding regulations on responsibility
for soil pollution. Certain regulations in this respect contained in the
previously mentioned EU directive may serve as an example for future
solutions.
From the point of view of Catholic social teaching, an important ethical
and legal stance was taken by Pope Francis in his speech to the United
Nations General Assembly. He argued that “a true ‘right of the environment’
does exist, for two reasons. First, because we human beings are part of the
environment. (…) Second, because every creature, particularly a living
creature, has an intrinsic value” (Francis, 2015b, section 46). In this way, he
suggested both an anthropocentric and biocentric base for future legal
documents on soil protection. Alas, there is no legal proposal to implement
the pope’s call and to abandon the decisively anthropocentric approach that
dominates the international legal acts adopted so far.
Conclusions
The problems of soil degradation and preservation certainly deserve a much
greater role in ecological discussions than has been practised so far. The
United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goal 15 points to
various aspects of land ecosystems, forests and soil degradation and
preservation. From the point of view of modern Catholic social teaching, this
goal is certainly commendable, but it would greatly benefit from laying a
more theological and humanistic background to its quite arid descriptions of
ecological problems and its somewhat isolated aims to achieve.
An interesting and fairly universalistic theological background to the
matters referred to in SDG15 can be found in the biblical primeval creation
story. Notwithstanding the tensions created by the apparently
anthropocentric idea of humans being called to have dominion over the land
and to subdue it (Genesis 1:26, 28), the theological approach to soil
degradation points to otherwise neglected causes of this problem, including
military conflicts and other kinds of evil in human hearts. On the other
hand, it promotes conscious preservation of endangered land species as well
as land replantation, aims which are also very important in SDG15.
The more systematic theological and ethical insights of modern Catholic
teaching on the subject of soil degradation and preservation significantly
broaden the scope of SDG15 by pointing to the issues which are rarely
discussed in modern ecological discussions, like poverty, injustice and
general modern weakening of the ethics of responsibility and normativity.
In terms of ecologically oriented legal measures, the modern Catholic
suggestion of the existence of the “right of the environment,” if it does not
lead to overly ecocentric or biocentric approaches, constitutes a positive
challenge to the hitherto rather vague international legal initiatives to
combat soil degradation and promote sustainable soil management.
It seems that joining the efforts of both ecological activists and Catholic
leaders in the matter of soil degradation and management can lead to
diagnosing the problems in much more realistic ways and achieving the
ecological aims in much more effective ways than was hitherto assumed.
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16 Conditions for the effectiveness of
guarantees of the individual’s freedom
in the modern state
Irena Lipowicz, Krzysztof Cebul and Grzegorz
Embros
Introduction
This chapter discusses the conditions for the effective protection and
embodiment of the individual’s freedom in the modern state. Its main aim is
to identify and explore elements, institutions of social life and their
interrelationships which can be treated as a guarantee of individual’s
freedom in different dimensions of public life in line with the Sustainable
Development Goal 16 (SDG16) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. SDG16 calls to promote peaceful and inclusive societies,
provides access to justice for all, and builds effective, accountable and
inclusive institutions at all levels. The key challenge of SDGs is to transform
the world, which is to happen by way of social changes. Before any change,
it is necessary to define a goal to strive for, i.e., to specify what we want to
change, why we want to make a change and in what way.
To this end, one needs to answer the question of who a human being is
since, as Mieczysław Gogacz argues, our actions depend on the concept of a
human being (Gogacz, 1974, p. 10). Helmut Juros claims that a social
scientist is responsible for the methodological structure of the theory, which
should be free from ideological entanglements and the sociological effects on
the shape of social ethos and social policy. There is no doubt that people’s
social attitudes and behaviours affect the theories of social life. Moreover,
the contemporary social sciences very clearly prove that scientific theories
may be transformed into ideologies and then social perversions (Juros, 1992,
p. 89). The Catholic Church is an observer. Her aim is to trace the social
changes carefully and critically.
Catholic social teaching focuses on society and reflectively watches the
dignity of a human being, their rights and social nature, and the
interdependence of man and society to introduce the relevant principles of
freedom and responsibility with reference to the common good, solidarity,
subsidiarity, participation, organic concept of social life, and universal
character of goods in order to direct and govern social life (Juros, 1992, p.
97). Therefore, it seems that selected sustainable development issues should
be discussed here in relation to the assumptions of Catholic social teaching.
Catholic social teaching clearly indicates that all people are equal and
free. As a result, every human person has the natural right to be recognised
as a free and responsible being. Since people are considered to be reasonable
and prudent, one should assume that they are able to exercise and recognise
their freedoms, and that everyone remains equal in this exercise of the right
of freedom. John Paul II indicates that the value of a human being comes not
from what they have, but on who they are (John Paul II, 1988, section 37),
and that the value of the human person’s dignity is measured by an attitude
towards this dignity (John Paul II, 1979, section 12). Consequently, the
concept of human dignity covers an inalienable right and a lasting
predisposition to the exercise of freedom by every human being.
If this is the case, this right should be recognised and protected by state
authorities. For this to happen, however, the essence and principle of state
authorities should not be in conflict with this right, and state authorities
should be guided by the common good, i.e., public order, when protecting
this right. However, as pointed out by John Paul II, “the common good that
authority in the State serves is brought to full realisation only when all the
citizens are sure of their rights” (John Paul II, 1979, section 17). This
observation seems particularly important since “man’s true freedom is not
found in everything that the various systems and individuals see and
propagate as freedom” (John Paul II, 1979, section 12). Therefore, it is worth
following the approach of Aniela Dylus, who claims the existence of a
political community is only possible when a minimum consensus on
fundamental humanistic values is achieved (Dylus, 2016, p. 118), even
though this may be hard to achieve (Cebul, 2019, p. 58). However, the
consensus in this matter is particularly important given the state reality of
the collision of values expressed by fundamental rights which often takes
place since unambiguous decisions are sought and made on the legal
grounds (Tuleja, 1997, p. 6). Note that without res publica, which means a
common public thing, there are no citizens. If everyone, through the
implementation of their individual skills and interests, became a private
person, the public matter would become only a matter of specific institutions
and people. Such a state of affairs would be tantamount to a loss of equality,
and this would inevitably lead to the end of freedom (Spaemann, 2011, p.
60).
In view of the goal outlined earlier and the complexity of the problem
discussed, we believe that three issues should be explored in the first place.
Firstly, we attempt to define the general relationship between the way in
which freedom and equality of individual(s) are perceived and the
recognised concept of human nature. Secondly, we examine in detail the
institutional form of protection of the individual’s freedom, with a special
emphasis on free information and free legal assistance. Thirdly, we discuss
the role of local government as another institutional form of protection of
the individual’s freedom.
The individual’s freedom in the context of human nature

Christian culture laid the foundation for modern democracies
(Mazurkiewicz, 2007, p. 137). The influence of Christianity must have been
very strong since its basic ideas on human value were also adopted by those
philosophers of the Enlightenment who departed from the Catholic faith
(Wandycz & Frendl, 1965, p. 18). Intriguingly, the problem of equality and
freedom is considered on the basis of human nature and the natural state,
which is an alleged stage preceding the establishment of the state, the point
specific to the social contract theories developed in the Enlightenment. Even
if the concepts of the social contract are to be considered completely
hypothetical, it is worth noting that they reveal quite clearly the dilemma
regarding the assessment of human nature and show how human nature
determines the way the contract is entered into and the state organisation is
shaped.
Irrespective of the possible answers to the question about human nature,
it should be noted that the very fact that relations between people are
affected by power is definitely a sign of human imperfection (Tinder, 2003, p.
108). This also proves that there is no unity among people (Tinder, 2003, p.
107). Nevertheless, despite social tensions, however severe they would be,
attention should be paid to people’s constant attempts to maintain a
relatively permanent order (Tinder, 2003, p. 107). Society is constantly
looking for ways to minimise or eliminate these tensions so that it can
survive in its existing form. This reveals the politically motivated
socialisation and repulsion forces which are not necessarily opposed to each
other (Ryszka, 1984, p. 11) and paradoxically confirms that human nature is
positive since a human person finds salvation in the community, in their
neighbour, and discovers human rights in their dignity in spite of
supposedly increasing human despair, which results in various forms of
objectification.
The image of the world and a human being shaped by moderate realism
(Hugon, 2018, p. XVI) affects the decision-making process. Undoubtedly,
people can develop, also in a moral sense, and materially and spiritually
enrich their environment, including others who have contact with this
environment, by way of action. However, their action may also lead to
degradation of the environment, including other people, and of themselves
(Wojtyła, 2011, pp. 146–149). Identification of praxeological or axiological
determinants of the decision-making process (cf. Embros, 2016, pp. 122–124)
directs attention to the anthropological determinant. Note that all
axiological tensions result in a question about the concept of man (Gierycz,
2017, p. 17). Thus, as can be clearly seen, different anthropological positions
translate into different approaches to the understanding and hierarchy of
values. Following Michał Gierycz’s discussion, we can refer to Thomas
Sowell, who distinguishes between two ideal types: (1) limited anthropology
and (2) unlimited anthropology. These types represent two opposing sources
of human vision (Sowell, 2007). The primary limitation is related to
imperfections resulting from human nature, while the secondary limitation
concerns the mechanisms of power control to prevent abuse (check and
balance). However, there is still a broad spectrum of the individual’s
freedom so that a person can develop and implement the common good.
This is because it is human dignity that determines the objective, though
flexible, truly human limits of choices (Gierycz, 2017, p. 271).
John Paul II indicates that democracy cannot encourage situations in
which the power of the state is usurped for individual interests or ideological
purposes (John Paul II, 1991, section 46). He points out that authentic
democracy can develop only if two conditions are met: (1) the state is ruled
by law, and (2) a correct concept of the human person is adopted. Further, he
argues that for these conditions to be met, it is necessary to ensure (1) the
education and formation of a human being in true ideals, and (2) the
creation of structures of participation and shared responsibility, i.e., the
subjectivity of society (John Paul II, 1991, section 46).
John Paul II rejects the view that agnosticism and sceptical relativism
according to which truth is reduced to randomness and temporality are the
philosophy and attitude which correspond to democratic forms of politics. If
one assumes that there is no ultimate truth to guide political activity,
democracy becomes democracy without values. This, in turn, gives rise to
the danger of manipulation of ideas and convictions and objectification for
reasons of power (John Paul II, 1991, section 46).
It may be reasonable here to go beyond the objectification of social
consciousness leading to the situation in which democracy is treated as an
event based on the laws of mechanics while the problem of political life is
reduced to an electoral act with its functionality and legitimacy based on the
narrowly understood decision-making function of the vectors of the main
forces in society (Pawluczuk, 1994, p. 262), in which the actual level of
participation may become insignificant since the right to participate is the
only sufficient guarantee of democracy (Etzioni-Halevy, 2005, p. 119). Note
that it is sometimes the case that the right itself “pumps” responsibility out
of society and transfers it into an impersonal dimension in which society can
quite easily forget about responsibility since in the event of any suspicion of
risk, lawmakers immediately try to eliminate it by means of their orders and
regulations (Scruton, 2017, p. 108).
Man discovers his nature and its specific actions by means of reason,
which fosters his integral development. As a result, the emphasis is shifted
from the possibility of action (“is it possible?”) towards the reasonability of
action (“is it allowed?”). The boundaries are determined by human nature,
which defines the proper space of human normality and freedom (Gierycz,
2017, p. 271; Krokos, 2008, pp. 33–42). Human ecology understood as the
agathological definition of the boundaries of human activities is of key
importance here. Man can cross these boundaries due to their internal
character since their social or legal dimensions are only secondary. However,
once crossed, they lead to some form of dehumanisation. In this respect,
humanity is strongly associated with nature, and specifically with its moral
rather than physical dimension (Gierycz, 2017, p. 272). These boundaries also
apply to the ways politics and the state implement a good life as a whole,
though the content of good life is not defined by politics and the state
(Spaemann, 2006, p. 95).
The limited anthropology is confronted with unlimited anthropology
which assumes that human nature has no limitations. This approach,
developed in late modernity, assumes that human nature does not entail any
fixed aspects, including the biological ones. Any limitations imposed are
treated as a violation of human freedom. The human is a supreme being and
an autocrat (Gierycz, 2017, pp. 274–276). Anthropological limitlessness
assumes the lack of anthropological boundaries, understood in ontological
rather than practical or declaratory terms, since it is possible to establish and
shift boundaries independently and freely (Gierycz, 2017, p. 277).
Comparing these two approaches, it is easy to note that in limited
anthropology, as opposed to unlimited anthropology, man is aware of his
limitations (boundaries), and thus tries to identify and understand the
determinants and conditions of the decision-making process. In other words,
man knows his weaknesses and limitations, and tries to increase the chances
and effectiveness of his actions by taking the account of the determinants of
the decision-making process. In this case, the decision-making process
covers the necessary aspects or factors of the context. Moreover, it accounts
for risks and responsibilities, including the consequences of one’s own
decisions and actions and has regard to limitations (Francis, 2015, sections
183–187).
The previous descriptions are exemplified by the oikophilia approach
adopted by Roger Scruton. Scruton claims that grassroots activities driven
by oikophilia, i.e., empathy and love for one’s own home and its
surroundings (Scruton, 2017, p. 28), is only possible in communities with
local roots. Such communities typically choose homeostatic solutions for
organisation purposes. The systems based on these solutions are equipped
with a corrective mechanism which is activated in response to destabilising
change. Markets, traditions, customs, families and civic associations are all
examples of such systems (Scruton, 2017, pp. 18–19). These systems feature
territorial attachment, which helps them to maintain their social and
environmental balance inherited from ancestors. According to Scruton, if
these systems are not followed, entropy grows. Therefore, traditional
communities deserve protection from sudden external changes (Scruton,
2017, pp. 29–30).
In light of these considerations, one can assume two ways the society is
organised: (1) by movements focused on their own aims; and (2) by civic
associations which are an end in themselves. Scruton argues that the former
constitutes a threat to homeostasis while the latter is a form of homeostasis
(Scruton, 2017, p. 96). Similarly, there are two possible approaches to politics.
In the first approach, politics is a collective pursuit of an egalitarian goal,
while in the second, a free relation between individuals in which former
generations and modern hierarchies do their part (Francis, 2015, sections
176–181).
Man is a subject, a rational individual who settled and started to act in a
specific place (oikos). His actions can be judged positively and identified
with such virtues as prudence, thriftiness, purity, mutual respect and attitude
to others, which Jonas calls a sense of responsibility (Jonas, 1996;
Dzwonkowska, 2007, pp. 143–156). All of these characteristics of human
condition affect oikophilia and shape us as “the rulers and guardians of our
common settlement” as they emerge during “our growth as individuals”
(Scruton, 2017, p. 222). These issues are part of the problem area currently
identified with the environmental virtue ethics (Dzwonkowska, 2019).
Undoubtedly, the rules guiding the behaviours of a rational entity should
encourage them to adopt a strategy of resilience, and thus to take risks and
responsibility for their actions since those who avoid risk may transfer it not
only to other contemporary people, but also to future generations
(Birnbacher, 1999).
Equal access to justice as a foundation of individual’s freedom

