Transcending Gender in the Performance of Kathak

Author(s): Purnima Shah

Source: Dance Research Journal, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Autumn, 1998), pp. 2-17
Published by: Congress on Research in Dance
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1478835
Accessed: 02-12-2016 18:38 UTC

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted
digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about
JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms

Congress on Research in Dance, Cambridge University Press are collaborating with JSTOR to
digitize, preserve and extend access to Dance Research Journal

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Transcending Gender in the Performance of Kathak
Purima Shah

Kathak, a classical dance form of Northern India, portrays an iconographic representat

the cultural constructs of the Hindu world view, most particularly, the ideology of
roles within the culture. Essentially a dance form that emerged from within the Hind
gious beliefs and practices, Kathak was significantly influenced by the bhakti movemen
larized in the early medieval period on the one hand, and on the other, by its incorpora
the Moghal courts after the fifteenth century. However, I limit my arguments to the
concept of gender and its portrayal in the performance of Kathak. This paper focuses
fluidity of gender performance in light of the indigenous philosophical concepts of "o
or non-dualism exemplified in Kathak abhinaya (1). This study is inspired by my obser
and participatory experience as a dancer-performer of this form.
Traditionally a solo dance form, danced exclusively by males until the turn of the c
(2), Kathak is classic in its comprehensive gesture and movement vocabulary and emp
the performer to mimetically present a metaphorical personification of the cultural nua
a complex philosophical and spiritual ideology. A traditional dance form (3), essentially
on the Vaishnava sect of the Sanatana Dharma, Kathak, at best, explores the lila or illus
play of Radha and Krishna in abhinaya through bhajans or devotional songs, thum
Sanskrit shlokas or poetic verses.
"Kathak" is derived from the root word katha, closely but not accurately meaning a story
in the colloquial sense, but rather narration of mythological stories with the primary purpos
educating the people. Mostly, these stories are an expression of the joys and torments
portrayed through characterization of the virtuous against evil, giving an understanding
ideals of living and the philosophy of life cycles, based on the teachings of the ancient
scriptures and treatises. The thematic abstracts from the ancient epics are rich in knowledge
kinds, including philosophy and spiritual science (Shah 1992; 1994). The term "Kathak,"
fore, also signifies a male actor-dancer talented in the art of narration through music and da
primarily belonging to the Brahman Kathak caste, and involved in the artistic profession of
storytelling dance genre, which presumably derived its name from this caste (4).
Classical Kathak performance incorporates the language of gesture based on the p

Purnima Shah is a classical dancer/performer, scholar and teacher, specializ

Bharatanatyam and Kathak dance styles of India. She has performed in all major cities o
and has toured as government delegate to Portugal, Sweden, Germany, (former) U.S.S.R
Mongolia through the Festival of India Program organized by the Indian Council for Cu
Relations (ICCR), New Delhi. Having graduated from the Dance Department at Univer
California, Los Angeles, with the M.A. in dance ethnology, she is currently pursuing a P
performance studies and ethnography at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.

