LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND JURISPRUDENCE

1. GREAT MAN THEORY CONTEMPORARY LEADERSHIP

> leadership is inherent THEORY
> great leaders are born, not made Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership
> heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to
leadership when needed
Example: Sun Tzu (Art of War), Genghis Khan
(Khagan of the Mongols), Aristotle, Kings of
Great Britain, & Abraham Lincoln (American Civil
War)
2. TRAIT THEORY
> Inherit extraordinary qualities and traits
> almost similar to "Great Man" theory since it is
believed that leaders are born with special traits
example: Pope John Paul il, Mother Theresa,
Margaret Thatcher, Nelson Mandela, Gandhi
Reeves, 2001: Traits of a Leader
a. Emotional stability and composure
b. Admitting error
c. Good interpersonal skills
a. Intellectual breadth

3. Individual Character Theory

- distinctive physical and
psychological individual
characteristics: naturally
taller, attractive, intelligent, SERVANT LEADERSHIP
self-reliant, and creative
Coined by Robert Greenleaf
10 critical characteristics that a servant leader
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES should exhibit:
> Concerned with what leaders do and act than > Listening
who the leader is. > Empathy
> Great leaders are made, not born. > Healing
> become leaders through experience and > Awareness
observation. > Persuasion
> Conceptualization
> Foresight
KURT LEWIN (DEMOCRACY) > Stewardship
Categorized leadership styles as authoritarian, > Commitment to the growth of people
democratic, and laissez-faire. > Building community

Multiple Intelligences in Nursing

Leadership
Howard Gardner Max Weber (Organizational Theory)
1. Linguistic intelligence (word smart) bureaucracy based on hierarchy of authority.
2. Logical mathematical intelligence division of work based on specialization of
(number/reasoning smart) function
3. Spatial intelligence (picture smart)
4. Bodily anesthetic integence (body smart)
5. Musical inteligence (music smart)
6. Interpersonal inteligence (people smart)
7. intrapersonal intelligence (self-smart)
8. Naturalist intelligence (nature smart)

POWER
THE ABILITY TO EFFICIENTLY AND EFFECTIVELY
EXERCISE AUTHORITY AND CONTROL THROUGH PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
PERSONAL ORGANIZATIONAL AND SOCIAL 1. Authority - orders and power
STRENGTH. 2. Specialization of labor
Bases of Power 3. Discipline - no slacking, bending of rules
1. Legitimate power 4. Unity of Command - one and only one boss
2. Reward power 5. Unity of Direction - single plan
3. Coercive power 6. Subordination of Individual Interests - only
4. Expert power work things should be pursued or thought
5. Informational Power about
6. Referent Power (aka networking) 7. Remuneration - payment or compensation
8. Centralization of Authority -decisions are
Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Y made from the top
9. Chain of Command (line of authority)
10. Decentralization of Authority
11. Material and Social Order - institution's
policies and regulations
12. Equity and Justice
13. Personnel Tenure
14. Initiative