(Target 16.3)
There is no doubt that civil liberties can be guaranteed only if equal access
to justice is ensured. Access to free information and free legal assistance are
the examples of initiatives which foster the implementation of this call.
However, in the face of the progressing complexity of the modern legal
system, the support provided by means of legal information turns out to be
insufficient. Therefore, to ensure a genuine inclusiveness, it is necessary to
develop an effective system of legal assistance in the first place. In particular,
the scope of responsibilities of the Ombudsman should be extended.
Equality before the law does not work by itself, and thus institutionalised
solutions supporting and protecting a weak side of the legal relationship
should be proposed. Human rights which take account of humanistic values
have priority over state-related matters, but a positive legal order is needed
to ensure that they can be implemented and protected (Dylus, 2016, p. 125).
The problem outlined earlier is exacerbated by the special feature of
liberalism which affects the representative democracy and establishes its
order, namely the legitimisation of indeterminacy. Liberalism consistently
disregards the relations that give meaning to life and replaces the language
of the real and ordinary social experience with the language of abstract and
unreal possibilities of enjoying certain benefits (Holmes, 1998, p. 308). Note
that this is an objective and inevitable process because the abstractness is a
necessary condition for establishing the universality of all the resulting
deficiencies. Thus, the ethical obligation to treat all equally becomes an
ultimate institution which upholds the validity of abstractness (Holmes,
1998, p. 309).
Equal access to justice becomes more and more difficult in the modern
world due to the complexity of law, and the growth of new state bodies and
other public entities. At the same time, social acceptance of the existing legal
system and its institutions becomes increasingly important. Justice becomes
inaccessible and thus requires costly professional agents. As a result, citizens
feel abandoned by the state and confused by the great number of legal
institutions. They find it increasingly difficult to determine their own rights
and obligations, which is a prerequisite for access to court. It is a common
practice now that large corporations and companies set up their own
compliance departments. This shows that it becomes difficult to comply with
the standards, and determination of the law in force in its entirety is a
particularly difficult task which requires a lot of time and money and is
unavailable for small businesses, and even more so for migrants and other
entities at risk or socially excluded. Uncertainty of one’s own legal situation
and access to court increases the risk of economic activity.
The awareness that state authorities can accuse an entity of being in
breach of the law gives rise to feelings of alienation and frustration. As a
result, people tend to be aggressive, reject the democratic state of law as a
whole, attribute privileges to certain social forces and search for a powerful
“guardian” to give them freedom in exchange for security, including legal
security (Krastev, 2013, p. 5 et seq.).
The danger of commercialisation of legal information and blocking access
to information about the law for the poor was the first issue identified. It
was pointed out that due to increased migration and numerous international
contacts, ensuring access to information on the law of other countries plays
an increasingly important role. Blocking this possibility, e.g., due to the lack
of financial means to obtain information, constituted a serious violation of
human rights. Countries reacted to this danger in different ways. They built
legal information systems based on universities, parliaments, independent
legal information institutes and foundations, including state-funded
foundations (Petzel, 2014, pp. 30–33). A variety of solutions were proposed,
including joint action, and a need for standardisation arose. International
soft law acts were also developed to address the expansion of legal
information systems, including free-of-charge information. It was also
recognised that legal information systems may be commercialised and
concentrated in a few large global publishing companies, which could
exclude a large amount of the population from access to legal information.
The provisions of the Montreal Declaration became the basis for
standardisation and evaluation of the state to provide the citizens with
proper access to public information.
The Montreal Declaration on Free Access to Law states that the public
legal information of each country and international institution is part of
humanity’s common heritage and a digital universal property which should
be accessible to everyone free of charge on a nonprofit basis.
In 2006, universal and free access to the information about law seemed to
be a distant future. However, according to the SDG16 progress report, this
has already been implemented in 125 countries (cf. UN, 2019, p. 55). It should
now be determined whether there are any points in the Montreal
Declaration which have not been implemented so far or should be explored
in a new light. First, the issue of anonymous access should be clarified. The
Montreal Declaration states that legal information institutes the world, and
other nonprofit institutions provide free and anonymous public access to
legal information. Anonymity is currently an extremely important issue.
Access to information should not be considered to be free of charge, given
that users of the information system “pay” for access with their data. This is
sometimes the case because not all countries adopted the same rigorous
regulations on data reuse typical of the European Union. Also, note that
gaining knowledge, especially in authoritarian countries, about the search
for legal information on freedom and human rights in a given country may
make it easier to direct the attention of the authorities of that country to
human rights activists or victims seeking legal assistance. The commercial
use of such information can also have far-reaching consequences.
The Hague Declaration of 2008 emphasises that free access to the law
should be extended to include sources of the law made available in the form
of consolidated texts drawn up by the parliament administration, judgments
of administrative tribunals, other court judgments and international
agreements. In this respect, there are two opposite views, though outdated in
the times of Google. The first one assumes full and free access to the law and
responsibility of the state, while the second one recognises the need for
competition and diversity of commercial legal information systems (Petzel,
2014, pp. 37–39).
In this regard, the independent body of appeal being a part of the
standard assessed by the United Nations was mainly established, but still felt
in 40 countries from 123 (cf. UN, 2019, p. 55). As a result, it was found that
the issue has a global scope, and international cooperation was established.
In countries in which legal texts, decisions and court rulings are not covered
by copyright, i.e., in the vast majority of countries, it was easier to cooperate
in this field. Consequently, a number of global initiatives were launched (cf.
IIASA, 2018, p. 6 et seq.). The idea of a global system of access to legal
information should be highlighted here in the first place. The non-
commercial bases supported by parliaments and universities constituted
separate legal information institutes and were connected to legal advice
systems or not. The most important acts are mainly due to the Free Access to
Law Movement (FALM). The next stages of development came with the
World Wide Web (WWW).
However, one should have been under no illusion that universal
digitisation, search engines and public Internet sites would ultimately
contribute to the breakthrough and that public information pages, court
websites and legal acts placed on the Internet would serve their purpose. In
recent years, users become more and more helpless while advertising and
profiling companies which analyse, with the use of the Big Data mechanism,
i.e., the data of persons seeking information about the law, expand their
operations (Mayer-Schönberger & Cukier, 2014, pp. 202–203). As a result,
those who seek information about the law are the target of attacks and may
become permanently aggrieved. The fact that legal systems wrongly assume
the knowledge of law becomes a growing threat. Normative acts,
administrative decisions and judgments, even if fully accessible, are
unintelligible to many of those to whom the regulations are addressed, and
thus it is difficult to fully exercise the right to court.
The question is what solution, reaching beyond simple access to legal
information, can be proposed. First of all, a new look at legal assistance
available to an average citizen or foreigner should be adopted. The systems
of free legal assistance are directed towards the poorest people. The
information is available to everyone, but its addressees are often helpless in
the face of a complex legal text or may be misled by online guides which
often manipulate the information to encourage them to take unfavourable
legal steps. Moreover, people who seek free legal information often actually
pay for it with their data (Schneier, 2015, pp. 107–110).
Legal assistance should be widely available. However, in the face of its
rising costs, universal insurance providing cheap and professional legal
services should be also implemented. Since it is recognised that residents
should be given access to communication via universal online services, the
state support for legal insurance or for advanced legal assistance, not limited
to the poorest people, should also be considered. Currently, this is a basic
condition for the effectiveness of the right of access to court. Otherwise, this
right, solemnly declared in the Constitution and in laws, will turn into an
institutional fiction.
The question of where free legal aid facilities are to be located should be
another point explored here. Law, administrative policy and practice provide
two separate approaches. On the one hand, it is wrongly assumed that
informed citizens know their rights well and are able to make free decisions
and commitments, and, in the event that they decide not to use professional
legal assistance, they do this at their own risk. The activity of advocates and
legal advisers is seen as a normal business activity with no interference from
the state and respect for economic freedom. It is the market that should
shape the prices of such legal services. The other approach, i.e., the one
which we support and which is in line with Catholic social teaching, is that
legal assistance may be available both at a basic and advanced level.
However, the state is responsible not only for the possibility of exercising the
right of access to legal information, but also for the effectiveness of
availability of legal assistance for all its citizens, e.g., via the Ombudsman, as
part of its concern for the common good.
Secondly, the texts published should be easy to read and should not be
limited to the acts of public authority. Even the consumer access to the full
content of bank, insurance, energy supply and telecommunication contracts
does not fully ensure equal rights to the court since their content is
unintelligible and inaccessible for the average citizen, which is often done
intentionally. As a future course of action, it is necessary to impose the
publication of texts which are widely intelligible, i.e., not limited to people
with disabilities, and constitute legally binding regulations rather than sui
generis translation. This approach was pioneered by the Provincial
Government of Upper Austria.
Local government as a barrier against centralisation (Target

