AC Steady-State Analysis

Electric Circuits I
ELE 211– Fall 2020
Amer S. Zakaria
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering

American University of Sharjah

Learning Objectives
➢ Describe the basic characteristics of sinusoidal functions.
➢ Perform phasor and inverse phasor transformations.
➢ Draw phasor diagrams.
➢ Calculate impedance and admittance of passive elements.
➢ Use the phasor transformation method to solve frequency-domain circuits
with sinusoidal sources.
➢ Apply circuit analysis techniques to frequency-domain circuits.

Recommended Readings: Chapter 9 & 10 from C. Alexander and M.

Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 6th edition, 2016, McGraw-Hill.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Learning Objectives 2

Sinusoids
Importance of Sinusoidal Sources
➢ Sinusoidal sources appear in many practical
problems.
▪ Electric power is distributed by sinusoidal currents and
voltages.
▪ Sinusoidal signals are used widely in radio
communications.
➢ Any signal can be represented by a sum of
sinusoidal components (Fourier Analysis).
➢ Sinusoids are good mathematical properties.
▪ Derivative is a sinusoid.
▪ Integral is a sinusoid.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Importance of Sinusoidal Sources 4

Sinusoidal Steady-State
➢ Whenever the forced input to the circuit is
sinusoidal the response will be sinusoidal.
➢ If the input persists, the response will persist
and we call it steady-state response.

Electric Circuit

AC Steady-State Analysis | Sinusoidal Steady-State 5

 Sinusoidal Signals (Voltages or Currents)
➢ A sinusoidal signal (e.g. voltage) can be given in general form

▪ Vm is the peak value or amplitude

of signal.
▪ ω is the angular frequency in
radians per second.
▪ ϑ is the phase angle in radians.
▪ T is the period in seconds.
▪ f = 1/T is the frequency in Hertz
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜃 = 2𝜋
𝑇

AC Steady-State Analysis | Sinusoidal Signals 6

Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values of a Sinusoid
➢ Reminder: For a resistor R in a DC circuit, the power absorbed is

(1)

➢ For a resistor in an AC circuit, the average absorbed power is

(2)

➢ If we compare (1) and (2) , then

Root Mean Square

(RMS) values of
current and voltage

AC Steady-State Analysis | RMS Values of a Sinusoid 7

Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values of a Sinusoid
➢ For a sinusoidal voltage

➢ The voltage RMS values is

➢ Similarly for a sinusoidal current

➢ Thus the average power across a resistor R is
➢ The equation for the RMS values derived above is only true for
sinusoidal signals but not for periodic square or triangular wave.

AC Steady-State Analysis | RMS Values of a Sinusoid 8

Example 5.1
➢ What is the average power for the AC voltage (below) applied to 50 Ω
resistor? What is the power as a function of time?

AC Steady-State Analysis | Example 5.1 9

Complex Numbers
Complex Numbers
➢ What is the solution for the following equation?

➢ The solution for x is an imaginary number.

➢ A complex number is the sum of a real number and an
imaginary number.
➢ Why are complex numbers important?
▪ A complex number can carry two pieces of information.
▪ They are important to understand the sinusoidal response
of a time-varying system.
▪ It is used in all fields of engineering and science.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Complex Numbers 11

Complex Numbers Representation
➢ A complex number is rectangular form is given by

Real Part Imaginary Part

➢ This number can be represented as a point in the

complex plane. Imaginary

➢ The complex number Z can be

written in polar form as

Real
➢ In exponential form
➢ Complex conjugate of Z

AC Steady-State Analysis | Complex Numbers Representation 12

Complex Numbers in Polar Form
➢ In polar form, the complex number is represented by the
length of the arrow and the angle between the arrow and
the positive real axis.
➢ Thus, in polar form
➢ Here Imaginary

➢ To convert from polar to Real

rectangular form

AC Steady-State Analysis | Complex Numbers in Polar Form 13

Complex Arithmetic
➢ Given two complex numbers

➢ Addition and subtraction are done in rectangular form

➢ For multiplication and division, the complex numbers have to be

written in polar form

➢ For multiplication:

➢ For division:

AC Steady-State Analysis | Complex Arithmetic 14

Complex Numbers Example
➢ Given two complex numbers

➢ Find the magnitude and phase of the numbers.