15. Scalar Chain - interconnectedness
16. Hierarchy
17. Motivation of Personnel
THEORIES OF MANAGMENT 18. Esprit de Corps - harmony, cohesion among
personnel
FREDERICK TAYLOR
Scientific Management Theory "one best
practice" PATIENT CARE DELIVERY SYSTEM
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY
Henry Fayol - set up a structure that wauld both MODALITIES OF CARE
promote order and raise worker's morale Provide the structure that allows nurses to plan
(PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT) and deliver nursing care to groups of clients. The
institution size, staff availability, environment,
budget, and organizational goals all affect the
model of nursing care delivery.
1.TRADITIONAL MODELS
A. TOTAL CARE OR CASE METHOD
>One nurse assumes total responsibility
>community health nursing, in private duty, in
intensive care and isolation units, and in making
assignments for students in nursing school.
B. FUNCTIONAL
> focused on the division of labor specifics and
tasks that need to be completed.
>roles: medication nurse and treatment nurse
C. TEAM
> each team consists of a mix of staff members
(RN, LPN & NA)
D. MODULAR NURSING
> more current version of team nursing.
is often used when primary nursing is not an
option.
> e.g. groupings of one 50-bed unit into three
modular substations
E. PRIMARY NURSING
>DOH 1:12
2. CONTEMPORARY MODELS
A. CASE MANAGEMENT
> is used to describe a variety of health care
delivery systems in acute, long-term, and
community setting.
> e.g. insurance companies, mental health
services
B. CLIENT-FOCUSED CARE
> services and staff organized around client
needs.
C. DIFFERENTIATED PRACTICE
> nursing roles and functions based on
education, experience and competence
> Hard to overcome mentality of "a nurse is a
nurse is a nurse"
The Code of Ethics for Filipino Nurses
Code of Ethics
>are systematic guides for developing ethical
behavior.
> what beliefs and values should be morally
accepted.
>No code could possibly provide absolute or
complete rules that are free from conflict and
ambiguity
>It strongly emphasizes the four-fold
responsibility of nurses: to promote health,
prevent illness, alleviate suffering and restore
health;
Legal Aspects and the Nurse
Professional Negligence
 NEGLIGENCE
 refers to the commission or omission of
an act, pursuant to a duty, that a
reasonably prudent person in the same
or siming circum an co ng di not chis the
proximate cause of injury to another
person or his property.
 The Doctrine of Res Ipsa Loquitor
 It means "the thing speaks for itself".
This means that the injury could not
have happened if someone was not
negligent that no further proof is
required.
 Malpractice
 Improper or unskillful care of a patient
by a nurse.
 Denotes stepping beyond one's authority
with serious consequences.
 Doctrine of Force Majeure
 Force majeure means an irresistible
force, one that is unforeseen or
inevitable.
 Doctrine of Respondeat Superior
 means "let the master answer for the
acts of the subordinate.
 Incompetence
 Is the lack of ability, or legal
qualifications and being unfit to
discharge the required duty.