16.7)
To ensure a flexible, open, participatory and representative decision-making
process, it is necessary to establish self-government (at a local and supra-
local level), which is a bottom-up institution counterbalancing the central
authority and performing complementary functions in accordance with the
principle of subsidiarity. Self-government reduces tensions and
systematically resolves the growing conflicts between the central and local
authority as the responsibility for the common good is shared with other
entities and the circle of those who can effectively define and implement the
common good is significantly broadened (Huber, 2014, p. 25). Giovanni
Sartori rightly points out that the situation, in which every authority has
little power, both in terms of scope and intensity, should be considered to be
most comfortable for citizens (Sartori, 1998, p. 197).
Self-government can be a barrier against centralisation. Why does
centralisation need to be inhibited and controlled by other authorities? The
Catholic Church and Catholic social teaching got involved in the dispute
between centralisation and decentralisation very early. This was in
connection with the principle of subsidiarity, which is probably the most
important practical political fruit of Catholic social teaching in the 19th and
20th centuries, and in the name of human dignity and the ability to manage
one’s own affairs as an expression of human freedom as well as local and
supra-local affairs not to be replaced without justification by rigid and
centralist structures of the state and an imperious way of acting. As a result,
self-government, local initiative of respect for the identity of man and little
homelands were strongly supported. The discussion on the concept of
subsidiarity initiated by Leo XIII was continued by John Paul II (John Paul
II, 1991, sections 15, 48). His universal approach, which treats centralisation
as “social evil and disruption of the system,” providing that basic matters
which communities can resolve on their own are wrested from them, was of
crucial importance for the perception of the prospects of local government,
especially in Europe.
Note that self-government is not an institution opposed to the state.
Instead, it complements other forms of citizen participation in the exercise of
public authority (Winczorek, 1998, p. 144) since the involvement in the local
reality is not in opposition to the involvement in the state reality. These two
realities do not contradict each other (Skorowski, 1998/99, p. 187).
Decentralisation assumes that no one knows the needs of a local region
better than the community which lives in this region (Banaszak, 2001, p.
585). This is why self-government is defined as a group of inhabitants of a
given area of the country organised to jointly solve their own problems
(Redelbach et al., 1993, p. 46). It is at the level of local government
institutions that people can face the challenges and dangers of collective
actions. This way, they learn how to be engaged and find out how the
interdependence of interests affects their quality of life. The need to cope
with difficult situations makes them less likely to pass responsibility to
others. Citizens observe distant politics, but at the same time, they have the
possibility of learning active participation in their local communities
(Ostrom, 1994, p. 227).
Central administration is necessary in every country to resolve matters
critical for the existence of the state as a whole. However, it should not
encroach on human freedom and the rights of small communities, and
unnecessarily take over their basic tasks of meeting collective needs
(Dolnicki, 2019, pp. 373–374). The importance of self-government in the state
may be reduced in various ways. One of them is to seemingly broaden the
scope of decentralisation by extending tasks while adequate financial
resources are not ensured. The deliberate underfunding of tasks, despite a
constitutional requirement to provide adequate resources, along with the
leniency of the courts undermines the trust of the inhabitants and usually
gives rise to the centralisation and crisis of the democratic government.
The central government should find this unfavourable because the
attention, energy and measures are shifted to small though media-friendly
issues to the detriment of strategic issues and long-term management. This
shows that self-government is part of a complex system of division and
balance of power and is applied in various cultural and civilisational circles
as evidenced by both the European Charter of Local Self-Government and
the Global Charter of Local Self-Government (Kasiński, 2006, pp. 180–182).
The universal character of the principle of subsidiarity is also confirmed by
the fact that it constitutes a barrier to the centralisation of the European
Union. The principle of subsidiarity is a fundamental principle of the
European Union which defines its philosophy and the limits of the
autonomy of the member states (cf. Millon-Delsol, 1995, p. 67). Similarly, the
EU cannot take over from the member states the tasks which they can
handle on their own. This view inspired other world organisations which
operate at the local level. It safeguards freedom and allows for justified
interference (Wesołowski, 1993, pp. 268–269). However, one could ask if the
oppositional attitude towards centralisation can be justified in a different
way, i.e., without referring to the dignity and freedom of man and small
communities. This is because it might be the case that centralisation
constitutes a part of justified economisation of public administration and
responds better to a number of threats of today’s world. Note that
centralisation is, especially in the circle of the European civilisation, but also
in other civilisations, a very old principle of state organisation. Even in the
18th and 19th centuries, the administration was still understood as dealing
with affairs of poorly educated or even illiterate people. The state
paternalistically built its oppressive way of acting using theoretical concepts,
such as public welfare. It was even argued that the local community is
similar to an underage person who has to be cared for; otherwise, it can
cause irreparable damage due to gaps in its knowledge and preparation.
Since then, many years have passed (Lipowicz, 2019, pp. 32–33). It is difficult
to compare a Prussian or French subject from the 19th century with the
current users of administrative functions who use e-administration
efficiently and search for appropriate information on the global network
before they contact an official to resolve a significant issue. Since it was
formerly possible to hand over certain local matters to local authorities, one
could assume that “self-administration”, i.e., self-government should be even
more advanced in today’s reality (Loughlin, 1996, pp. 80–82).
However, the question that should be also asked is whether the unique
challenges of today’s world can be tackled by decentralised bodies. The
challenges include depopulation, nomadisation and deindustrialisation.
However, the digitisation of the economy and administration, as well as the
digitisation of production and the resulting massive job losses, is a key
challenge. These challenges require strategic actions, setting directions and
securing legal means for the implementation of the tasks (Szafrański, 2014, p.
14). The burden of actions, and the related creativity and respect for
diversity to counteract contemporary unfavourable phenomena in a new
manner, must be placed in a local government which is close to people. In
Poland, communes, districts and provinces constitute such units. In most
countries, these are at least two levels of local authority. Quick and rapid
changes require an appropriate reaction in close connection with the affected
environments. Rigid actions on a national scale cannot bring positive results
due to a complex mosaic of threats. Trust in the local government provides
confidence in its competence as well as freedom from corruption and
nepotism. The system of apolitical and impartial examinations to the local
government is a prerequisite for success and social acceptance.
Conclusions
Catholic social teaching recognises that all people are equal and free, and
clearly indicates that every human person has the natural right to be
recognised as a free and responsible being. In an increasingly complex
reality (in terms of technology, law etc.), the risk of losing subjectivity seems
to be a serious problem. Looking through the prism of community matters
and human dignity, one can see structural deficiencies which weaken human
subjectivity. This way of thinking is followed by the call to effectively
protect the human person, which embodies the individual’s freedom in the
modern state. The guarantees of subjectivity can be made permanent and
real only if they are institutionalised and support the individual. At the same
time, these functions cannot not be limited by access barriers and cannot be
selective in nature. The solutions proposed in this paper, regarding legal
assistance, legal information and local government, are undoubtedly the
good examples of such open bottom-up activities. This is because they
provide an institutionalised form of protection, are conducive to the self-
fulfilment of man and raise his awareness and ability to participate actively
and responsibly in state life.
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17 The role of the Catholic Church in the
building of the partnership for the
implementation of SDGs
Ryszard F. Sadowski, Janusz Balicki and Rafał
Leśniczak
Introduction
There are strong indications that the Catholic Church can significantly
contribute to the building of the partnership for the implementation of
SDGs. This chapter explores the Sustainable Development Goal 17 (SDG17),
calling for the partnership which needs to be rebuilt, strengthened and
implemented at the economic, technological and system-based level for the
implementation of all and each of SDGs. SDGs are interdependent and
indivisible, and ensure a balance between the three components of
sustainable development (UNGA, 2015, p. 1). The partnership understood in
this way is based on dialogue. Since the beginning of the 1960s, the Catholic
Church has been discussing the role of dialogue in resolving the world
problems. Thanks to the awareness of the importance of dialogue and rich
experience of the Catholic Church, countries, religions and local
communities can significantly contribute to the well-being of our planet
through the implementation of the goals set out in the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development.
The concept of dialogue understood as a method and measure which
determines the approach of the Church regarding the cooperation in the face
of humanity’s challenges was explored in the Church’s teaching not earlier
than during the pontificate of Pius XII. Specifically, the issue was raised in
two encyclicals of John XXIII, Mater et Magistra (1961) and Pacem in Terris
(1963). The fundamental documents in the Church’s teaching, which discuss
the issue of dialogue and cooperation, include Paul VI’s encyclical Ecclesiam
Suam (1964) and the Pastoral Constitution on The Church in The Modern
World “Gaudium et Spes” (1965). They clearly indicate that the Catholic
Church treats dialogue as a principle and structural element of her life
(Gocko, 2003, p. 246).
The Church’s teaching further explores the discussion on dialogue for
building the widest possible partnership and solving world problems. In the
encyclical Populorum Progressio, Pope Paul VI calls for dialogue between
developed and developing countries in order to eradicate poverty, inequality
and injustice, and to build the world order (Paul VI, 1967, section 54). The
Church also calls for a “lasting atmosphere of dialogue” (WSCB, 1971, section
28). The responsibility for creating and sustaining this atmosphere of
dialogue lies with the countries and all people who should rise above
geopolitical, ideological or socioeconomic differences (Gocko, 2003, p. 247).
The Catholic discussion on dialogue is continued by successive popes. In
his programmatic encyclical Redemptor Hominis, John Paul II defines the
Church’s efforts for dialogue and partnership as a “new stage in the Church’s
life” (John Paul II, 1979, section 6). The speeches of Pope Benedict XVI, in
turn, focus more on dialogue between cultures than on dialogue between
religions. In his approach, the issues which were not generally raised in the
dialogue between religions are discussed: human dignity, respect for women
and respect for religious freedom. The concept of dialogue is also discussed
by Pope Francis, who indicates that dialogue is necessary to overcome the
environmental crisis. In his encyclical Laudato Si’, he encourages the
building of the universal partnership for the Earth, which is our common
home, by means of dialogue with all (Francis, 2015a, section 3; Jaromi, 2020).
Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the Church’s commitment to
dialogue between countries, religions and local communities gives hope for
the creation of the genuine partnership which, as expected by the Church,
leads to the implementation of the common good and has the potential to
significantly contribute to the implementation of SDGs if managed properly.
The role of the Catholic Church in the building of the

partnership between countries for the implementation of SDGs
Relations between the Holy See and the UN at the

institutional level
In international relations, the Holy See officially acts as the Vatican City. The
state was established as a result of the Lateran Treaties and the Concordat of
11 February 1929, which guarantees the Holy See freedom of action and care
on the part of the Italian state (Sitarz, 2014, p. 275). This authorises the Holy
See to conduct diplomatic relations with countries and international
organisations. The Vatican City is not a member of the UN, but it has the
status of a permanent observer, which gives it the right to participate in all
sessions of the UN General Assembly, the UN Security Council and the UN
Economic and Social Council. Nevertheless, as pointed out by Timothy A.
Byrnes, it would be wrong to look at the pope as the head of the Vatican
City only. He acts through formal diplomatic channels as the embodiment of
the Holy See, as the leader and, in other words, “the supreme organ of
government of the Catholic Church” (Byrnes, 2017, p. 2).
The cooperation between the Vatican City and the UN was established
under the pontificate of Pius XII. In 1952, Archbishop Giuseppe A. Roncalli,
later Pope John XXIII, was appointed the first observer of the Holy See at
UNESCO. He initiated actions aimed at opening the institutional Church to
contacts with the international community. This attitude can be clearly seen
in his encyclical Pacem in Terris (1963), in which the whole chapter is
devoted to the UN. Pope Paul VI continued his cooperation with the UN and
was the first to host the UN Secretary-Generals, Sithu U Thant (1963) and
Kurt Waldheim (1977), in the Vatican City. He also appointed the first
permanent observer at the UN headquarters in New York (1964).
The cooperation between the Holy See and the United Nations is also
evidenced by the visits of successive popes to the UN headquarters in New
York. Paul VI (1965) was the first to visit the UN. His successors also visited
New York. The first time John Paul II was there was in 1979, i.e., a year after
his election. In his speech, he expressed the conviction that the Holy See is
linked with the United Nations by the “special bond of cooperation.” His next
visit took place in 1995, on the 50th anniversary of the UN. Pope Benedict
XVI paid a visit to the UN in 2008, on the 60th anniversary of the
Declaration of Human Rights (Gołębiowski, 2014).
With respect to the partnership for the implementation of SDGs, the visit
of Pope Francis to the UN headquarters in 2015, shortly after the
announcement of his encyclical Laudato Si’, proved extremely important. At
the UN General Assembly, he called for a fundamental reform of the
organisation and called the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development “an important sign of hope.” He also pointed out that
pillars of integral human development have a common foundation,