2 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
ciples suggested by the Natyashastra (5) and presents different facets of human nature with
utmost subtlety. Interestingly, a single Kathak performer portrays all the characters within the
selected episode, enacting one, impersonating another, effortlessly switching gender portrayal
as the roles appear in the narrative without any extraneous use of costumes, makeup, props, or
technical effects. This paper explores the cultural concepts of gender as reflected in Kathak
performance, in relation to the Hindu philosophy of achieving perfection; of the sense of
being "complete" and "whole" in the spiritual transcendence of one's gender, central to the
philosophy of advaita or non-dualism. The lifelong process of training and practice of a dedi-
cated Kathak's artistic solo portrayal of various characters through abhinaya and the fluidity
of the switch over from one character to another reflect an apperception of "oneness." In most
theatrical genres, female impersonation signifies extravagant use of makeup and costume, or
in the case of performing transsexuals, surgery, and voice intonation, or in the case of an
onnagata of Kabuki, a continual identification with the female even offstage (Barthes 1982).
However, a Kathak plays a series of roles or impersonates the female with the audience's
absolute awareness and full view of his natural male appearance. He usually performs in what
could be considered a traditional costume for men: either a kurta or an achkan, which is a
knee-length shirt with an overlapping frontal tied with piping-strings on the chest and waist,
a contrasting sash tied on the waist, and a churidar or close-fitting cotton payjama. The fol-
lowing brief description of abhinaya will enable us to better understand the significance of
the performance of gender in Kathak.
I will take, as an example, a very dramatic episode of Draupadi cheer haran (the disrob-
ing of Draupadi) from the epic Mahabharata in which an unadorned performer takes on a
series of roles:
Duryodhana is the evil cousin of the Pandava prince Yudhishthira, who is the embodi-
ment of "truth and dharma. " King Pandu, father of Yudhishthira, takes to the forest for pen-
ance, temporarily leaving the kingdom in the hands of his blind brother, Dhritrashtra, father
of evil Duryodhana. Pandu dies an untimely death due to a curse inflicted on him by an
amorous couple whom he killed mistakenly during one of his hunts in the forest. Signifi-
cantly, both cousins claim the kingdom and there is a dharmic war between good and evil.
Duryodhana, with the help of his equally evil maternal uncle Shakuni, devises various ways
to get rid of the five sons of Pandu, but in vain. As a last straw, he devises a plot, inviting
Yudhishthira to a game of dice, Yudhishthira's favorite game in which no one could beat him.
Through continuous cheating (knowing that Yudhishthira, avowed to truth, would never re-
sort to such unfair means), Duryodhana compels Yudhisthira to lose his crown, his wealth, all
his possessions, all his brothers including himself as slaves to Duryodhana, and finally, even
his wife Draupadi. After Duryodhana wins the game of dice, and subsequently Draupadi, he
orders her to be dragged to the court by her hair and in an attempt to humiliate her, asks his
younger brother Duhshasana to disrobe her sari in full view of all present in the court. The
courtiers, including the whole royal family, stand helplessly witnessing the dishonor, humil-
ity and the lecherous torment inflicted on Draupadi. After a fruitless dialogue with Duryodhana
and pleas to all men present in the court, including her husband, to prevent the worst from
happening, devout Draupadi prays to Lord Krishna for help, who saves her honor by miracu-
lously providing endless yards of clothing that Duhshasana would never be able to disrobe.

The lyrics of the first verse of the bhajan are as follows:

Hari tuma haro janaki bheer

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 3

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 Draupadi ki laj rakhi tuma badhayo cheer ...
[Hari (Lord) retract the troubles of the people
You who saved the honor of Draupadi by providing endless yards of
clothing...]

While one single line is sung with a series of variations, every episode within the song is
performed to accompanying instrumental music. Like some other Indian classical dances,
such as Bharatanatyam and Odissi, Kathak is also danced with ekaharya abhinaya, that is, a
single dancer portrays multiple characters as each enters the story. Te dancer indicates a
switch from one character to another with a swift semicircular clockwise and anti-clockwise
movement called palta, which means to switch. The character's gait is portrayed in a gat
bhava. To show the character and the characteristic nature or mood of the nayaka/nayika, the
dancer does various actions and movements which are associated with a particular type and
personality of a man/woman and, at the same time, he takes care to flavor his interpretation
with a bhava (6) which is representative of the nayaka/nayika in question (7).
The performance of the Draupadi cheer haran episode involves frequent and swift shift-
ing between characters. It commences with the portrayal of Duryodhana, the arrogant and evil
prince. The Kathak depicts his personality with an erect, slightly arched spine, a broad chest,
tightly stretched shoulders, a closed fist slapping his other hand while he takes brisk and wide
strides back and forth across the stage (indicating his restlessness). A slant look of his eyes
gives an evil expression of deception, his teeth frequently biting the side of his lips giving a
distorted expression to his face. His use of space and time is dire and ti i dt energetic; big move-
ments associated with arrogant, evil, selfish qualities display strength and power and com-
mand wider audience attention. His forceful energy gives the impression of achievement, at
least in the immediate moment. Suddenly, he gives an expression of seeing Yudhishthira en-
tering his palace and goes forward to welcome him. Gesturing to everyone to be seated (cross-
legged, except for Duryodhana, who sits on his knees, looking larger than he actually is), he
spreads open Chaupat, the game of dice, and begins to churn the dice in his palms, occasion-
ally giving sly looks to Yudhishthira, imagined to be seated right across from him. In keeping
with the rhythmic beat, he throws open the dice on the floor and gives a wild villainous laugh
at the high counters he cunningly has managed to throw.
The dancer quickly shifts our attention to the heroic, virtuous character of Yudhishthira,
whose turn it is to throw the dice. Suddenly, the dancer's position is changed across from
Duryodhana's, and, in changing his position, he takes the opportunity to transform into a
different personality. Yudhishthira is portrayed as heroic, of fine bearing and noble princely
charms; his quiet, calm eyes and a slight and eloquent smile on his lips lend a noble expres-
sion to his pleasant face; an erect, well-built, tall and slim but well-toned body (the dancer
suddenly appears to have gained height), depicts a confident personality at once demanding
attention and respect. His movements are well refined, controlled and sophisticated. A certain
calm prevailing within him is made obvious in his yogic personality. Yudhishthira, too, plays
the dice after which, once again, the dancer portrays Duryodhana playing his second set of
dice, with higher counters forcing Yudhishthira to lose his crown. This game continues until
Yudhishthira loses everything he has staked, including his wife Draupadi; the solo dancer
portrays all the roles one after another. On his victorious throw of the last set of dice, Duryodhana
is up on his feet, arrogance, hatred and lust emanating from every pore of his body, his move-
ments and mood exaggerated by rhythmic effects and footwork, demanding Draupadi to be
brought in. A grave silence follows as he asks his brother Duhshasana to drag Draupadi into