Intravenous Therapy and Legal
Implications
> Nurses have to undertake a certified training
course on intravenous therapy
> Nurses should use the Intravenous Nursing
Standards of Practice developed by the
Association of Nursing Service Administrators of
the Philippines.
Consent to Medical and Surgical Procedures
Consent - free and rational act; legally capable
Nature of Consent
> it is the nurse who actually secures the
consent of the patient upon admission.
Who must consent.
+ the patient is the one who gives the consent
+ if he is incompetent (such as in the case of
minors or the mentally, ill) or physically unable
and is not an emergency case, consent must be
taken from another who is authorized to give it
in his behalf.
TORTS
A tort is a legal wrong, committed against a
person or property independent of a contract
which renders the person who commits is liable
for damages in a civil action.
> Examples:
1. Assault and battery
> Assault is the imminent threat of harmful or
offensive bodily contact. It is unjustifiable to
touch another person.
> battery is an intentional, unconsented
touching of another person.
2. False Imprisonment or Illegal Detention
3. Invasion of Right to Privacy and Breach of
Confidentiality
* publication of any picture of a patient or a
malformed baby without the consent of the
parents
4. Defamation
> character assassination, be it written or
spoken, constitutes defamation.
> Slander is oral defamation.
> Libel is defamation by written words, cartoons
or such representation
THE LICENSING BOARD
Professional Regulation Commission (PRC)
> The power to regulate the established
professions in the Philippines and to examine
the applicants to practice.
> Created by Presidential Decree (PD) 223.
> The regulatory power with respect to the
nursing profession is conferred upon the
Professional Regulatory Board of Nursing.
> PD 223 has been repealed by RA 8981, "The
PRC Modernization Act of 2000”
ORGANIZATION AND COMPOSITION
RA 9173 provides for the creation of a
Professional Regulatory Board of Nursing.
> Sec 4. Composition of the Board.
- composed of a chairperson and six (6)
members, representing the three (3) areas of
nursing: nursing education, nursing service, and
community health nursing. The Board shall be
under the administrative supervision and
control of the Commission.
Members of the Board of Nursing may be
appointed by:
1. Regular Appointment.
> the PNA certifies for appointment to the
Nursing Board of the PRC, twelve candidates
who possess the required qualifications. They
are ranked accordingly.
> The list of the twelve certified nominees are
forwarded to the Commissioner of the PRC for
further screening.
> The Commissioner in turn, submits the first six
from the list to the President of the Philippines.
> The President appoints the board member.
> Such appointment is confirmed by the
Commission on Appointments
2. Ad Interim Appointment.
> appointed in the meantime to fill in a vacancy
or perform the duties of an office during the
absence of the regular incumbent.
> no definite term of appointment.
3. Doctrine of Hold-Over.
> In this instance, a member of the Nursing
Board is permitted to continue to exercise the
functions of the office after the end of his/her
lawful term until replaced.
TERM OF OFFICE
No Chairperson and Member shall be appointed
and/or reappointed for more than 2 terms or a
period of 6 years
COMPENSATION
> paid based on the principle of quantum meruit
which means "as much as they deserve"
. Types of Plans
LICENSE TO PRACTICE NURSING
License
> is a legal document given by the government
Professional Regulations Commission (PRC)
> appropriate authority
Registration
> is the recording of names of persons who have
qualified under the law to practice their
respective professions.
Reciprocity
> means mutuality in the grant and enjoyment
of privileges between persons or nations.
> based on the principle of "do ut des" which
means that for a country to expect a favor from
another, it should be willing to give a
corresponding favor.
> jus soli doctrine, the nationality of a person is
determined by the law of the place of his birth;
the child born in a foreign country, whatever
may be the citizenship of the father, is a citizen
of that country.
> Naturalization is the act of adopting a
foreigner and giving him the privileges of a
native citizen.
> jus sanguinis doctrine, the nationality of a
person is determined by the law of his descent
or parentage; the child follows the citizenship of
his father.
Oath-Taking of Nurses
Oath. is within 15 days upon the release of the
results of the licensure examination.
Annual Registration
> shall pay a fee for three (3) years which shall
be paid on the professional's birth month.
> Suspension means that the nurse is no
allowed to practice temporarily until fina
judgment of the case against him or her is
rendered. The license is not confiscated.
> Revocation means that the license tc practice
is confiscated either temporarily or
permanently.
PLANNING
1.Strategic Plan
- usually around 3-5 years, long-term in nature.
2. Operating Plans
- generally shorter in time trame (1 year). and
usually involve the middle and lower level
managers.
3. Continuous or Rolling Plans
- similar to operating plans, involves mapping
out the day-to-day activities.
TOOLS IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT
 GANTT CHART
> Show task and schedule information. The tasks
are numbered and listed vertically.
 ORGANIZING
Organization backbone of management
Remember: manager cannot do without
organization and there can be no management
without organization.
Organization
> roles and relationship of staff
> delineate specific tasks or functions
> process of identifying and grouping the work
to be performed
> defining and delegating responsibility and
authority,
> enabling the people to work most effectively
together in accomplishing objectives (Allen,
1998).
2 major categories of organization
a. Formal organization - logical process
b. Informal organization - behavioral pattern