which is the right to life and, more generally, what we could call the
right to existence of human nature itself. The ecological crisis and the
large-scale destruction of biodiversity can threaten the very existence of
the human species.
(Francis, 2015b)
He highlighted “the painful situation of the entire Middle East, North Africa
and other African countries.” He argued that “these realities should serve as
a grave summons to an examination of conscience on the part of those
charged with the conduct of international affairs” (Francis, 2015b).
As regards the Church’s contribution to the building of the partnership in
the face of contemporary global challenges, the message delivered by Francis
on the occasion of the visit of UN Secretary-General António Guterres to the
Vatican on 15 December 2019 played a pivotal role. In his call for
responsibility for the state of our planet, Pope Francis urged all to “take care
of our land which, generation after generation, has been entrusted to our
custody by God so that we may cultivate it and hand it over to our children.”
He stressed the urgency and need for commitment “to reduce polluting
emissions and to an integral ecology saying, ‘let us do something before it is
too late!’ ” (Gomes, 2019).
The Holy See is not only an observer of the United Nations, but also has a
close relationship with a number of international organisations, including
the Organisation of American States and World Trade Organisation (U.S.
Department of State, 2019).
The Holy See has diplomatic relations with all the countries of the world,
except four, including Palestine (since 25 October 1994), the People’s
Republic of China and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. The Holy
See has also diplomatic relations with the European Union. It participates in
many various Intergovernmental Organisations and Bodies, and
International Programmes (POMHSUN, 2020).
The building of international partnerships is also governed by special
agreements of the Holy See with some countries referred to as the
Concordat. The agreements are applied to countries with a large percentage
of Catholic citizens. They govern the relations between a given country and
the Catholic Church, and, typically, affect the relations between a country
and other religious associations.
The cooperation between the Catholic Church and the European Union is
yet another key area which supports the building of the international
partnership. The cooperation takes place via the Commission of the Bishops’
Conferences of the European Union (COMECE), which monitors the
political process of the European Union in all areas of interest to the Church.
Its headquarters is based in Brussels. The mission of COMECE is supported
by a number of commissions and working groups made up of experts
appointed by the national Bishops’ Conferences and Catholic organisations.
They operate in the following fields: Migration & Asylum (Working Group
on Migration and Asylum); Ethics, Research & Health (Working Group on
Ethics); Ecology & Sustainability; Justice & Fundamental Rights (Legal
Affairs Commission); Intercultural Dialogue & Education; Social &
Economic Policies (Commission on Social Affairs); External Action
(Commission on the External Relations of the European Union); Religious
Freedom (COMECE, 2020).
However, according to Byrnes, the international political roles of the Holy
See and the Pope stretch far beyond the confines of these formal diplomatic
matters:
The Pope, in addition to his leadership of the global diplomatic corps and
the Roman Curia, is also the uncontested central leader of a religious
community numbering over a billion souls and present in virtually every
corner of the globe.
(Byrnes, 2017, p. 10)
Cooperation between the Catholic Church and the international

community – axiological challenges
Demographic processes in developing countries, especially in Africa, pose
one of the challenges in the building of the partnership between the Catholic
Church and the international community.
Since the very beginning of its existence, the UN has taken steps to slow
down the pace of demographic processes. This was because the rate of
population growth was higher than ever before. Since the beginning of the
19th century, which is when the world population reached one billion for the
first time in history, it has been growing rapidly. In 2019, the world
population reached 7.7 billion (UNDESA, 2019, p. 6).
The Catholic Church is also aware of the challenges of rapid demographic
development. This issue has been raised in the speeches of successive popes
since the mid-1960s. The Second Vatican Council calls for a broad
international cooperation “for those peoples who, besides facing so many
other difficulties, likewise undergo pressures due to a rapid increase in
population” (SVC, 1965b, section 87). The urgency of demographic issues in
the Church is also highlighted by Pope John Paul II:
The Church is certainly aware of the many complex problems which
couples in many countries face today in their task of transmitting life in
a responsible way. She also recognises the serious problem of population
growth in the form it has taken in many parts of the world and its moral
implications.
Having recognised the importance of demographic issues, the UN

initiated the organisation of periodic conferences on population and society.
Both the world population conferences, i.e., in Bucharest (1974), Mexico
(1984) and Cairo (1994), and conferences devoted to specific social issues, i.e.,
environment (Rio de Janeiro 1992), social inequalities (Copenhagen 1995),
women’s rights (Beijing 1995), and housing (Istanbul 1996), generated sharp
disputes on how to approach demographic growth. The conferences were
attended by experts, politicians, representatives of NGOs and a delegation
from the Holy See. In 1999, five years after the Cairo conference, the meeting
of the member states of the so-called “Cairo + five” was held at the UN.
Since then, sessions of the Commission on Population and Development
have been held in New York to verify to what extent the Cairo Conference
commitments are fulfilled and to address current population issues (Balicki
et al., 2007, pp. 342–362).
Clear differences of opinion at the UN conferences occurred not only
between the Holy See and countries (usually developed ones), but also
between developed and developing countries. For example, at the Bucharest
conference, developed countries made economic aid to developing countries
contingent on taking specific measures to reduce population growth
(Newton, 1992, p. 6). This was not well received by developing countries,
which saw it as a new manifestation of imperialism and colonialism. Some
poor countries claimed that population growth is a desirable phenomenon
which proves the potential of the country, and opposed population control
programmes (Cliquet & Thienpont, 1995, p. 58).
The Holy See recognises the importance of demographic challenges, but
cannot give consent to some ways of solving them. This is a consequence of
the axiological foundations of Catholic social teaching. Successive popes
pointed out that the demographic issue has not only an economic
dimension, but also a moral one. Pope John Paul II recognised the necessity
of dealing with the effects of high birth rates, but warned against the
practices of birth control, reminiscent of the biblical actions undertaken by
the pharaoh towards the Israelites to limit their birth rate (John Paul II, 1995,
section 16).
Differences in the approach to demographic challenges were particularly
evident at the International Conference on Population and Development in
Cairo in 1994. According to the Holy See, the final document of the Cairo
Conference, unlike earlier documents of the conferences in Bucharest and
Mexico, recognised abortion as a part of population policy and even basic
medical care, even though it also stressed that abortion should not be
promoted as a means of family planning and recommended that
governments seek alternatives to abortion. In its Reservations, the delegation
from the Holy See expressed the opinion that the final document of the
conference (chapters 7 and 8) contains certain statements which could be
interpreted as the acceptance of extramarital sexual activity, especially
among young people. The Holy See claims that the document features an
individualistic vision of sexuality which does not pay due attention to
factors specific to married life, such as mutual love and joint decision-
making (Reservations of the Holy See, 1994, p. 48).
The Cairo controversy continued in connection with the 25th anniversary
of the International Conference on Population and Development and the
Nairobi conference in 2019. The Holy See did not accept the invitation and
issued a statement that the 1994 Cairo Conference was an important event,
especially given that the opposition to all forms of coercion in the politics of
the population was expressed. However, in Nairobi, the
focus of the conference on a few controversial and divisive issues that do

not enjoy international consensus and that do not reflect accurately the
broader population and development agenda outlined by the ICPD, is
regrettable. The ICPD and its encompassing Programme of Action
within the international community’s broad development agenda should
not be reduced to so-called “sexual and reproductive health and rights
and comprehensive sexuality education.”
(POMHSUN, 2019)
In addition, the Holy See regretted that no substantive consultation on

this issue had been held and that the conference had been organised outside
the scope of the UN as it precludes transparent intergovernmental
negotiations and conveys the misleading impression that the actors of
Nairobi Declaration reached a consensus.
These examples indicate that the Catholic Church faces huge challenges.
The values proclaimed by the Church for the past two millennia clash with
contemporary views, such as the right to abortion or euthanasia, based on
the assumption of the individual’s unlimited right to make decisions.
Abortion deals with the women’s right to make decisions about their own
bodies, while euthanasia intentionally ends one’s life. It is the Church’s task
to show that her position in this regard is not only religiously justified, but
also is based on human dignity and the resulting inviolability of human life
from conception to natural death. In the ongoing discussion, the Church also
refers to the individual and social consequences of undermining this
principle. They include severe cases of post-abortion syndrome and the
slippery-slope effect of social acceptance of euthanasia, which results in the
use of solutions adopted in the first half of the 20th century.
As evidenced previously, the documents of Catholic social teaching
indicate that the Holy See did not oppose the view of some countries
regarding the need to address the consequences of the rapid population
growth. It never even treated the population growth as a threat to the world.
Instead, it put a great emphasis on the proper treatment of poor countries,
respect for the freedom of decision of spouses and, above all, looking at the
population issues from the perspective of the dignity of every human being
(Balicki et al., 2007, pp. 431–433).
partnership between religions for the implementation of SDGs
The attitude of the Catholic Church to dialogue with other religions has
changed significantly thanks to Pope Paul VI and the Second Vatican
Council. In his encyclical Ecclesiam Suam, the Pope points out that dialogue
with all, including representatives of other religions and other Christian
denominations, is essential for achieving the common good of humanity
(Paul VI, 1964, sections 107–111). The Church’s openness to interreligious
dialogue is also declared in Nostra aetate: Declaration on the Relation of the
Church with Non-Christian Religions: “We cannot truly call on God, the
Father of all, if we refuse to treat in a brotherly way any man, created as he
is in the image of God” (SVC, 1965a, section 5). The Church calls its believers
and followers of other religions to “work sincerely for mutual understanding
and to preserve as well as to promote together for the benefit of all mankind
social justice and moral welfare, as well as peace and freedom” (SVC, 1965a,
section 3).
However, dialogue is not an end in itself. It should bring a change in the
mindset of its participants and encourage responsibility for the problems it
causes and commitment to overcome them. A genuine dialogue forms a
human fraternity and recognises different aspects of the bond which binds
its members. Pope John Paul II claims that economic, cultural, political and
religious interrelationships of humanity have a moral dimension and require
genuine solidarity (John Paul II, 1987, section 38).
The Catholic Church recognises her responsibility for the implementation
of the common good and thus encourages dialogue with all Christian
denominations and other religions to establish cooperation in many areas of
human activity (PCJP, 2014, sections 535, 537). This shows that the Catholic
social teaching not only permits its faithful to cooperate with representatives
of other religions, but also encourages them to do so. The aim of these
activities is to promote the integration of the human community and joint
response to the challenges of today.
The Christian involvement in the environmental issue was inspired by the
publications of well-known Christian theologians and the discussion
triggered by the article of Lynn White, The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic
Crisis (White, 1967), on how Christianity contributed to the ecological crisis.
The discussion resulted in the broad interdisciplinary research on the
involvement of Christianity in the environmental crisis which revealed the
complexity of the crisis and the part Christianity plays in inducing and
overcoming the crisis. Over time, the research was extended to include the
role of other religious traditions and religion as such. The research made
religious leaders aware of the necessity to re-examine the doctrine of the
religious texts of individual religions from the environmental point of view.
A significant contribution in this respect is from Mary E. Tucker and John A.
Grim, the creators of the Forum on Religion and Ecology, which provides a
platform for the exchange of ideas between scholars representing all the
world’s religions and offers training materials on how all major religious
traditions approach the environment (Sadowski, 2009a).
The potential of religions for the environmental issue was also recognised
by the Worldwatch Institute, which devoted a whole chapter to this topic in
its annual report State of the World 2003. The report highlights five
environmental assets of religions which foster the development of the
sustainable world: (1) The capacity to shape cosmologies (worldviews); (2)
Moral authority; (3) Large base of adherents; (4) Significant material
resources; and (5) Community-building capacity (Gardner, 2003, p. 152).
The fact that religions were recognised as important allies in the fight
against the modern environmental crisis triggered a number of non-religious
initiatives to build the interreligious partnership for improving the condition
of our planet. The Interfaith Partnership for the Environment established in
1996 is a good example of such initiatives. It holds symposia, publishes books
and prepares materials on nature conservation for various religious
communities (Tucker & Grim, 2005, p. 2613). Another similar non-religious
initiative devoted to interreligious partnership is the Alliance for Religion
and Conservation (ARC), established in 1997. It was founded by Prince
Philip, who recognised the need to coordinate the activities of secular
environmental organisations and structures of individual religions.
Currently, ARC works for the 12 largest world’s religions, which accounts
for about 82% of the human population.
There are also many initiatives supported by the religions themselves to
integrate their efforts to address the issue of creation. In this respect,
common declarations of the recent popes and Bartholomew I, the Orthodox
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, are particularly noteworthy. They
refer directly to the contemporary environmental challenges faced by
humanity and encourage actions which promote caring for the Earth (John
Paul II, Bartholomew I; Benedict XVI, Bartholomew I; Francis, Bartholomew
I).
The proclamation of the encyclical Laudato Si’ by Pope Francis on 24 May
2015 undoubtedly had the most significant influence on the cooperation
between religions for the care of the Earth, our common home. The
encyclical became a catalyst for pro-ecological speeches and calls of
religious leaders representing all major religious traditions. The speeches
were addressed to state leaders in connection with the upcoming Climate
Change Conference in Paris (COP21). All speeches received a wide reception
by the general public and undoubtedly influenced the formation of
environmental awareness of many believers and state leaders who attended
the meeting (Sadowski, 2016, pp. 89–112).
Similarly, religious leaders, inspired by Laudato Si’, took joint initiatives
for climate protection in connection with the upcoming COP21 in Paris.
Since then, joint calls of world religious leaders to government
representatives and the general public to take real action to protect the
climate have become a common practice. Joint declarations of religious
representatives were made at COP22 in Marrakech, COP23 in Bonn, COP24
in Katowice and COP25 in Madrid.
It seems that numerous environmental initiatives of the Catholic Church
have brought the expected results: a platform for dialogue and joint actions
of all major world religious traditions have been built. Representatives of
environmental organisations, which act for religious reasons and ordinary
followers of various religions, have been supported and motivated by their
leaders for several years. Religious leaders call for action to protect the
environment and build the sustainable world. This gives hope the SDGs can
be implemented not only at the international and governmental level by
means of legal acts, but also at the universal level with the support of local
religious communities, schools, hospitals, families and individual believers.