4 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
the court by her hair. The dancer takes a few steps sideways across the stage, and with apalta
transforms into the role of Draupadi.
Halfway through the palta, his hands are already clutching his hair, resisting the pull; he
staggers towards center stage as if being dragged by someone invisible to the audience. Sud-
denly, we see a prominent change in the physical and emotional image portrayed by the dancer.
In his impersonation of Draupadi, the dancer's face gives a perplexed, angry yet helpless look,
eyes lowered with humility and shame, face bent down, shoulders narrowed towards an in-
wardly drawn chest, hands clutching "her" hair, at times arms crossed at the front of the body
covering "her" breasts, indicating where Duryodhana has directed his eyes, and an expression
of fury, pain and embarrassment. Staggering, delicate feet drag "her" body with feminine
steps, resisting the pull as "she" reaches center stage. Even in a standing position, "her" feet
are almost always close together, one leg slightly bent at the knees closing in at the thighs,
presenting a feminine contour of "her" body.
As soon as Draupadi reaches center stage, the dancer assumes the role and position of
Duhshasana who stares at her in lust for a while, plays with his ugly, long moustache while
still staring at her and, with a nod at Duryodhana, proceeds towards Draupadi. As he comes
close to her, the dancer, as Draupadi, draws backwards in small steps, still clutching at her
sari, with an expression of fear, anger and disgust, her pleading eyes scanning the court filled
with royal men and courtiers standing helplessly with their eyes lowered. As Duhshasana
again, his gestures suggest that he grabs her sari and pulls on it; suddenly as Draupadi, the
dancer is thrust forward with the violent pull of "her" sari. "She" turns around and around as
its folds are uncovered, creating visual images of the sari/clothing being pulled, and portray-
ing expressions of desperate resistance, agony, embarrassment, shame and helplessness. As
Duhshasana again, he is violently pulling yards and yards of her sari, which seems to be an
endless task. As Draupadi, the dancer raises "her" arms in prayer to Lord Krishna and seeks
His protection from the lewd villainy of her husband's cousins. Duhshasana is embarrassed at
his failure to disrobe her. His virility at stake, he tries more frantically until he falls flat on the
ground, exhausted, as the dancer assumes Krishna's role as the provider of endless clothing at
the stroke of a vibrating musical phrase. As Draupadi, kneeling at Krishna's feet seeking His
blessings, the dancer portrays His most devout devotee. As Krishna, he portrays the divine
savior to all who worship Him and the destroyer of all evil.
Towards the end of the song, the dancer impersonates the poetess saint Meerabai, a devo-
tee enamoured of Krishna, who is said to have written and sung this bhajan (devotional song)
in praise of Lord Krishna, Hari tuma haro jana ki bheer.... (Lord, retract the troubles of the
people...). Although familiarity with the narrative on the part of the audience is assumed,
gender portrayal and the quick role changes are clearly shown through bodily movements,
gestures, gait, facial expression and mood of the character. What attracts audiences is not just
the story but the interpretation, development, presentation and interaction of characters through
abhinaya. The connoisseur audience would know enough to supply meaning to his gestures
and the subtleties of culturally specific gender portrayal.