➢ Represent them on a complex plane.
➢ Add, subtract, multiple and divide the numbers.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Complex Numbers Example 15

Phasors
Phasor Definition for Sinusoids
➢ Phasors are complex numbers that can be used to
represent sinusoidal signals.
➢ The magnitude of the phasor is the peak value of the
sinusoid.
➢ The angle of the phasor is the phase of the sinusoid
when it is presented as a cosine.
➢ Consider , in phasor form
➢ If

➢ The steady-state analysis of sinusoidal signals can be

carried out easily if signals are represented as phasors.
AC Steady-State Analysis | Phasor Transformation 17
Adding Sinusoids Using Phasors
➢Step 1: Determine the phasor for each
term.
➢Step 2: Add the phasors using complex
arithmetic.
➢Step 3: Convert the sum to polar form.
➢Step 4: Write the result as a time
function.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Adding Sinusoids using Phasors 18

Example: Using Phasors to Add Sinusoids

AC Steady-State Analysis | Example 19

Phasor Relationships: Leads vs. Lags
➢ To determine phasor relationships from a phasor diagram,
consider the phasors to rotate counter-clockwise.
➢ When standing at a fixed point, if V1 arrives first followed by V2
after a rotation of θ, we say V1 leads V2 by θ.
➢ Alternatively, we could say V2 lags V1 by θ.
➢ Here θ is the smaller angle between the two phasors.

➢ Given the vectors rotating counter-

clockwise, V1 leads V2 by 60°(or
equivalently, V2 lags V1 by 60°).

AC Steady-State Analysis | Phasor Relationships 20

Phasor Relationships in Time
➢ To determine phase relationships between sinusoids from their
plots versus time:
➢ Find the shortest time interval tp between positive peaks of the
two waveforms.
➢ Then the phase angle is

➢ If peak of v1(t) occurs first, we say

that v1(t) leads v2(t) or v2(t) lags
v1(t).

AC Steady-State Analysis | Phasor Relationships in Time 21

Phasor Relationships for R, L, and C
➢ Next we will determine the current and voltage relationships in
phasor form for resistors, inductors and capacitors.
➢ For a resistor R, given a current i(t) through it,

➢ Using Ohm’s Law, we know that

➢ Thus

➢ In phasor form

➢ The phases of the voltage and current are the same for a resistor R.
➢ In phasor analysis R is called an impedance and usually denoted as
➢ Impedance is the ratio of the phasor voltage to phasor current.
AC Steady-State Analysis | Phasor Relationships in R, L, and C 22
Phasor Relationships for Resistors
➢ For a pure resistor, the current and voltage are said to be in phase.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Phasor Relationships for Resistors 23

Phasor Relationships for Inductors
➢ For an inductor L, given a current i(t) through it,

➢ We known that
➢ Thus

➢ In phasor form,

➢ Current through the inductor lags the voltage by 90°.

➢ The impedance of the inductor
AC Steady-State Analysis | Phasor Relationships in Inductors 24
Phasor Relationships for Inductors
➢ Current lags voltage by 90°in pure inductance.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Phasor Relationships for Inductors 25

Phasor Relationships for Capacitors
➢ For a capacitor C, given a voltage v(t) through it,

➢ We known that
➢ Thus

➢ In phasor form,

➢ Current through the capacitor leads the voltage by 90°.

➢ The impedance of the capacitor
AC Steady-State Analysis | Phasor Relationships for Capacitors 26
Phasor Relationships for Capacitors
➢ Current leads voltage by 90°in pure capacitance.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Phasor Relationships for Capacitors 27

Impedance and Admittance
Impedance and Admittance
➢ As defined earlier, impedance of an element is defined as

➢ The unit of impedance is ohms (Ω).

➢ In general Z is complex and depends on frequency

➢ The real part of the impedance is the resistive component.

➢ The imaginary part is the reactive component:
➢ If reactance is positive, the impedance is called inductive.
➢ If reactance is negative, the impedance is called capacitive.
➢ Admittance is the reciprocal of the impedance

AC Steady-State Analysis | Impedance and Admittance 29

Impedance for Basic Elements: Summary
➢ For basic circuit elements
➢ Resistor
➢ Inductor
➢ Capacitor

➢ Note in DC, the angular frequency ω = 0

➢ ZL = 0, which is a short-circuit in DC steady-state
circuit analysis.
➢ ZC = ∞, which is an open-circuit in DC steady-state
circuit analysis.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Impedances for Basic Elements 30

Kirchhoff’s Laws in Phasor Form
➢ We can apply KVL and KCL directly to
phasors
➢ KVL → The sum of the phasor voltages
equals zero for any closed path.
➢ KCL → The sum of the phasor currents
entering a node must equal to the sum of the
phasor currents leaving the node.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Kirchoff’s Laws in Phasor Form 31

Circuit Analysis Using Phasors and Impedances
➢ Step 1: Replace the time descriptions of the voltage
and the current sources with their corresponding
phasors (All of the sources must have the same
frequency).
➢ Step 2: Express components using their complex
impedances.
➢ Step 3: Analyze the circuit using any of the
techniques studied earlier in Chapter 2, performing
the calculations with complex arithmetic.