partnership in local communities for the implementation of
SDGs
With respect to the implementation of SDGs, partnership is understood as
motivating and encouraging members of a given community to engage in
various forms of cooperation to enable them to define and solve their
problems. This attitude develops awareness and responsibility for joint
actions to support social capital, the common good and social activation
(Bexell & Jönsson, 2017, pp. 13–29). The local community is one of the main
components of the social structure reflected, in institutional and political
terms, by a village, estate, parish, commune, district or municipality (Warner
& Rountree, 1997, pp. 520–536). The distinguishable features of the local
community include a permanent system of social ties and interactions, a
sense of rootedness and belonging to the place, ties resulting from common
interests and needs, and social cooperation supported by, inter alia,
organised social groups, local associations and NGOs (Szczudlińska-Kanoś,
2013, p. 46).
In its efforts to build partnerships in local communities for the
implementation of SDGs, the Catholic Church should, inter alia, re-address
basic principles of Catholic social teaching. Catholic social teaching
concentrates on human dignity and the common good. The former has a
biblical reference. It refers to the fact that man was created in the image of
God, which emphasises an inherent connection with the human person.
Given the social nature of man, people uphold their innate dignity in its
entirety if they maintain relations with others (Donaldson, 2012, p. 123).
Catholic social teaching also recognises the principle of solidarity which
assumes mutual responsibility for each other. The Church sees it as a social
principle and moral virtue requiring practice and development (Scholz, 2015,
p. 726). Its evangelical message is that we lose ourselves in service to others.
With respect to the building of the partnership in local communities, it is
legitimate to interpret solidarity as a motive for action which strengthens an
attitude of altruism individually and collectively. The aim is to adopt the
logic of thinking which excludes attitudes strictly based on self-interest and
devoid of social empathy (Stjernø, 2009, p. 2; Thalos, 2012, pp. 57–95).
Catholic social teaching also refers to the principle of subsidiarity, which
concerns the proper organisation of social structures and respect for
autonomy in the exercise of functions by citizens, families and civil society
(Lu, 2017, pp. 7–20).
The Catholic Church proposes “the option or love of preference for the
poor” (John Paul II, 1987, section 42). John Paul II claims that society is
judged based on how it treats its most vulnerable members (Donaldson &
Belanger, 2012, pp. 123–124). The current pontificate of Pope Francis, his
teachings on the poorest, and his apostolate, addressing e.g. migration and
the refugee crisis, prove that the Church’s view on social issues is broader
and has regard for the poor (Sedmak, 2016, p. 2018).
The Church’s mission is to act for the common good in the spirit of
tolerance, dialogue, understanding, compromise and the common goal to
achieve social peace. The Church should not support one particular political
faction if she wants to contribute to the building of the partnership
(Borowik, 2002, pp. 83–84).
The Church plays an important role in the integration of communities.
She defines clear objectives in order to implement the partnership strategy at
the local level. The environmental issue which addresses human
responsibility constitutes an important area of action. Leaders of religious
communities, including the Catholic Church, inspire commitment to nature
conservation (Sadowski, 2009b, pp. 157–159, 2013, p. 87). The Catholic
Climate Covenant aimed at increasing environmental awareness and
implementing the principles of Catholic social teaching is an example of an
interesting ecclesiastical initiative in USA. The organisation focuses its
efforts on reducing CO2 emissions. It brings together over 17,000 American
Catholic parishes and millions of Catholics. It is an example of an
environmental organisation which builds the partnership in the community
at the local level. Other organisations of this type include Global Catholic
Climate Movement (GCCM), International Consultancy on Religion,
Education and Culture, and Alliance of Religion and Conservation
(Bergmann, 2015, pp. 389–392).
The American Catholic Church cooperates in the field of climate pacts
with 18 national partners, including Catholic Relief Services, Catholic
Charities USA, the Catholic Health Association, congregations of religious
men and women, and other national organisations (CCC, 2006).
Note that the concept of building the partnership for the implementation
of SDGs for which the Catholic Church sets theoretical foundations is
universal, i.e., encompasses all local communities, but the practical
implementation of this concept in individual communities is determined by
political, social and cultural circumstances. The American Commission on
International Religious Freedom is an institution which monitors the global
situation with respect to religious freedom and publishes an annual report
identifying countries which violate citizens’ freedom of conscience
(Glendon, 2018, pp. 329–339). In Iran, Saudi Arabia, China and North Korea,
the activities of the Catholic Church are strongly limited. China adopted
Confucianism as its leading philosophy. Its citizens follow the concept of the
ideal state, and all structures, including the Catholic Church, are
subordinated to the state. For this reason, the efforts of the Church in the
building of the partnership for the implementation of SDGs are severely
limited and manifested through the activity of the underground church
(Madsen, 2019, pp. 5–23).
Countries which enjoy religious freedom launch many initiatives at the
local level for the implementation of SDG17. They include actions to support
the poor and eliminate social injustice. In local communities of developing
countries, the Catholic Church supports and encourages the activities
promoting the preferential option for the poor. Catholic parishes hold the
projects in cooperation with local community institutions. For example, the
Catholic Diocese of Eldoret in Kenya manages five key programmes
supporting poor children in sponsored schools. These are Education for Life,
Gender and Women Development, Small Internal Lending Communities,
Catholic Justice and Peace Commission, Caritas (Richard, 2018, pp. 84–108).
Caritas Internationalis, established by Pope Pius XII, has regional
structures to conduct charitable activities around the world. It brings help to
those who suffer from military conflicts, disasters, hunger, inadequate
medical care, migration and exile. The support provided by Caritas
Internationalis in 2018 is estimated at around EUR 5 million. The Caritas
Internationalis Annual Report 2018 presents selected activities of the
organisation, including the fight against HIV and AIDS. In 2018, Caritas
launched a new project known as GRAIL with the support of the Joint
United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and the U.S.
President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) in Nigeria and the
Democratic Republic of Congo. GRAIL stands for Galvanising Religious
Leaders for Accelerated Identification and Linkage to Paediatric
Antiretroviral Therapy. Caritas worked with UNAIDS, PEPFAR and other
organisations to press the heads of major pharmaceutical companies for
child-friendly medicines and testing tools at affordable prices (Caritas, 2018,
pp. 31, 11).
How the partnership for the implementation of SDGs in local
communities is built depends both on the religious cross section of the
country’s population and the constitutional models of relations between the
state and the Catholic Church (Christoffersen, 2006, pp. 107–126).
In Italy, in which Catholics are in majority, parishes of the Catholic
Church offer a range of initiatives to local communities: educational (parish
schools, vocational schools, foreign language courses), charitable (permanent
assistance to the poorest) and fostering integration (e.g., integrating refugees
and migrants into the local community) (Zani, 2016, pp. 13–28; Wierzbicki,
2018, pp. 103–116).
Every year, since 2011, Verona hosts the Festival of Catholic Social
Teaching, mainly held by the Catholic foundation of Giuseppe Toniolo. The
project provides information on the teaching of the Catholic Church in the
field of social matters. The initiative is attended by representatives of local
businesses who want to conduct activities in accordance with the principles
of moral theology in order to build the partnership (Dottrinasociale.it, 2020).
In countries in which Christians make up a small percentage, e.g., in most
Asian countries and in North African countries, the opportunities are
significantly limited. In Morocco, a country in which Muslim account for
more than 99% of the population and sharia is in force, Catholics cooperate
with Muslims mainly in the area of combating poverty, intolerance and
discrimination. The Enseignement Catholique au Maroc, which operates in
Rabat, focuses primarily on building the culture of interreligious and
intercultural dialogue, and mutual respect between Muslims and Christians
(Nikles, 2017, pp. 105–116; Boucrot, 2003, pp. 83–89).
In atheist societies, for example in the Czech Republic, the activities of the
Catholic Church at the local level are aimed at building the partnership with
non-believers and non-Catholic believers. The initiative which is worth
noting here is the activity of the Catholic kindergarten in České Budějovice
which is run by nuns from the congregation of the Sisters of the Blessed
Sacrament. This is an educational facility which incorporates the basics of
Maria Montessori’s method, integrates people of different faiths and teaches
children about multiculturalism. The institution also provides care, therapy
and rehabilitation for children with developmental disabilities (Surma, 2016,
pp. 135–140).
Thanks to the model of friendly cooperation between the state and the
Catholic Church, activities can be undertaken at the local level. However, the
principle of secularity may make it more difficult, e.g., due to the fact that
the state is not allowed to provide financial support to ecclesiastical
initiatives (Kuru, 2009, pp. 103–158). To sum up, the role of the Catholic
Church in the building of the partnership in local communities for the
implementation of SDGs is a complex issue and largely depends on political,
social and cultural circumstances. Other issues, which play a significant role
here, include freedom of religion and democratisation of social structures. At
the theoretical level, the Church addresses the main lines of action in the
building of the partnership for the implementation of SDGs, while at the
practical level, she tries to implement SDGs in a way appropriate for the
communities and promotes openness to others to encourage joint response
to people’s needs.
Conclusions
Due to the contemporary challenges, humanity takes ambitious and urgent
actions to care for the Earth and all its inhabitants, both people and non-
human beings. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is one of the
most important contemporary attempts to respond to these challenges. There
are strong indications that the adoption of 17 SDGs by the UN is the best
possible response to the threat faced by the world. There are scholars who
criticise SDGs “for being too ambitious, universal, expansive and with
potential inconsistencies, particularly between the socio-economic
development and the environmental sustainability goals,” but it seems that
this is the best solution the international community could adopt (Bali
Swain & Yang-Wallentin, 2019, p. 1).
SDG17, the last on the list, stands out from the others. It recognises the
need to build the partnership at the global, regional and local level. The
building of the partnership and cooperation between individual
communities is the only way which gives hope to the implementation of all
and each of SDGs. This chapter highlights the potential of the Catholic
Church and her contribution to the building of the partnership. It should be
emphasised that the potential of Catholic social teaching is much greater
than actual efforts put to build the partnership between nations, religions
and local communities. To use the full potential is a challenge and
opportunity. It is a challenge because it requires greater commitment from
religious leaders and all the faithful. It is an opportunity because the
commitment can significantly contribute to the implementation of SDGs at
the global, regional, national, local and even individual level. This is
confirmed by studies which prove that the role played by Christianity in this
regard and its potential are extraordinary.
Christians in general and North Atlantic Christians in particular may
have more of an impact on mitigating climate change than any other
religious group. However, such a contribution would only be authentic
and liberative if they can retrieve the ecological wisdom in the deepest
roots of their own traditions.
(Conradie & Koster, 2019, p. 6)
It should be also noted that the potential of the Catholic Church in the
building of the partnership for the implementation of SDGs depends both on
religious and social factors as well as on political and economic ones. The
fact that the Holy See attends and participates in international meetings is
widely known and appreciated. However, the prospects for the activity of
the Catholic Church in particular countries or regions of the world highly
depend on a number of factors. The voice of the Church is better heard by
the leaders of countries in which Catholicism is a dominant religion or is
represented by a significant percentage of society. In countries in which
Catholics are small minorities, the situation is different. The ability of the
Catholic Church to influence also depends on the level of religious freedom
and democracy in a given country. For example, the activity of the Church
in North Korea, China or Saudi Arabia is likely to be completely different
than in Poland, Germany, Colombia or the USA. Therefore, all initiatives of
the Church aimed at building the partnership between countries, religions
and local communities differ in scope and nature depending on local
conditions.
The Catholic Church is also involved to varying degree in the
implementation of individual SDGs. This results not only from external
conditions, but also from the axiology constituting the foundation of
Catholic social teaching. The so-called demographic issue and environmental
issue discussed in this paper are both good examples of this dependence. The
Church recognises and highlights the importance of both these issues.
However, while the Church’s activity of the Catholic Church in solving the
environmental issue is relatively uncontroversial and the Church is heavily
engaged in it, her activity in solving the demographic issue is limited. The
Church generally shares the view on the demographic issue presented by the
UN, but she differs in the way she addresses the issue. As a result, the
Church is actively engaged in actions addressing women and children living
in extreme poverty, migration, literacy and education, promotion of the
culture of peace, and support for the family as the basic unit of society, but it
opposes the limitation of the procreative freedom and the promotion of
euthanasia and abortion. This is why the Church is involved in the
implementation of SDGs, morally controversial in nature, only to the extent
and with the methods she considers acceptable from the Catholic point of
view.
There are strong indications that the Catholic Church has many assets
thanks to which she is an important ally in the building of dialogue and
cooperation. She follows the call of the Second Vatican Council: “If we have
been summoned to the same destiny, human and divine, we can and we
should work together without violence and deceit in order to build up the
world in genuine peace” (SVC, 1965b, section 92). Seemingly, the key assets
of the Church include the following:
The Holy See has a high status at the UN, which is due to its moral
authority and the fact that it represents about 1.3 billion Catholics.
The Church uses ecclesiastical structures (international, regional,
national and local) and has extensive experience in working with the
UN, other international organisations, countries, religions, NGOs,
foundations and other actors to fight poverty and solve various social
and educational problems.
The Catholic Church has great merit and experience in mediating in
international and social conflicts.
The Catholic Church pays attention to the broad moral perspective,
which is often overlooked in favour of economic and political
perspectives, and this seems to be her greatest asset.
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Conclusion
The comparative analysis of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of