Transformation of Gender in Kathak

A Kathak's talent is put to test in the realistic portrayal of characters and development
environment that involves the audience. This he does with his trained ability to maintai
concentration on the inner images and mental processes of the characters he is portray
Kathak performs the thumris, portraying all the interacting characters of the story, constan
shifting back and forth between the physical and metaphysical in terms of gender, age

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 5

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
personality and emotional mood of the characters. In switching roles, he alternates between
gender role-playing and impersonation. Female impersonation by a Kathak, however, is not
overtly effeminate; he creates feminine images of personality - the physical and emotional
state of her being, behavior, actions and reactions to the context in which "she" is portrayed;
the impersonation of the female on a male gendered body. The transformation, however, is
deeper than merely creating a physical image; a Kathak emotes the feelings of the female
character with the same intensity and depth as he would a male.
In the performance of abhinaya, the strength of the spine is of great importance. Center-
ing of the energy in prana, just under the navel muscle, controls tensions and releases in the
isolating, simplifying, or enlarging of physical movements; timing and coordination of move-
ments; weight transference and creating an opposition of physical forces inside the body;
playing with alternation of body balance; sharp or gradual motion; and direction of the eyes,
the head, and other body parts, all play a vital role in the "visual" creation of the character.
While the lower body is very well grounded, the upper body is flowing, free for expressive
movement; the vigor of stage energy is combined with refined restraint. Gender difference is
expressed through the manipulation of body movements, expressions and gestures. For in-
stance, broad shoulders and chest, uplifted face, straight spine, and a direct look in the eyes
are some of the male physical characteristics; the female may be depicted with relaxed shoul-
ders, slightly drawn inwards, thighs closed together, eyes lowered (8) with a slightly bent
head, and so on, as the case may be.
Masculine and feminine qualities of movements may alternate according to the nature of the
characters, that is, refined, heroic and virtuous, or demonic. For example, certain female demons
such as Putana (Mahabharata) may be portrayed with the use of crude masculine characteristics
that magnify her animistic qualities. However, even demonic roles would not be performed with
a display of externalized and unrestrained stage energy; demonic qualities such as violent ag-
gressiveness, crudity of character, evil intentions etc., are often displayed with enlarged yet con-
trolled movements and loud gestures characteristic of sheer physical power and strength. Move-
ments characteristic of uddhata or tandava (gracefully forceful) and sukumara or lasya (grace-
fully soft) aspects of the dance technique and complex rhythmic footwork, which is so unique to
Kathak, are also used to provide gendered effects and meanings.
It is imperative for the dancer to have a profound understanding of the characters he
portrays, not only at an intellectual level in terms of their psycho-sociology, but also in his
trained awareness of the appropriate usage of his creative energy in manifesting them. It is in
the process of embodying the traditional images of a repertoire of characters that the performer's
body is disciplined; a range of movement possibilities and layering of imagery provides rich
stimulation to, and coordination of, the performer's body and mind. Phillip Zarrilli mentions
that, "it is only when the fundamental techniques of practice which constitute the given disci-
pline have been so well embedded into the neophyte's body that such techniques are a part of
his body-consciousness, ready at hand to be used at any moment, that the student is ready for
higher stages of development" (1990, 132).
Once the trainee has achieved a certain stage of technical mastery and versatility, the guru
introduces him to a variety of segments taken from the repertory of stories from the epics and
the Puranas. Initially, the disciple learns through imitation of the guru's performance of them.
At this level, imitation enables the student to develop his ability to observe, retain, and recre-
ate perceived images. The aim is eventually to achieve a creative breakthrough in the student
which is marked by a disciplined internalization of the process: a heightened integration of
the intellectual and intuitive powers of imagination, the inner intent of creation, and mastery

6 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
in physicalising that imagined intent. With such a level of mind-body integration, the disciple
is ready for more advanced training in higher stages of human expression that focus on his
inner self-the spiritual self. This is a long process that consists of the elimination of one's
ego-centered concerns, enabling the performer to channel his energies to creative expression
rather than to the egocentric exhibition of himself, the person.
Humility is a prerequisite as well as a principal determinant for an artist who has achieved
a creative breakthrough. Only after an inner control over one's ego is achieved does the dis-
ciple become capable of transcending expressive states from mere human to superhuman or
divine imagery. The artist becomes one with his art and, when such an integration becomes
visible to the spectator, it creates an instant rapport between that which the performer ex-
presses and that which the audience experiences:

By daily practice all physical and mental obstacles in the way of correct prac-
tice are gradually eliminated. The goal of such virtuosic systems is reaching
a state of "accomplishment" (Sanskrit, siddhi) in which the doer and the done
are one. Through such actualized practice comes both control and transcen-
dence of "self." (Zarrilli 1990, 131)