AC Steady-State Analysis | Circuit Analysis Using Phasors and Impedances 32

Example 5.4 (1/2)
➢ In the circuit shown, find the steady-state current, phasor voltages
and construct a phasor diagram.

Inductive
Circuit

AC Steady-State Analysis | Example 5.4 33

Example 5.4 (2/2)

VR = RI
= 100  0.707 − 15
= 70.7 − 15
VL = jLI
= j150  0.707 − 15
= 106.175
1
VC = − j I
C
= − j 50  0.707 − 15
= 35.4 − 105
AC Steady-State Analysis | Example 5.4 34
 Example 5.5 (1/2)
➢ Find the voltage vc(t) in steady state.

1 1 1
Z RC = = =
1 / R + 1 / Z c 0.01 + j 0.01 0.141445
= 70.71 − 45 = 50 − j 50

Z RC 70 .71 − 45 
Vc = Vs = 10 − 90
Z L + Z RC j100 + 50 − j50 vc (t ) = −10 cos(1000t )
70 .71 − 45
= 10 − 90 
= 10 − 180 
= −10
70 .7145 

AC Steady-State Analysis | Example 5.5 35

 Example 5.5 (2/2)
I R = Vc R I=
Vs
= 10100
−180  Z L + Z RC

= 0 .1 − 180  10 − 90

=
50 + j 50
= −0 .1
= 0 .141 − 135
Vc
Ic =
Zc
10 − 180 10 − 180
= =
− j100 100 − 90
= 0 .1 − 90 = − j 0 .1

AC Steady-State Analysis | Example 5.5 36

Example 5.6
➢ Use nodal analysis to find v1(t) in steady-state.

V1 V1 − V2 (0.1 + j 0.2)V1 − j 0.2V2 = − j 2 (1a)

+ = 2 − 90 (1)
10 − j5 − j 0.2V1 + j 0.1V2 = 1.5 ( 2a )
V2 V2 − V1
+ = 1.50 ( 2)
j10 − j5

Solving (1a) and (1b) V1 = 16.129.7 

v1 (t ) = 16.1cos(100t + 29.7  )

AC Steady-State Analysis | Example 5.6 37

Exercise 5.7
➢ Solve for the mesh currents

We write KVL equations for each of the meshes:

j100 I1 + 100( I1 − I 2 ) = 100 Solving we find

I1 = 1.414 − 45 A and I 2 = 10 A
− j 200 I 2 + j100 I 2 + 100( I 2 − I1 ) = 0
Thus we have
Simplifying, we have
i1 ( t ) = 1.414 cos(1000t − 45 )
(100 + j100) I1 − 100 I 2 = 100
i 2 ( t ) = cos(1000t )
− 100 I1 + (100 − j100) I 2 = 0
AC Steady-State Analysis | Example 5.7 38
Examples
 LEARNING EXAMPLE SERIES-PARALLEL REDUCTIONS
1 2 − j4
Y2 = = 2
Z3 = 4 + j 2 2 + j 4 ( 2) + ( 4) 2
1 4 + j2
Y34 = =
4 − j2 20

Y4 = − j 0.25 + j 0.5 = j 0.25

Z 4 = 1 / Y4 = − j 4

1 (− j 2)
Z1 = j 4  (− j 2) 8
1− j2 Z4 = =
j4 − j2 j2
1
Z1 = Y2 = 0.1 − j 0.2( S )
1 + j 0.5
1 − j 0.5 Y34 = 0.2 + j 0.1
Z1 = Z2 = 2 + j6 − j 2 = 2 + j 4 Y234 = 0.3 − j 0.1( S )
1 + (0.5) 2
Z1 = 0.8 − j 0.4() Z34 = 4 − j 2 1 1 0.3 + j 0.1
Z 234 = = =
Y234 0.3 − j 0.1 0.1
Z 2 Z 34
Z 234 = = 3 + j1
Z 2 + Z 34
Z eq = Z1 + Z 234 = 3.8 + j 0.6 = 3.8478.973
Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. Example 8.11, p. 388. 40
 LEARNING EXTENSION FIND THE IMPEDANCE ZT