The triumvirate of authority, responsibility and
accountability are arranged in a hierarchy,
which is often known as a bureaucracy.
b. Flat or Decentralized Structures
> Is characterized by few levels and a broad
span of control, where decision-making is
spread among many people.
Staffing
> Is a process of assigning competent people to
fill the roles designated for the organizational
structure through recruitment, selection and
developing.
> also includes induction and orientation of the
new staff on the goals, mission, vision,
objectives and philosophy of the organization.
Directing
- Is the issuance of assignment, orders and
instructions, delegation
Elements of Directing
1. Delegation
> Act of assigning to someone else a portion of
work to be done with corresponding authority,
responsibility and accountability (ARA) > Certain
matters cannot be delegated,
a. Overall ARA,
b. File evaluation of staff performance and
c. Correcting and disciplining staff
d. Activities which the nurse to whom the task is
delegated does not know how or does not
want to do because it is unpleasant.
e. Delegated tasks must be based on policies,
job description and capacities of workers.
DELEGATION (right task)
- Manager decides what task should be
delegated, when, where and by whom.
Five "rights" delegation:
● Right task
● Right circumstances
● Right person
● Right direction and communication
● Right supervision and evaluation
2. Supervision
> process of guiding and directing the work to
be done.
> motivating and encouraging the staff to
participate
3. Staff Development
> Is planned experience to help employees
perform effectively, and to enrich their
competence in practice, education,
administration and research.
4. Coordination
> Links the different
components of an organization
> Lead towards goal
achievement.
5. Collaboration
> All together with other members of the health
care team participate in the decision making
process.
6. Communication
> ensures common understanding via various
routes.
7. Evaluation
CONFLICT RESOLUTION:
1. Avoidance - reduce tension(no difference)
2. Accommodation - self sacrifice
3. Collaboration /Integrative (mutual attention)
4. Compromise (agreement of solution)
5. Withdrawing - one party is removed
6. Forcing - immediate end but cause
unresolved
7. Win-lose strategy (dominance & suppression)
8. Restriction (autocratic, coercive style)
9.Smoothing Behaviour (diplomatic, persuasion)
 10. Major Rules
11. Win-win (goals to meet needs of both
parties
12. Lose Lose (no one wins, solution is
unsatisfactory)
13. Confrontation (most effective, use
knowledge & reason)
14. Negotiation (give and take)
CONTROLLING
> formal authority to assure the achievement of
goals and objectives.
> Involves assisting, regulating, monitoring, and
evaluating individual and group periormance.
> Also called "coordinating"
> critical determinant of organizational success.
Performance Appraisal Tools
1. Trait Rating Scale
-rating a person against a set standard which
may be the job description, desired behavior
and personal trait
2. Job Dimension Scales
-focuses on job requirements and the quality of
work performance
3. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)
-focuses on desired behaviors to improve
performance
4. Checklist
-composed of behavioral statements that
represent desirable behavior.
5. Peer Review
- collegial evaluation of the performance done
to promote excellence in practice and offer
information, support, guidance, criticism, and
direction to one another.
6. Self- Appraisal
-allows the employee to evaluate own
performance
Common Errors in Appraisal
I. Halo Effect- raters first impression of the
ratee based on the good traits or good
things one sees in a person
II. Logical Error- often based on first
impressions of the rater to the ratee
III. Central Tendency Error- rates the staff as
average
IV. Leniency Error- overlook the weakness and
mistakes of the person
V. Hawthorne Effect- the behavior of the ratee
changes simply because he is observed by
the rater
VI. Horn's effect- occurs when rating an
employee very low because of an error
committed
Development of Standards
> it is mandatory that a criterion is established
and specified
> Example: Competency of the nursing
profession in the Philippines
QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
What Is a Quality Management System?
● is a management technique used to
communicate to employees what is required
to produce the desired quality of products
and services and to influence employee
actions to complete tasks according to the
quality specifications.
Standardized Systems
● ISO 9000 is a series of quality management
systems
(QMS) standards crealed by the
International Organization for
Standardization, a federation of 132 national
standards bodies.
● are not specific to products or services, but
apply to the processes that create them.
Total Quality Management (TQM)
● breaks down every process or activity and
emphasizes that each contributes or
detracts from the quality and productivity of
the organization as a whole.
Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI)
● allows individuals involved in the day-to-day
operations to change and improve processes
and work flows as they see fit.
● develop a quality system that is never
salisfied
● CQl has been adapted in several different ● Before achieving Magnet status, a hospital
industries. For example, in health care and must demonstrate excellence in nursing and
other service sectors, it has taken on the patient care as well as innovation in
acronym FOCUS-PCA work: professional nursing practice.
Find a process to improve.
Organize to improve a process.
Clarify what is known.
Understand variation.
Select a process improvement.
Then move through the process
improvement plan:
Plan -create a time line, including all
resources, activities, dates, and personnel
training.
Do -implement the plan and collect data.
Check -analyze the results of the plan.
Act -act on what was learned and determine
the next steps.