the 2030 Agenda and Catholic social teaching shows that these two
approaches have many common points. One of them is a shared belief that
the growing global problems should be tackled by means of specific actions
of the entire international community with respect for the autonomy and
rights of ethnic, national or regional communities. Both approaches also
jointly emphasise that humanity uses the same common natural and social
resources, though the degree to which and the way in which they are used
vary significantly. It is often the case that actions taken in one part of the
world affect its other parts, bringing about unexpected consequences. The
fundamental shared actions and objectives include striving to respect equal
dignity of all people and ensure the appropriate legal, political and economic
means to protect it. Common actions include the promotion of inclusive
development for any person or nation, including in particular the poorest
and those who are deprived of the tools necessary for their own
development. Generally speaking, almost all objectives of the 2030 Agenda
are fairly consistent with the principles of Catholic social teaching, but this
is due to the fact that the objectives are expressed in very general terms and
refer to quite obvious rights of individuals and entire social groups. The
differences include the way the objectives are prioritised and, in terms of
operationalisation, the directions for specific actions, i.e., the tools and
methods of implementation.
This monograph clearly shows that, in terms of ecological issues,
generally considered to be closer to the left-wing worldview, i.e., ecology,
care for the Earth and the role of man in the process, Catholic social
teaching is surprisingly close to the views of those who are not indifferent to
environmental issues, and precedes them in some cases. The modern
teaching of the Catholic Church on environmental care coincides with the
assumptions of international and regional organisations, and new
interpretations of the biblical texts shed light on environmental care in a
variety of areas. Differences in the worldview in this respect often result
only from different axioms: we can treat the care for the environment only
as an end in itself (this is how ecology is sometimes understood) or see it in
a broader perspective as the relationship between creation, of which man is
also part, and the Creator. Nevertheless, it seems that both approaches will
eventually coincide, especially in practical terms, as they both care about the
environment even though for other reasons.
Laudato Si’, the encyclical of Pope Francis of 2015, which received a wide
reception, not only from the Catholic world, best reflects the care for the
Earth. The pope calls the Earth “our common home.” The Earth perceived as
a home results from the etymology of the term “ecology.” The term consists
of two Greek words: “oikos,” denoting household, home or place of residence,
and “logos,” meaning word or science. It was first used in 1866 by Ernst
Haeckel to denote the part of biology that deals with the relationships
between organisms and the environment. The encyclical and other
documents of the Church (also prior to Pope Francis, especially those of
Pope Paul VI and John Paul II) emphasise that such an approach to the planet
is deeply rooted in the truth of Revelation concerning the creation, the
Creator and the special role of man in his care for the planet as a home.
Interpretations of the biblical texts show that God’s command to “subdue the
Earth,” so often misinterpreted, has never meant to denote the abuse or
overuse of its resources. In fact, these words imply the care for what was
given to man. In this respect, the Christian view of ecology is
anthropological in nature as it shows the essential role of man in the process
and the concern for man as a part of the creation, and at the same time is
directed towards the Creator to whom both the Earth and man owe their
existence.
The interdisciplinary study of the 17 SDGs of the 2030 Agenda presented
in this monograph shows very clearly how the Christian view and the
approach proposed by international organisations can complement each
other, in particular in practical terms, and how much they can offer if come
together, especially given that today’s world urgently needs the increased
efforts of many circles to achieve the common good in the areas concerned.
In declaratory terms, there are no major differences in the approach to
building partnerships between the Catholic Church and SDGs. The Catholic
Church is open to engaging in building an international partnership for the
implementation of SDGs, but at the same time she strives to observe her
own methods of achieving the goals and intends to implement them on the
basis of strictly axiological grounds.
One of the fundamental values is human freedom. Catholic social
teaching recognises that all people are equal and free, and clearly indicates
that every person has the natural right to be recognised as a free and
responsible being. In an increasingly complex reality (in terms of technology,
law etc.), the risk of losing subjectivity seems to be a serious problem.
Looking through the prism of community matters and human dignity, one
can see structural deficiencies which weaken human subjectivity. This way
of thinking is followed by the call to effectively protect the human person,
which embodies the individual’s freedom in the modern state. The
guarantees of subjectivity can be made permanent and real only if they are
institutionalised and support the individual. At the same time, these
functions cannot be limited by access barriers and cannot be selective in
nature. The solutions proposed in this monograph (in particular for SDG16),
regarding legal assistance, legal information and local government, are
undoubtedly good examples of such open bottom-up activities.
In this respect, the issue of education and implementation of SDG4 should
be highlighted since, despite the UN’s efforts and significant progress, this
area remains a big challenge for the international community. As noted in
the monograph, the modern teaching of the Catholic Church fits into the
implementation of the 2030 Agenda in a fairly unique way. The Church
strongly emphasises that freedom should be understood as the affirmation of
humans in relation to ethical values, and that dialogue should not imply the
rejection of identity or submission to cultural colonisation, but should lead
to the search for the truth, education for persistence to serve the truth and
acceptance of the multiplicity of forms and structures of social life.
Some of the guidelines of sustainable development of the 2030 Agenda are
criticised simply because it is assumed that the efforts of the protagonists of
sustainable development focus, first and foremost, on nature while Catholic
social teaching fulfils the anthropocentric vision. More precisely, there is a
discrepancy, seemingly inevitable, between the anthropocentric and
ecocentric perspective established within the framework of the definition of
development. However, it seems that this conflict is only theoretical. Note
that development was originally perceived in a strictly economic sense and
was measured by means of economic growth. Despite the original
enthusiasm for the economic concept, in the early 1960s, it was recognised
that social aspects of development should also be taken into account. In the
1980s, the concept of sustainable development was adopted. The concept
assumed the development in relation to both the human population and the
Earth’s ecosystems and natural resources under the so-called holistic
approach encompassing social, economic and environmental aspects. The
global crisis of the 1980s which exacerbated global poverty contributed to
the revaluation of the concept of development and directed it towards
human development. Article 1 of the Declaration on the Right to
Development of 1986 states that the human being is a central entity entitled
to development, and highlights the individual’s responsibility for their own
development and the development of community in which they live. This is
the origin of the concept of the so-called human development which defines
development as a process of increasing the spectrum of human choices and
puts a long life with access to health care, education and the possibility of
participating in the social and political life of the country at the centre of
efforts for development.
It seems that this concept, undoubtedly anthropocentric in nature, played
a key role in shaping the Millennium Development Goals focused on
education and health and the succeeding Sustainable Development Goals of
the 2030 Agenda which are mostly centred around social matters,
undoubtedly in opposition to the purely economic perspective of
development. The concept of development expressed in the 2030 Agenda
seem to be consistent with the so-called “integral ecology,” a concept
introduced by Pope Francis, also commonly called “integral development.” In
his encyclical Laudato Si’, Pope Francis suggests that “since everything is
closely interrelated … we now consider some elements of an integral
ecology, one which clearly respects its human and social dimensions”
(section 139). In section 141 of the encyclical, he refers to the concept of
economic growth. He notes that
economic growth, for its part, tends to produce predictable reactions and
certain standardisation with the aim of simplifying procedures and
reducing costs. This suggests the need for an economic ecology capable of
appealing to a broader vision of reality. The protection of the
environment is in fact an integral part of the development process and
cannot be considered in isolation from it. [section 114] We urgently need
a humanism capable of bringing together the different fields of
knowledge, including economics, in the service of a more integral and
integrating vision.
The concept of integral ecology indicates that man, as an individual, is