Only after years of intense practice, thinking, observation and analysis can a Kathak synthe-
size the external and the internal, in what Zarrilli calls a "psycho-physical gestalt" (1984). In
an analysis of this experience, Zarrilli defines it as "the immediate psycho-physical process of
engaging in performing (doing) the acts which constitute a performance in any given occasion
... each act in each moment resonates with psycho-spiritual implications in personal, social
and cosmological spheres of being" (1990, 131-132).
A deep understanding of human behavior and a close study of physical and psychological
aspects of different personality traits are a crucial part of training in Kathak. Traditional gurus
believe that abhinaya cannot be taught, that abhinaya "comes" to the dancer. Again, a guru may
not train a disciple in the principles of abhinaya until he reaches maturity. The performer's
ability to fill in the emotion behind the physical technique comes as the dancer gains both life
and stage experience. Many Kathaks believe that the experience of having felt certain emotions
in their own lives adds depth and maturity when replicated on stage. This is one of the reasons
that great Kathaks have not emerged until their forties. Answering humbly to a fan's admiration
for his art, his manifestation of presence and energy in the performance of a variety of characters,
Birju Maharaj, the doyen of Kathak and the torchbearer of Lukhnow gharana, modestly says, "I
merely give back to life what I experience from it" (personal communication 1991).
A Kathak endows each role with the particular qualities of that character within the wide
variety of dramatic contexts which the characters encounter during the course of the episode. His
performance transcends surface-bound mimetics to achieve the vital expressions associated with
each character. The actual transformation from one character to another is obvious but very
subtle. Body position, gait, movements, gestures and facial expression of one character (or gen-
der as the case may be) smoothly merge into another within seconds to create a totally different
personality. This fluidity and continual presentation of "characters" creates a theatrical environ-
ment that leads the audience towards the ecstatic experience of rasa (9) and, through such expe-
rience, into a state of transformed perception that directs them to focus on the "characters" rather
than the "dancer." With a master performer, the transformation from the dancer to the character is
so complete that it stimulates or arouses subtle feelings in the spectator enabling one to momen-
tarily transcend one's own egocentric view of things and to experience a heightened state of

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 7

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
consciousness and, if only for the time being, an emotional catharsis.
In the performance of abhinaya, the spectator's mental gaze is transformed into an aes-
thetic experience of imagination and creativity. One is drawn to identify with the characters
portrayed and the episodes depicted, based on such factors as real-life experiences, emotional
frame of mind, sentiments, and prior knowledge of the text, and in doing so, to experience an
aesthetic rapture. The dancer's focus on the sthayi bhava, or the dominant mood appropriate
to the abhinaya being performed, creates an ambience within which his characters will inter-
act. By a skillful use of the interplay of the sthayi bhava and the sanchari bhava (transitory or
secondary mood) of the characters, the dancer can lead the spectators to a wide range of
emotional experiences. When the attention of the audience is concentrated on the characters,
the psycho-visual mechanism works similarly to a camera lens which blurs all other images
that are out of its focus; as the images of performed characters become the focus of the
spectator's perception, the image of "the dancer" retreats into the background. The fluidity of
role switching and the intensity and continuity of character portrayal leave no "gaps" for the
spectator to revert back and perceive "the dancer." In other words, the "perception" of the
spectator is transformed from the dancer to the characters he portrays and this "transformed
perception" is maintained throughout the performance of the entire episode. The real appear-
ance and gender of the dancer, although obvious, are blurred and what comes to the mental
focus of the spectator is the characteristic appearance and the gender of the characters por-
trayed in what Peggy Phelan calls "representational visibility;" "the real is read through the
representational and the representational through the real" (1993, 2).
What impresses the spectator and what is retained primarily in the connoisseur audience's
memory is not so much the physical image or personality of the dancer but rather the artisti-
cally created images and personalities of the characters. His performing body is assumed to
achieve "perceptional neutrality" within the theatrical space, such that it becomes a neutral
medium for gender performance, enabling him to wear any gender momentarily and switch
between them at choice. In other words, through abhinaya, he transcends his own gender
within the theatrical space. Most of the characters portrayed have a deep-rooted religious and
spiritual meaning with philosophical and conceptual significance. The Kathak dancer's per-
formance experience could become ecstatic depending on his personal, religious and spiritual
involvement, and in the process, might transcend his egocentric physical human self to the
superhuman characters he portrays; his person, the self, is then effaced. A Kathak maestro,
with numerous years of such performance practice and intense involvement in his switching
between gender roles, uplifts himself to a unique spiritual experience of gender transcen-
dence-that is, through many years of involved practice in the performance of male charac-
ters and the impersonation of female characters, the Kathak may become receptive to certain
ecstatic experiences. Long-term practice and involvement in the portrayal of male as well as
female roles elevates him in an ecstatic moment within a given performance to the experience
of emotional transcendence of his own gender. It is important to note, however, that this ec-
static transcendence may not be experienced by the performer in every performance. As gen-
der signals sent from the stage are more powerful than those available in real life, the artistic
ability to portray "beyond human reach" mystic qualities of the characters and the dynamic
fluidity of gender transformation becomes one of Kathak's most potent attractions.