Six Sigma
● Six sigma was developed at Motorola in the
1980s as a method to measure and improve
high-volume production processes.
● overall goal: to measure and eliminate
waste by attempting to achieve near perfect
results.
● The term six sigma refers to a statistical
measure with no more than 3.4 defects per
million.

What is JCAHO?
● The JCAHO commonly is referred to as the
Joint Commission in the healthcare industry
● major objectives:
> to continually improve and enhance the
quality and safety of healthcare delivery
system.
>to engage patients in issues associated
with improving the quality and safely
MAGNET HOSPITAL
● The designation of "Magnet Hospital" is
awarded by the American Nurses
Credentialing Center (ANCC). This coveted
honor helps hospitals attract patients,
nurses and other medical staff.
INTRODUCTION TO NURSING
RESEARCH
PURPOSE OF NURSING RESEARCH
● To improve health care practices
● To create a strategy that will bridge the gap
between knowledge and practice.
NURSING RESEARCH VERSUS RESEARCH IN
NURSING
Nursing Research - refers to research done on
addressing the health concerns of clients and
the application of the research on their care.
Research in Nursing - refers to studies on the
particular concerns of nurses themselves.
VITAL ASPECTS OF METHODOLOGY (JACKSON
2011)

KEY TERMS USED IN QUANTITATIVE AND

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
CONCEPTUAL PHASE OF THE
NURSING RESEARCH PROCESS (1st
Phase)
1. TOPIC
• begin with a topic on which to focus.
• Examples of research topics are
claustrophobia during magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) tests and pain management
for sickle cell disease.
• Within broad topic areas are many possible
research problems.
2. RESEARCH PROBLEM (PROBLEM
STATEMENT)
• research problem is an enigmatic on
troubling condition.
• problem statement articulates the problem
and an argument that explains the need for
a study
3. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE
• which is a summary of an overall goal.
Sometimes the words aim or objective are
used in lieu of purpose.
4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• are the specific queries researchers , want
to answer.
5. HYPOTHESES
• Researchers who make specific predictions
about answers to research questions pose
hypotheses that are then tested.
"BUZZ WORDS" ASSOCIATED WITH THE
TRADITIONS:
• Grounded theory: processes; social
structures; social interactions
• Phenomenological studies: experience;
lived experience; meaning; essence
• Ethnographic studies: culture; roles;
lifeways; cultural behavior
• ● declarative hypothesis or statements of
Intervening Variables - not directly observable
but that link the independent and dependent
variables.
Moderator Variable - affects the strength or
direction of an association between the
independent and dependent variable.
Extraneous or Exogenous Variables
> are not the direct foci of the study, they tend
to affect results to a certain extent.
> are not also the direct interest of the
researcher, and must be controlled or
eliminated
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
● A hypothesis is a prediction, usually
involving a predicted relationship between
two or more variables.
● Qualitative researchers do not have formal:
hypotheses because qualitative researchers
want the inquiry to be guided by
participants' viewpoints.
Hypotheses can be stated in various ways, as in
the following example:
1. Older patients are more likely to fall than
younger patients. (directional hypothesis)
2. There is a relationship between a patient's
age and th likelihood of falling: (non-
directional hypothesis)
3. The risk of falling increases with the age of
the patien (directional hypothesis)
4. Older patients differ from younger ones with
respect t their risk of falling. (non-directional
hypothesis)
● A directional hypothesis specifies the
expected direction of the relationship
between variables.
● A nondirectional hypothesis does not
stipulate the direction of the relationship.
Another distinction is between
research and null hypotheses.
1. Research hypotheses (Ha or H1)
expected relationships between variables.
● It is also known as alternative hypothesis.
2. Null hypotheses (Ho)
● state that there is no relationship or
difference between the independent and
dependent variables.
● It is also known as Statistical hypothesis.
Hypotheses are never proved or disproved;
rather, they are supported or rejected.
DESIGNING & PLANNING PHASE (2nd
Phase)
What is RESEARCH DESIGN?
● is the researcher's plan of how the study will
be conducted,
● the type of data that will be collected,
● the techniques or the means to be used to
obtain these data, the reasons for the
choice of the subjects,
● the manner of determining sample size,
● the instruments to be used and their
validation,
● and the data analysis scheme which includes
the application of the statistical tools for
treatment of data arising from the study.
Basic Research Designs
A. Experimental Research
● inquiry on cause-and-effect relationships
● The researcher controls and manipulates the
dependent variable and randomly assigns
the subjects to differ conditions or
situations.
● researcher consciously manipulates or
controls situations related to the study, thus
interfering with nature.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
1. True Experiment
The researcher subjects the respondents of
the study to a particular situation for
specific purpose;
a. Control
The researcher imposes certain conditions
over the experimental situation such as the
use of:
1. A Control Group.
2. An Experimental Group.
b. Randomization
The research assigns subjects to a control
or experimental group on random basis,
every subjects has an equal chance of being
assigned to any group.