Z1 = 4 + j 6 − j 4
Z1 = 4 + j 2 ( R → P ) Z1 = 4.47226.565
Y1 = 0.224 − 26.565
( P → R)Y1 = 0.200 − j 0.100

Y12 = Y1 + Y2 = 0.45 − j 0.35

Y12 = Y1 + Y2 ( R → P )Y12 = 0.570 − 37.875
1 Z 2 = 2 + j 2 ( R → P ) Z 2 = 2.82845 Z12 = 1.75437.875
Z12 =
Y12 Y2 = 0.354 − 45 ( P → R) Z12 = 1.384 + j1.077
( P → R)Y2 = 0.250 − j 0.250
1 4 − j2 ZT = 2 + (1.384 + j1077) = 3.383 + j1.077
Y1 = = 2
4 + j 2 ( 4) + ( 2) 2
1 2 − j2
Y2 = = 2
2 + j 2 ( 2) + ( 2) 2
1 1 0.45 + j 0.35
Z12 = = =
Y12 0.45 − j 0.35 0.325

Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. E8.10, p. 390. 41

 LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND V0 USING NODES, LOOPS, THEVENIN, NORTON
WHY SKIP SUPERPOSITION AND TRANSFORMATION?

Supernode constraint : V1 − V3 = 120

KCL @ Supernode
V − V V − V2 V1 − V2 V3
− 40 + 3 0 + 3 + + =0
1 1 −j j
KCL@V2
V2 − V1 V − V3
− 2I x + 2 =0
−j 1
NODES
KCL@ V0
V0 V0 − V3
+ + 40 = 0  V3 = 2V0 + 4
1 1
Controllin g variable V1 = V3 + 12
V3 − V0 V1 = 2V0 + 16
Ix =
1 V3 − V0 = V0 + 4
j (V2 − 2V0 − 16) − 2(V0 + 4) + (V2 − 2V0 − 4) = 0
− j (V2 − 2V0 − 16) − (V2 − 2V0 − 4) + (V0 + 4) − j (2V0 + 4) = 4
8+ 4j
Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. Example 8.16, p. 401.
Adding : V = −
1+ 2 j
0 42
Notice choice of ground
LOOP ANALYSIS MESH CURRENTS DETERMINED BY SOURCES
I 2 = −40
 I3 = 2( I 4 + 4)
I3 = 2 I x
MESH 1 :
− jI1 + 120 + 1( I1 − I 3 ) = 0
MESH 4 :
1( I 4 − I 2 ) + 1 I 4 + j ( I 4 − I 3 ) = 0
CONTROLLING VARIABLE : I x = I 4 − I 2
VARIABLE OF INTEREST : V0 = 1 I 4 (V )
MESH CURRENTS ARE ACCEPTABLE
I 4 + 4 + I 4 + j ( I 4 − 2( I 4 + 4)) = 0
4−8 j j
( 2 − j ) I 4 = −( 4 − 8 j )  I 4 = − 
2− j j
8+4j
V0 = −
1+ 2 j

Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. Example 8.16, p. 401. 43
 Alternative procedure to compute Thevenin
THEVENIN
impedance:
1. Set to zero all INDEPENDENT sources
2. Apply an external probe
Vtest
ZTH = −
I "x

KVL
FOR OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
I "x

Vtest = − I "x + jI "x  ZTH = 1 − j ()

I x' = 40
ZTH = 1 − j
2I x
80 1
V0 = (−4 + 8 j )(V )
2− j
VOC = −4 + 8 j (V )
Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. Example 8.16, p. 401.
44
NORTON Supernode constraint
V1 − V3 = 120  V1 = V3 + 12
KCL@ Supernode
V3 V3 V3 − V2 V1 − V2
+ + + − 40 = 0 / j
1 j 1 −j
V2 − V3 V2 − V1
KCL@ V2 : − 2 I X''' + + = 0 / ( − j )
1 −j
V
Controllin g Variable : I x''' = 3
1
I SC
2 jV3 − j (V2 − V3 ) + (V2 − V3 − 12) = 0
(1 − j )V2 − (1 − 3 j )V3 = 12
(1 + j )V3 + jV3 − jV2 − (V3 + 12) + V2 = 4 j
(1 − j )V2 + 2 jV3 = 12 + 4 j
4j −4+8j
(1 − j )V3 = 4 j  V3 =  I SC =
V3 1− j 1− j
I x''' = ( A)
1 (−4 + 8 j ) j 8+4j
I SC = =−
(1 − j ) j 1+ j
Now we can draw the Norton
I SC = I x''' − 4 Equivalent circuit ...
45
Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. Example 8.16,
USE NODES p. 401.
 NORTON’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