Gender Performance
When the performance of gender moves from the realm of everyday onto the stage, its pres
tation essentially implicates representation. Gender roles performed by Kathaks do not m

8 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
replicate those in everyday life; they are more sharply defined and more emphatically pre-
sented, the inherent imagery offering both an ideal and a critique, modeling cultural construc-
tions of gender ideologies. Traditional Kathak abhinaya defamiliarizes the ordinary social
and sexual experiences of modern men and women as people. It highlights the representation
of a desired, idealized masculine/feminine type. Hence, the audiences perceive classical In-
dian dance traditions as iconographic representations of a mythological tradition and revel in
their mystic ideology whose gender patterns are so deeply missed in real life today.
Gender ideology in Indian performance represents cosmological conceptions of the so-
cial order where "ideology refers both to a system of thought that guides and legitimates
social action and attempts to create a transcendental order by legitimating the power of that
order" (Bloch 1987, 334). Thus, it can be understood as, first, the system of thought that
legitimates sex roles and customary behavior of sexes, and second, as the deployment of
gender categories as metaphors in the production of conceptions of an enduring eternal social
order (Meigs 1990). Gender ideology, male/female status and gender categorization are highly
complex and multifaceted cultural constructions and, as such, are characterized by a multi-
plicity of conceptions in any given society; this is particularly so in India, given the vast
diversity of its cultures. These are determined in relation to conceptual beliefs; for instance,
gender ideology characterized by Sita and Rama in the epic Ramayana is a far cry from the
one established by the relationship of Radha and Krishna in the Bhagwad Purana. Gender
ideologies set by the Ramayana are accepted as normative social modes of behavior while
those of the Mahabharata are not; Rama and Sita are accepted as "ideal" gender role models
while Krishna is not.
It is important to understand that a Kathak dancer is concerned with conveying not a
personal code of gender but a set of signals that are natural and stylized, abstract and graphic,
compared to those transmitted in everyday social interaction; his portrayal of the "male" and
the "female" is absolutely culture-specific. He depicts the deepest cultural nuances of the
body and the mind, the culture-specific concepts of what would be considered "beautiful,"
"demure," "feminine," "masculine," "good," "evil," and so on. In Indian dance, an important
and pervasive aesthetic concept dictates that, just as percussive and sustained, heavy and light,
or fast and slow must be reconciled within a musical composition or dance choreography, so,
too, must the principles of "masculinity" and "femininity."

Transcending Gender
In Indian civilization, art, mythology, religion and philosophical thought have always been
interconnected. Inherited revelations, scholarly traditions, and popular or folk legends and
beliefs have worked on each other through a historical process of renewed influences from
religious movements or philosophical teachings originating from ascetic experiences, yogic
exercises, or meditative divinations. Ancient Indian art, including performing arts, painting,
temple sculpture and architecture, clearly reveals, through its aesthetic representations, the
magnitude and profundity of the civilization's metaphysical teachings. Dynamics of gender
form a significant part of the textual corpus. Indian mythology also reveals various stories
exemplifying gender ambiguity, androgyny, sex transformations, male pregnancy, and erotica
through some of the metaphorical discourses related to gods, goddesses, heavenly nymphs,
and demons, as well as sages, ascetics and yogis (10). The Hindu notion of gender is too
complex to define merely in physical terms; the very idea of defining it is, in itself, limiting;
several sects within Hinduism hold that one can realize the spiritual essence within oneself
only by transcending the social constructs of gender.

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 9

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Hinduism proclaims that the qualifying factors of one's physical existence change with gen-
der, age, and circumstances, but that souls aspiring for the realization of the state of moksha or
spiritual bliss are in need of comprehensive "experience" attainable only through bodily ex-
istence: the individual soul participates in the lila or "play" of the cosmic power manifest in
all things (animate and inanimate), continuing eternally, through material bodies-manifesta-
tions pancha mahabhuta-serving as sacred temples of this force. The Hindu worldview
upholds the Upanishadic saying, "Tat tvam asi"' (Thou art That), which indicates that every
living individual potentially represents as well as contains within itself the entire universe. In
other words, the body is a microcosm of the universe. In general, Hinduism holds that all
persons contain within themselves both male and female principles. In the Tantric school of
Hinduism, the Supreme Being is conceptualized as one complex sex, the right side represent-
ing the male and the left side the female. Any human, according to this thought, can energize
or activate the chosen sexual principle within him or her (Rawson 1973). Transcending one's
own sex is a prerequisite to salvation.