Validity
1. Internal Validity
Selection Bias, History, Maturation,
Testing, Instrumentation Change,
Mortality
2. External Validity
c. The Experimenter Effect
> researchers facial
expression, gender, and
clothing among others
c. The Reactive Effect of
the Pre-Test.
d. The Halo Effect.
2. Quasi-Experiment
> lacks one or more of the four (4)
properties of the true experiment.
> The missing ingredient is either
randomization or the control group of the
validity component.
3. Non Experimental Research
● known as "surveys"
● cannot control and manipulate the
independent variable
Types of Non-Experimental Designs
1. Basic or Library Research
> generating new knowledge.
2. Applied Research or "Action Research"
> seeks solutions to immediate problems
that have been identified by the clients and
the nurse in the actual work setting
A critical investigation and analysis of
events, developments and experiences of
the past.
Example:
 The Evolution of Nursing Practice from the
time of Florence Nightingale to the 21st
Century: Significant Indicators of Change
and Transition from the Past to Present
Practice of Nursing.
B. Descriptive Design
● gather information about the present
conditions, status, or trend and dealing with
what are prevailing are generally descriptive
research.
● The main objective of the study is to
describe the nature of a situation
1. Descriptive-survey
a. Descriptive survey - uses a
questionnaire or other instruments prepared by
the researcher to generate data.
b. Descriptive normative survey - deals
with sources of data that are standardized like
Mental Ability Test, Performance Questionnaire
where norms are prepared.
C. Descriptive - Developmental Studies
A study when one desires reliable
information about a group of people over a
long period of time. Two methods of
developmental studies
a) Longitudinal method - extended period of
time.
Examples:
1. A study on autistic children from 1 to 5
years.
2. Study on fraternal twins from birth to 7
years old
b) Cross-Sectional Method - same point in time.
Example:
A study on the development of babies from
birth to five years afflicted with a certain
type of disease and using respondents from
all age levels at the same time.
c). Descriptive-Evaluative or Assessment
Studies
Refer to be the efficiency or effectiveness of
policies, instruments, or the variables that
may be considered.
Examples:
The Implementation of Total Quality
Management in the Hospital: An
Assessmenti
d.) Descriptive-Comparative Studies
> There are also definite comparative
studies in research that are studies which
have intervening variable.
e.) Descriptive-Correlational Studies
>These are real "relationship",
"correspondence" or "association" studies.
> pearson r correlation coefficient to
describe relationship.
f.) Descriptive-Tracer Studies (Follow-up
Studies)
> This is used when one wants to follow-up
the development of certain conditions or
particular sets of people
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
> Focuses on insights
and understanding
of individual
perceptions on the
phenomenon under
study.
> "soft science", concerned with the
subjective" meaning of experience to an
individual.
a. Phenomenological Studies. > lived
experiences of individuals.
b. Ethnographic Studies. data on the lifestyle
and daily activities of ethnics. description and
interpretation of cultural and social behavior
of people in a group or system.
c. Graunded Theory Studies.
> analysis of data leading to the
development of a theory.
d. Historical Studies.
> involve identification, location, critical
evaluation and synthesis of past events in
order to shed light on present behavior,
trends or practices.
e. Case Studies.
> Data includes the clients history, growth
and development palterns and or
 circumstances affecting the client under
study.
Example:
"Case Study of Patients
with Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease.'
f. Field Studies.
> natural investigations done in the
community such as in nursing homes,
housing projects, and clinical wards, among
others.
g. Biographies.
> These studies explore the life of an
individual.
MIXED METHOD DESIGN
● involves collecting, analyzing, and integrating
quantitative and qualitative research in a
single study or a longitudinal program of
inquiry.
It involves quantitative research
A research approach that involves:
● Variables, hypotheses, questions
● Instruments, closed-ended questions,
reliability, validity
● Statistical analysis
Sampling Procedure
● selection of appropriate subjects or
respondents of the study.
Guideposts on the Sampling
Procedure
1. Universe
> refers to the target population
Example: patients; student nurses, staff
nurses
2. Population
> refers to that portion of the universe
accessible to the researcher.
Following are specific population types:
A. Target Population. The group of individuals
or objects about which speculative
information is desired.
Example: All patients in the Medical-Surgical
Ward.
B.subjects or Respondent Population. The
group of
individuals or objects chosen to provide
data and information needed in a research.
Examples: BSN | student nurses of St. John
College of Nursing. Stratum. A mutually
exclusive segment of the population,
distinguished by one or more traits or
qualifications.
3. Sampling
The process of selecting a representative
portion of the population to represent the
entire population:
a. Sampling Unit. A specific area or place which
can be used during the sampling process.
Examples: OB Gyne Ward
b. Sampling Frame. A complete list of sampling
unils from which the sample is drawn.
Example: If there are total of 10 clinical areas
in a hospital only 2 to 3 areas are sampled.
4. Sample
● A portion of the population from which data
will be solicited for purposes of the research.