both at the centre of development and co-responsible for his own
development and the development of all creation, i.e., society and the
environment. The factor which makes the concept of integral ecology
different from other concepts of development is that it centres around God
and seeks justification in the Bible. The common point for the concepts of
sustainable, human or integral development is the concern for the future of
humanity in the context of life of the human being living on the Earth.
One of the problems which is challenging for the Church and precludes
her from building a universal partnership is the population policy
pertaining, in particular, to eradication of poverty. Similarly to the Catholic
Church, SDG1 clearly states that poverty, especially extreme poverty, is a
social evil which needs to be counteracted, following the principles of social
solidarity and sustainable development. However, the measures and
methods to achieve quite clearly defined goals are underspecified in SDG1.
In this respect, Catholic social teaching certainly does and will differ from
the solutions proposed by left-wing circles, not directly indicated in the 2030
Agenda, e.g., birth control or projects based on paternalism. The differences
became particularly apparent at the International Conference on Population
and Development in Cairo in 1994 and at the Nairobi Conference in 2019 in
connection with the 25th anniversary of the Cairo Conference. According to
Catholic social teaching, forms of assistance to the poor must respect human
dignity, primacy of the person over things, human subjectivity and human
freedom.
Women’s rights and the role of the family in social life and individual
development are also perceived in a different way, and this constitutes
another significant area of dispute. As shown in the chapter on SDG5, the
2030 Agenda highlights, inter alia, the need to recognise and value the
unpaid care work provided by women regardless of their country of origin.
Based on the retrospective view on the issue (Polish Mother) and the
contemporary perspective (e.g., the situation of women in Africa), it has
been noted that women in many parts of the world still perform the vast
majority of domestic and caring activities which men are reluctant to do.
Moreover, as highlighted in the concept of ecofeminism, women are also
engaged in farming, animal husbandry and drawing drinking water in
difficult climatic conditions. On the other hand, based on the lessons from
history, the “social contract between sexes” is currently being reformulated.
The 2030 Agenda emphasises that men (and other household members) need
to systematically engage in direct household works and take co-
responsibility for the daily life of their families, i.e., take care of children,
prepare meals, maintain cleanliness, arrange free time etc. This is supposed
to be one of the ways to counteract the forced professional inactivity of
women. This trend has been followed by the Catholic Church since the
Second Vatican Council. The apostolic letter Mulieris Dignitatem on
women’s dignity and vocation was a breakthrough in the issue. However,
this position of the Church is not widely known. The Church is a priori
perceived as a patriarchal institution which restricts women to their role as a
wife and mother and perpetuates the centuries-old division into male and
female tasks. In reality, the Catholic Church is a proponent of
antidiscrimination measures. However, it should be noted that this pursuit of
equality does not imply the masculinisation of women or the unification of
the social concept of sex. This attitude is reflected in the encyclical
Evangelium Vitae of Pope John Paul II. The Pope calls women to engage in
the creation of a “new feminism” which warns against the blind imitation of
men and shows the “feminine genius” in its entirety. This shows that
Catholic social teaching does not deny the natural differences between the
sexes and emphasises equality in dignity.
The differences between the 2030 Agenda and Catholic social teaching are
often driven by motivation. For example, leaving aside the issue of so-called
reproductive rights, including attitudes towards abortion, the theological
reflections under the analysis of SDG3 devoted to health care emphasise the
spiritual needs of man. In addition to the ultimate goal of health care, which
is to ensure the quality of life for the healthy and ill (suffering), particular
attention is given to the respect for human dignity and the need to protect
human rights, including the right to religious freedom.
Similar conclusions are drawn in the analysis of SDG7. From the point of
view of Catholic social teaching, the call to create sustainable energy
deserves attention and promotion, provided that technological and ethical
dilemmas are resolved. In Catholic social teaching, respect for human
dignity constitutes a measure of progress of civilised humanity. Therefore,
before any actions for progress are initiated, human dignity should be
promoted and encouraged via education and upbringing activities for the
young generation.
A similar conclusion is presented in the discussion on hunger eradication
(SDG2), overconsumption (SDG12) and the protection of terrestrial and
marine ecosystems (SDG13, SDG14 and SDG15). Both Catholic social
teaching and the 2030 Agenda conclude that the current pattern of
consumption threatens whole societies and the environment. What makes
these two perspectives different is the way the issues are recognised and
approached. The 2030 Agenda makes little effort to recognise the problem.
Catholic social teaching emphasises that hunger (or overconsumption) is not
only due to purely economic or technical reasons. It is caused by human sin,
manifested in people’s desire to meet their own needs at the expense of
others, resulting in the moral crisis, the destruction of normativity and the
pace of life called “rapidification” (Francis, Laudato Si’, section 18). This
shows that the care of the Church is not limited to human health and the
environment. The Church also discusses the destructive consequences of the
issue for mental, moral, spiritual, cultural and political life.
The chapters of the monograph also frequently conclude that the “social
dimension” of the implementation of the goals of the 2030 Agenda is
insufficient. Following Catholic social teaching, they repeatedly point out the
need to increase the involvement of local communities in activities for the
implementation of SDGs, e.g., SDG2, SDG6, SDG9, SDG11 and SDG16, and
promote their broader empowerment, including through the principle of
subsidiarity. One of the solutions they propose is to encourage greater
participation of authorities and local communities in decision-making
processes.
The monograph repeatedly highlights the role of the Catholic Church,
stressing that the Church goes beyond the theoretical scope and undertakes
practical activities all over the world. It also indicates the complementarity
between the activities of the Church’s institutions and of secular institutions.
The Church adopts the multidimensional approach to man to diagnose the
problems and drives a deeper, spiritual motivation to solve them, whereas
secular institutions are complementary in relation to the activities of the
Church, drawing on the achievements of science and providing practical
solutions to the problems. Whether SDGs will remain just another concept
of development or will contribute to the creation of a measurable platform
of cooperation and action for the good of the individual and the
environment depends on the practical implementation of the 17 SDGs. The
analysis of each of SDGs has shown that, despite some differences, there is a
broad space for cooperation and dialogue between the Catholic Church and
other stakeholders for the implementation of the 2030 Agenda.
Index
3D printing 139
3R strategy 79
4G internet and future 5G 141
abortion 25, 34, 41, 45–47, 261–262, 270, 278

access to law 247–248
access to water 29, 30, 32, 54, 87, 91, 94, 97–98, 163
ACN 32
aesthetics 172–173, 175, 185, 227
Africa 7, 9, 28–30, 46, 63, 64, 64, 65, 66, 67, 76–78, 89, 95, 98, 155, 159, 231, 236, 258, 260, 278
African Union Agenda 2063 76
Agenda 21 235–236
Aid to the Church in Need see ACN
alienation 116–117, 119, 180, 247
Anthropocene 198–200
anthropocentrism 137, 208, 232–234
architects 171–172, 175, 181
architecture 173, 175, 177, 194
Arctic 201, 213
ARPANET 138
artificial intelligence 110, 139, 145
Asia 7, 9, 28, 46, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 98, 140
axiology 34, 40, 41, 108, 234, 269
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action 72

Big Data 139, 249
biodiversity 27, 29, 97, 198, 200, 213, 218, 220, 223, 228, 233–234, 236, 258
biotechnology 139, 149
blockchain technology 139
Book of Genesis 174, 217, 229
Cairo Conference (1994) 260–261, 277

Caritas 219, 267
CEDAW 73, 80
central administration 251
centres of charitable assistance 66
charity 23, 42, 55, 63, 64, 67, 88, 107, 188–189
Charter of Kraków 172
children, kitchen, church 74
Christian anthropology 81, 118, 136, 219
Church of the Poor 5, 12
Church’s mission 22, 66, 266
Church’s teaching 10, 12, 16–17, 23, 43, 59–60, 80, 87, 107–108, 115–123, 142, 153, 157, 162, 166, 175, 193,
195–196, 206–207, 233, 256
city 31, 171–177, 181, 188
climate change 21, 26–30, 94–95, 97, 102, 178, 193–194, 198–206, 208, 208n1, 212–214, 216, 218, 221, 227–
228, 236, 264, 269
COMECE 107–108, 259
Commission of the Bishops’ Conferences of the European Community see COMECE
common good 3, 87, 89, 102–103, 108–109, 111, 118, 123, 134, 154, 157, 166, 177, 187, 189, 193, 217, 219,
223, 241–242, 244, 250, 257, 262–263, 265–266, 275
common heritage 220, 222, 248
conservatives 208
consumer 25, 106, 109, 144, 184, 186–188, 190, 192–196, 250
consumerism 11, 25, 34, 173, 190–191, 193–194, 196
consumption 26–28, 30, 34, 90, 105, 108–111, 161, 174, 179, 184, 186–188, 190–195, 207, 279
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women see CEDAW
coordinated care 49, 51
cultural diversity 78, 172, 175, 177, 194
cultural heritage 171–177, 181
culture of rejection 63, 157, 174, 194
decentralisation 6, 111, 207, 250–251

decent work 114–115, 118–121, 123–128
decision making 110–111, 127, 234, 243–245, 250, 261, 279
democracy 14, 59, 142, 159, 244, 246, 269
desert 214, 231
destruction of normativity 234, 279
digital divide 132, 141, 144
digital revolution 110, 132, 138, 144–145, 147–149
dignity 2, 6, 10–12, 16–17, 39–40, 42, 45, 47, 50, 59–60, 81–84, 89, 91, 97, 103–104, 108–111, 114, 116, 122,
126, 128, 134, 153, 158, 162–163, 166, 177–178, 180, 186, 188, 195, 219, 232, 241–244, 250, 252–253,
257, 262, 265, 274–275, 277–278
dignity of work 114, 116, 122
domestic work 72–77, 80, 83–84
drinking water 9, 26, 29–30, 43, 76, 87–91, 95, 98, 218, 278
ecofeminism 76, 82, 278

ecological conversion 61, 89–90, 215, 223
ecological sin 90, 176, 215
ecological virtue 204
ecology 1, 40, 42, 103, 133, 157, 163, 175–176, 181, 206–207, 215, 217–218, 223, 244, 259, 263, 274–275,
277
economic growth 33, 114–115, 117, 119–121, 127–128, 135, 159, 161, 178, 191, 276–277
economic inequality 154, 158–159, 161–163
economy 14, 33, 40, 74, 108–109, 111, 116, 118, 120, 124–127, 133, 135, 138, 144, 159–162, 176, 180, 194,
203, 206–207, 252
education for sustainable development 55–59, 63, 66, 68–69
egoism 193
energy consumption 105, 109, 111
energy mix 104–105
energy poverty 106–108, 110
energy poverty indicators 107
Energy Watch Group see EWG
environmental protection 43, 103, 171, 212, 217, 233, 237
environmental virtue 205
equality 15, 33, 59, 72–74, 76–77, 79, 81–84, 97, 106, 108, 127, 162, 164, 203, 242–243, 246, 278
equality before the law 246
EU 5, 7, 10, 40–41, 44–45, 47, 78, 104–108, 111, 125–126, 142, 220–221, 228, 236–237, 248, 251, 259
Europe 46, 59, 65, 66, 67, 74–75, 105–107, 133, 140, 162, 205–206, 220, 251
European Charter of Patients’ Rights 45
European Union see EU
euthanasia 42, 45, 47, 262, 270
EWG 104
extreme poverty 5–10, 12–13, 15–17, 46, 78, 97, 114, 158, 160, 179, 270, 277
extreme weather conditions 201
fear of missing out see FOMO