The pre-Vedic androgynous form of Lord Shiva popularly known as

ardhanarishwara (11) could be represented as a polarity of the male and
female forces, Shiva-Shakti, the holy couple with their perennial embrace....
In the duad of Shiva-Shakti the male part denotes the of transcendental aspect
of static, changeless repose, while the goddess [represents] the unceasing
dynamism of the universal life force, evolving the phenomenal spheres of the
universe out of the source, which in itself, as Shiva, remains undiminished.
(Zimmer 1968, 145)

While Ardhanarishwara is Lord Shiva's anthropomorphic androgynous form, the Shiva-linga is

His iconic androgynous form (Gross 1978). His phallic symbol or linga is almost always placed
within the yoni, the symbol of the female sexual organ, in representation of a sexual union (12).
A dominant Vaishnavite theory, believed to be a derivation of the pre-Vedic concept of
Ardhanarishwara, regards Radha as:

Krishna's hladini shakti or 'blissful energy,' a polar principle within, and not
different from, Himself. In order to taste with fuller rapture the bliss of his
own nature, Krishna creates his hladini shakti and enjoys, as lover, commun-
ion with himself in this form. (Hein 1972)

The "Yugal" or "couple" portraying Radha and Krishna's bodies entwined to form one aes-
thetically symmetric figure is a popular iconic image seen in Vaishnava painting. Religious
exercises within the Gaudiya sect of Vaishnavas involve male devotees identifying with the
female in order to realize the female principle within themselves. Considering that the Su-
preme Being, Lord Krishna, is the only male principle, they believe that madhura bhava or
His divine love can be realized or experienced through identification with the female form.
Male members of the Sakhi Bhava sect of Vaishnavism, more prevalent in Vraja, Bengal, and
Rajasthan, dress themselves as women in imitation of gopis as a regular part of their devo-
tional sadhana or penance to Lord Krishna.

This practice which may seem ludicrous to the outsider, is entirely consistent
with the direction of the Raganuga Bhakti Sadhana and represents one inter-

10 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 pretive strategy for imitating the Vrajaloka with the physical body. It is an
extreme attempt to identify with the true inner and essential nature (siddha-
svarupa), which is usually conceived of as a female gopi. It is a physical
effort on the part of some practitioners to transform the identity from its loca-
tion in the ordinary body to the ultimately real body as revealed by the guru,
and thereby inhabit the mythical world of Vraja. As Stanislavski has taught
us, outer physical acts lead to the inner world of a character. (Haberman
1988,137-138)

The Vedanta philosophy conceptualizes one ultimate Selhe cSutra-Samkhya, however, ar-
gues that Vedic references that refeto non-duality or advaita imply plurality of selves, but having one
generic essence (Larson and Bhattacharya 1987, 36-37). The Karika-Samkhya advocates a
dualism of two all-pervasive ultimate principles, the purusha or pure consciousness, and
prakriti, or primordial materiality. Ishvara or the Omnipresent Self is viewed as the purusha,
and the physical body with its five sense capacities and subtle elements (13), including the
five gross elements (14), is identified as the prakriti. The termpurusha literally means "man"
or "person," but it is used in the Upanishadic philosophy in preference to Ishavara or Absolute
Self. Purusha, the perfect Self-consciousness, has prakriti as one of His constituent elements,
by means of which He manifests Himself in the empirical world. Abhay Kumar Majumdar
elaborates that the "union of purusha and prakriti [in spite of their relative independence]
results in the eternal creation" (1981, 85).
Samkhya doctrines also state that purusha and prakriti are manifest in all individuals.
However, they are not fully realized due to the limitations imposed by the physical organism
and its adjuncts. As long as the individual works under those self-imposed limitations, she or
he remains in a state of bondage. By overcoming the physical limitations, the aspirant attains
the "knowledge" of the true nature of things, realizes the Absolute Self-consciousness and is
liberated. Arthur Avalon, in his translation of the Mahanirvana Tantra (Tantra of Great Libera-
tion) mentions that,