Types or Categorizations of Sampling
1. Non-Probability Sampling
Respondents or subjects
are selected in a non-
random way Types:
a. Accidental or Convenience Sampling:
> Uses the most readily available or most
convenient group of people or objects as
study respondents.
b. Quota Sampling.
Divides the population into homogenous
strata or sub-populations to ensure
representative proportions of the various
strata in the sample
c. Purposive or Judgement Sampling.
> certain qualities for purposes of the study.
> Subjects are viewed as "typicall cases" or
"experts."
> Purposive sampling is commonly used in
qualitative studies.
d. Snowball or Network Sampling
> Is used when the population you want to
research is hard to reach, or there is no
existing database.
2. Probability Sampling
Random selection
of subjects or
elements of the
population.
Types of
Probability
a. Simple
Random
Sampling.
Each element has an equal chance or
probability of being chosen as subject of the
study.
b. Stratified Random Sampling.
Divides the population into homogeneous
subgroups from which elements are
selected at random.
Example:
Pick out 100 samples from a 300 population,
then group them according to age, sex, civil
status and occupation.
c. Cluster Sampling or Multi-Stage Sampling:
The successive selection of random samples
from larger to smaller units by either simple
random or stratified random methods. It
involves several stages in drawing the
samples from the population.
Example:
Province → municipality → village →
individual → respondent
● At each stage, simple random,
systematic and stratified techniques
are used. d. Systematic or Sequential
Sampling.
Every 5* house on the block every 7h patient
in the ICU.
Methods of Collecting Data:
1. Use of Already Existing or Available Data:
2. Use of Observer's Data.
Types of Observers:
Non-Participant Observer
Participant Observer
Types of Instruments
1. Questionnaire.
2. Interview.
a. Structured Interview
b. Unstructured Interview
 c. Semi-Structured Interview
EMPIRICAL/IMPLEMENTATION
PHASE(3RD PHASE)
● the most time-consuming part of the
investigation. The amount of time spent,
however, varies from study to study.
● This involves the collection of data and the
préparation of data for analysis. A data
collection plan needs to be developed
specifying:
● What data will be collected;
● How the data will be collected (i.e., in
person
ANALYTICAL PHASE
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
● instruments are evaluated for reliability and
validity.
● Descriptive statistics are used to describe
the sample characteristics which enhances
the interpretation of other analyses.
● Assumptions of statistical tests also need to
be evaluated before inferential statistics are
completed.
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
● transcripts or field notes are reviewed and
entered into a database.
● reducing data by coding significant
statements, identifying themes, and drawing
conclusions
● Comparing codes within and across
participants, noting patterns and
discrepancies, and drawing conceptual maps
to examine relationships between themes.
ETHICO-LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
NURSING RESEARCH
PROTOCOL
A document that provides the background,
rationale, and objectives of a research and
describes its design, methodology,
organization including ethical and statistical
considerations. (proposal is the submitted
protocol for approval)
HISTORY OF THE ETHICAL RESEARCH
MOVEMENT
THE NUREMBERG CODE
Informed consent is absolutely essential
Qualified researchers must use appropriate
research designs
There must be a favorable risk/ benefit ratio
Participants must be free to stop at any time
THE DECLARATION OF HELSINKI WORLD
MEDICAL ASSOCIATION
(1964, 1875, 1983, 1989, 1996, 2002)
"The well-being of the subject should take
precedence over the interests of science and
society" Consent should be in writing
Use caution if participant is in dependent
relationship with researcher
Limited use of placebo, especially if treatment is
available
THE BELMONT REPORT (THE U.S. NATIONAL
COMMISSION FOR THE PROTECTION OF
HUMAN SUBJECTS OF BIOMEDICAL AND
BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH, 1978)
Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the
Protection of Human Subjects of Research:
● Respect for persons
● Beneficence
● Justice
COUNCIL FOR INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS OF MEDICAL
SCIENCE
(CIOMS) GUIDELINES 1993, 2002
Nuremberg => Helsinki => CIOMS
● Informed consent
● Research in developing countries
● Protection of vulnerable population
● Distribution of the burdens and benefits
● Role and responsibilities of ethics
committees

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH ETHICS
VULNERABILITY OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
require special protection because of certain
characteristics or situations.
Vulnerable participants
● physical and mental disabilities,
● poverty,
● Distribution of the burdens and benefits
● Role and responsibilities of ethics committees
● asymmetric power relations,
● and marginalization, among others and who
are at greater risk for some harms.
TRANSPARENCY
An element of ethical research that promotes
confidence in the research enterprise, even
when privacy and anonymity need to be
preserved about sensitive matters.
Entails disclosure of research result