FOMO 132, 143
food 10, 21–23, 25–27, 29–32, 42, 50, 74, 76, 110, 185, 194, 201, 203, 214, 218, 220, 222, 227–228, 233
food waste 26–27, 194
freedom 3, 7, 11–12, 15–17, 22, 42, 44, 60–61, 66, 69, 82, 125–126, 142, 156, 185, 190–191, 193, 241–253,
257, 259, 262–263, 266, 268–270, 275–278
gender 15, 50, 55, 59, 68, 72–74, 76–77, 79–84, 97, 108, 127, 178, 202, 267
gender equality 59, 72, 74, 76–77, 79, 81–83, 97
gender relations 74
global ethics 234–235
globalisation 25–26, 57–59, 62, 136, 167, 178–179, 181
global justice 203–204
global warming 29, 193–194, 198, 200–201, 208n1, 212, 216
Google Search 138
greenhouse effect 200, 218
greenhouse gas 27–28, 200–202, 208n1, 228
Green Party 205
Greenpeace 104
Haidara, Souhayata 77
harmony 90, 117, 178–179, 184
health care: primary 48–49, 51; secondary 44, 46, 48; tertiary 46, 49
health prevention 40, 43, 48–50
Holy See 107, 148–149, 180, 217, 257–262, 265, 270
human capital 78–79, 120–121, 154, 161, 167
human development 1, 8, 12, 51n1, 55, 103, 106–107, 120–121, 144, 177, 190–191, 217, 219, 258, 276
human dignity 6, 11–12, 16, 42, 50, 97, 103–104, 108, 110–111, 116, 126, 134, 153, 177–178, 180, 188, 195,
242, 244, 250, 253, 257, 262, 265, 275, 277–278
human health 40, 194–195, 237, 279
humanisation 59, 116
human labour 124
human life 25, 30, 39–43, 50, 55, 66, 80–81, 88, 103, 116, 153, 188, 191, 196, 218, 220, 262
human needs 9, 93, 184, 186–187
human rights 6–8, 12, 22, 40–41, 44–45, 59–60, 88–92, 94–96, 98, 153, 163–166, 178–179, 204, 243, 246–
248, 258, 278
hunger 5, 13–14, 21–26, 29–34, 114, 155, 160, 178, 185, 228, 267, 279
ICESCR 7, 14, 44
ICT 57, 133
ILO 77, 114–115, 118, 124–127
inclusive growth [154, 158, 160, 163]
inclusive society 154, 178, 241
industrialisation 132–135, 144–145, 149, 214
inequality 6, 9, 40, 72, 74, 76, 79, 81–82, 90, 127, 133, 136, 141, 148, 153–155, 158–163, 167–168, 178–179,
202–203, 256, 260
information and communication technologies see ICT
integral development 42, 111, 116, 119, 155, 162, 180, 219, 244, 277
integral ecology 1, 163, 176, 181, 217, 223, 259, 277
intercultural dialogue 59, 62, 174, 259, 268
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights see ICESCR
International Labour Organisation see ILO
international law 6, 8, 45, 91–93, 96, 212, 219, 223, 235
interreligious dialogue 62, 262
intrinsic value of nature 204, 237
Jevons paradox 105

Jevons, William Stanley 105, 185
justice 7, 26, 30, 43, 51n1, 60–61, 73, 88, 97, 102, 107–108, 111, 119, 122, 125, 134–135, 149, 162, 179, 186–
192, 203–204, 241, 246–247, 259, 263, 267
Kissinger Report 31
Latin America 46, 63, 64

legal assistance 242, 246, 248–250, 253, 276
legal protection 10, 221
liberals 208
lifelong learning 54, 57–59, 66, 68
lifestyle 13, 15, 43, 61, 109, 173, 176, 184, 186, 188, 192–196
local community 48, 87, 97, 171–173, 175–177, 181, 234, 251–252, 256–257, 265–269, 279
local government 176, 242, 250–253, 276
logic of giving and forgiving 189
mankind 128, 133–134, 175, 206, 214–215, 217, 263

marine ecosystem 213, 221–222, 279
marine resources 212–213, 215–216, 221, 223
media 34, 80, 96–98, 132, 142–145, 148, 156, 167, 186, 222, 251
medical care centre 49
mental health 40, 45, 47–48, 186
Middle East 31, 35n1, 258
migration 98, 122–123, 127, 163–167, 247, 259, 265, 267, 270
misery 10, 23, 154
missionary activity 55, 66
modernism 117, 172, 206
modern medicine 39
modern technologies 145, 148
monument conservators 171
moral crisis 233, 279
Nairobi Conference (2019) 261, 277

Nassar, Samir 32
neo-Malthusianism 25
network society 140
new evangelisation 43
new feminism 81, 278
NGO 8, 73, 93, 260, 265, 270
Noah 177, 231
non-governmental organisation see NGO
ocean 200, 212–221, 223–224

OECD 79–80, 160–161
oikophilia 245–246
Open Innovation 111–112
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development see OECD
original sin 23, 115
Palma ratio 161

papal documents 59, 62
papal teaching 60, 63, 215, 219
partnership 55, 139, 256–260, 262–269, 275, 277
pastoral care 42, 51n1
patient rights 40, 44–45, 50–51
PCJP 43, 51n1, 73, 88
physical health 40, 45, 192–193
Polish Mother 75–77, 278
pollution 29, 61, 87, 89, 109, 163, 194, 212, 216, 218, 220–221, 223, 228, 231, 237
Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace see PCJP
poverty 5–17, 25, 27, 40, 46, 76, 78, 97, 102, 106–108, 110–111, 114, 123, 125, 127–128, 136, 155, 158, 160,
162, 173, 178–180, 203, 208n1, 233, 238, 256, 267, 270, 276–277
poverty line 158, 160
practical ethics 235
principle of solidarity 7, 10–12, 17, 103–104, 119, 265
principle of subsidiarity 12, 41, 44, 80, 119, 121, 219, 250–251, 265, 279
protection of migrants 153, 163
protection of seas 212, 216–217
public health 41, 44–45
public information 247, 249
R&D 34, 133

reformation 75
refugee 122, 163, 165–167, 265, 267
relational model of inclusion 155–156
reproductive rights 34, 77, 278
research and development see R&D
responsibility 2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 15, 17, 24, 50, 56, 58, 73, 77, 79, 81, 83–84, 90–91, 108, 123, 127, 136–137, 142,
186, 195, 199, 208, 216–217, 222–223, 232–234, 237–238, 241, 244, 246, 248, 250–251, 257–258, 263,
265–266, 276, 278
Riegl, Alois 172
Samaritan behaviour 42
Scruton, Roger 173, 176, 244–246
sea 87, 89, 91–92, 96, 198, 212–224
second account of creation 230
Second Vatican Council see SVC
self-actualisation 185–186
sin 5, 8, 10–11, 23, 33, 82, 90, 115, 176, 189, 215, 231, 279
SIDS 213
slavery 78, 82, 87, 125, 128
Small Island Developing States see SIDS
social capital 120, 153, 158, 162, 265
social exclusion 7, 8, 10, 107, 127, 141, 148, 173, 178–181
social inclusion 73, 107–108, 127, 153–155, 177–178
social integration 148, 171–174, 178, 181
social media 142–144
social pedagogy 153
social protection 13, 79–80, 118, 127–128, 155
soil biodiversity 228, 236
soil degradation 28, 227–229, 232–234, 237–238
soil quality 228
soil quality indicators 228
solidarity 3, 5, 7, 10–14, 16–17, 24, 26, 29, 42, 44, 88, 90, 96–97, 103–104, 108, 110–111, 117–119, 122,
134–135, 149, 178–179, 188–192, 207, 234, 241, 263, 265, 277; see also principle of solidarity
spiritual dimension 22, 106, 195, 231
spiritual education 42
subsidiarity 3, 12, 41, 44, 80, 104, 108, 119, 121, 162, 219, 241, 250–251, 265, 279; see also principle of
subsidiarity
sustainable energy 102–106, 108–110, 278
SVC 2, 3, 10–12, 17, 21, 62, 66, 73, 88, 135, 187–188, 260, 262–263, 270, 278
Teilhard de Chardin Pierre SJ 103

theology of liberation 3
The World in 2050 see TWI 2050
third wave society 138
tourism 222
traditional medicine 39
TWI2050 109
UDHR 7, 14, 22, 44, 153

UNCCD 236
UN Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or
Desertification, Particularly in Africa see UNCCD
UNDP 54, 87
UNEP 216, 236
United Nation Development Programme see UNDP
United Nations Environment Programme see UNEP
Universal Declaration of Human Rights see UDHR
universal destination of goods 3, 23, 118
unpaid care 72–74, 77, 79–80, 278
UN Research Institute for Social Development 77, 185
urban space 174–175, 177, 181
Venice Charter 172

virtuality 140
water 9, 10, 26–32, 42–43, 54, 76–77, 79, 87–98, 105, 110, 133, 163, 194, 200, 203, 212, 214–215, 217–218,
220–222, 227–228, 230, 235, 237, 278
water distribution 96–98
water ethics 97–98
water law 96
water shortage 88
weak anthropocentrism 208, 232, 234
women’s empowerment 76–77, 79, 84, 123
Women’s Liberation Movement 73
work as a gift 116–117
World Bank 7, 9, 54, 77, 158, 160–161, 209n2
World Union of Women’s Catholic Organisations 73
World-Wide Web 138, 248
World Women’s Alliance for Life and Family 73

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Sustainable Development Goals and the

Jarosław A. Sobkowiak is Associate Dean of the Department of Theology

Radosław Zenderowski is Professor at CSWU (since 1999), Head of Chair

Ryszard F. Sadowski is Head of Department of Ecophilosophy at CSWU.

Stanisław Dziekoński, is Professor, has been Rector of UKSW since 2012, as

Edited by Katarzyna Cichos, Jarosław A.

The Routledge New Critical Thinking in Religion, Theology and Biblical

Investigating the Resurrection of Jesus Christ

Catholic Social Teaching and Theologies of Peace in Northern Ireland

Multi-Religious Perspectives on a Global Ethic

Sustainable Development Goals and the Catholic Church

For more information about this series, please visit:

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2021 selection and editorial matter, Katarzyna Cichos, Jarosław A.

The right of Katarzyna Cichos, Jarosław A. Sobkowiak, Radosław

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-367-50635-3 (hbk)

1 Poverty prevention as a challenge for the international community

2 The issue of hunger in the context of food security in Catholic

3 Health care as a personal and social asset

5 Combating legal and cultural forms of discrimination against

6 Access to water as common good of humanity in the context of

7 Prospects for sustainable development of the energy sector in the

8 Decent work and economic growth from the perspective of

9 Development or revolution? Industrialisation in the perspective of

10 Reducing inequality (social inclusion, social capital and protection

12 Harmony, consumption and lifestyle in Catholic social teaching

14 The protection of seas and oceans in light of international law and

15 Land and soil sustainable management in SDG15 and in Catholic

16 Conditions for the effectiveness of guarantees of the individual’s

17 The role of the Catholic Church in the building of the partnership

On 25 September 2015, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030

Sustainable Society. WW Norton & Company, pp. 150–175.

własnej tożsamości. Towarzystwo Naukowe Franciszka Salezego (with rich foreign-language

Definition of extreme poverty

While income and human development poverty focus on individuals,

People affected by human development poverty are people “without access

just as social inequalities down to the level of poverty exist in rich

Modern underdevelopment is not only economic but also cultural,

Lister states that there is no simple definition of poverty, although it

It can be assumed that SDG1 promotes solidarity, but this promotion

The role of social security in the fight against poverty

Needs. The discussions on the welfare state often focus on the

Amartaya Sen answers this question very precisely. Freedom is a

it is not the Church’s mission to work directly on the economic,

In Catholic social teaching, it is assumed that hunger and prevention of

The issue of hunger in Catholic social teaching

the acceptance by human society of murderous famines, without efforts

The moral dimension of hunger consists primarily in the fact that a

to blame population growth instead of extreme and selective

Deforestation to acquire new land for cultivation (e.g., South

Desertification of large areas due to plundering of timber and

Overfishing and illegal fishing

Loss of biodiversity as a result of the use of growing crops adapted to

Hunger and availability of drinking water

There is also some established precedent for taking account of family

The Middle East as a place where food has been used as a

we have “a sort of superdevelopment of a wasteful and consumerist kind

Health care from the theological perspective

Health as individual and social asset