ZTH
I SC

1− j  8 + 4 j 
V0 = (1) I 0 (V ) = − (V ) Current Divider
2 − j  1+ j 

EQUIVALENCE OF SOLUTIONS

12 − 4 j (8 + 4 j )(1 − j )
Using Norton’s method V0 = − =−
3+ j (1 + 2 j )(1 − j )
−4+8j j
Using Thevenin’s V0 = 
2− j j
8+4j
Using Node and Loop methods V0 = −
1+ 2 j 46
Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. Example 8.16, p. 401.
 LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 USE THEVENIN
USE NODAL ANALYSIS 4j
V1 ZTH = 2 || 1 || j 2 = 3 = 4 j = 4 j (2 − 6 j )
2 + j2 2 + 6 j 40
3
1 || j 2 j2
VOC = 1230= 1230
2 + (1 || j 2) 2(1 + 2 j ) + 2 j
24120 12120
V1 − 1230 V1 V1 V1 − V0 VOC = =
+ + + = 0 / 2 j 2+6j 1+ 3 j
2 1 j2 −j
V0 − V1 V0
+ = 0  V1 = (1 − j )V0 ZTH − j1
−j 1
j (V1 − 1230) + 2 jV1 + V1 − 2(V1 − V0 ) = 0 +
2V0 + (1 − 2 + 2 j + j )(1 − j )V0 = j1230 VOC
+
- 1 V0
(2 + (−1 + 3 j )(1 − j ))V0 = 190 1230 −
12120 12120
V0 = = = 2.1275(V ) 1
4+4j 5.6645 V0 = VOC
ZTH +1− j

Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. E8.17, p. 405. 47

 LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 USING MESH ANALYSIS
V1 USING NODES
V1 − 240 V
− 290 + 1 = 0
2 2−2j
2
V0 = V1
2−2j

USING SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

2
CONSTRAINT V0V = 240
2+2−2j
− I1 + I 2 = 290  I1 = I 2 − 2 j
SUPERMESH V0I = 2 
2
290
− 240 + 2 I1 − 2 jI 2 + 2 I 2 = 0 4−2j
2( I 2 − 2 j ) + (2 − 2 j ) I 2 = 24 (4 − 2 j ) I 2 = 24 + 4 j V0 = V0V + V0I
24 + 4 j 24.339.46
V0 = 2 I 2 = = = 10.8636.03
2− j 2.24 − 26.57

Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. E8.18, p. 405. 48

 LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 2V

V0"

V0 = V0' + V0"

1. USING SUPERPOSITION

2 || (2 − 2 j )
V1
2
V0" = V2
2 || (2 − 2 j ) 2−2j
V1 = (−120)
j 2 + (2 || 2 − 2 j )

V0'
2
V0' = V1
2−2j

49
Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. E8.23, p. 406.
2. USE SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
−2j
+
I1
Z 2 V0
I eq
−
I eq = 120 − 6 − 90 = 12 + 6 j
Z
I1 = I eq
Z +2−2j
V0 = 2I1
− j 2
+
I1 2
V0
120 2 j 2 6 − 90 −

Z = 2 || j 2

50
Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. E8.23, p. 406.
USE NORTON’S THEOREM

− j2
+
I1
ZTH 2 V0
I SC
−
ZTH = 2 || j 2
ZTH
I1 = I SC
ZTH + 2 − 2 j

V0 = 2I1
120

− 6 − 90

I SC

51
Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. E8.23, p. 406.
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the current i(t) in steady state
The sources have different frequencies!
For phasor analysis MUST use source superpositio

Frequency domain

SOURCE 2: FREQUENCY 20r/s

Principle of superposition
52
Source: Irwin’s Book Supplementary Material, 10th edition. Example 8.17, p. 407.
End of AC Steady-State Analysis