The dual principles of Shiva [male] and Shakti [female]... form the product
of polarity manifested in Parashakti-maya, pervade the whole universe, and
are present in man in the Svayambhu-Linga of the muladhara and the Devi
Kundalini, who in serpent form, encircles it. The Shabda-Brahman assumes
in the body of man the form of Devi Kundalini, and as such is in all prani
(breathing creatures).... Kundalini... means that which is coiled. She is the
luminous vital energy (jiva-shakti) which manifests as prana [life force], ...
when after closing the ears the sound of her hissing is not heard, death ap-
proaches. (1972, xxvi)

As a manifestation of these principles of "duality" within "oneness," training in Kathak

enables the performer to create multiple personae, a repertory of human and superhuman
characters-different "bodies," in terms of movement, dynamics, gait, personality and such-
one person's moving body portraying multiple characters. Constant performance practice and
analysis of these characters in relation to oneself enables the performer to recognize his many
potential bodies, that these (characters) are emotionally different facets of the prism of the
atman, his soul or reflections of paramatman, the universal omnipresence in the cycle of
existence. Conceptualizing the Hindu thought of punarjanma or reincarnation, it provides a

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 11

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
review of the many cycles of birth, adolescence, adulthood and death, cycles that each indi-
vidual repeatedly passes through. Kathy Foley states that, "the performer can ultimately real-
ize that all ... 'other' are merely sides of the eternal self' (1990, 65).
Temple arts in India developed as spiritual disciplines; temple dance performance as spiri-
tual practice. Traditional systems of training in performance art are not merely aimed at creat-
ing an artist aspiring to societal acclaim and success, but rather an inner development and
refinement of the performer. A performer of such caliber often flowers into a person of strong
character and convictions with principles of justice, and yet, is filled with compassion and
humility. Such a lifelong pursuance of, and dedication to, the art form allows for an ethical
and spiritual approach to the fulfillment of one's very existence. Jonathan Katz points out in
his thesis, The Musical Portions of Sangitaratnakara, that several texts written within the
medieval period, including Narada's musicological work Sangitaratnakara and
Nandikeshwara's thirteenth-century Abhinayadarpana, express views on the attainment of
moksha or liberation from life cycles through the performance of the art of music and dance
respectively (1987).
Since Kathak as a dance form developed significantly with Vaishnavism in Northern In-
dia, most of the thumris and bhajans, or devotional songs danced by the Kathaks, are meta-
phors for these philosophical concepts of purusha and prakriti personified in the central char-
acters of Lord Krishna and His beloved Radha. The fluidity of gender performance in Kathak
abhinaya reflects this conceptual Hindu philosophy of perfection, of the sense of being "com-
plete," "whole," "one Self." The master performer weaves a complex tapestry of characters-
the manifold images of one moving body; his artistry transcends the purely visual and plainly
sensual, leading the spectators to experience the heights of that which is neither actually seen
nor is directly seeable.

GLOSSARY

abhinaya: see note 1 below. churidar: close fitting cotton pants.

Abhinayadarpana: thirteenth-century text on dharma:

music the eternal principles which uphold and
and dance written by Nandikeshvara. preserve the universe; the principles of right
living.
achkan: knee-length shirt.
ekaharya abhinaya: a single dancer portraying
advaita: the philosophy of non-dualism.
multiple characters as they enter the story.
ardhanarishwara: see note 11 below.
gat bhava: an elaboration of the song interpreted in
atman: soul. movement. Each line is illustrated and explained
with several variations with the use of symbolic
bhajan: devotional song.
gestures, body postures and gait, providing a
bhakti: devotion to a personal god. The bhakti rhythmic enactment to the text of the sung verse.
movement was the growth of simplified, popular
gharana: school or style. Kathak dance is categorized
devotionalism during the medieval period. It
into three gharanas: Lukhnow, Jaipur and
began among the Tamils in South India and soon
Banaras gharanas, named after the cities in
spread to the North, diffusing the Vaishnavite
which the respective founder resided and
cult, which worshiped Krishna as the Divine established them.
Lover. The Sanskrit Bhagavad Purana, a product
of the bhakti movement, was composed in gopis: milkmaids and cowherdesses of Braja.
Tamilnadu. It later spread throughout India and
hladini shakti: blissful energy.
was translated into several vernacular languages.
Ishvara: Omnipresent Self; Absolute Self; God.
chaupat: game of dice.

12 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
jiva shakti: vital energy. prani: breathing creatures.

Kathak: term used to address both the male dancer punarjanma: reincarnation or rebirth.
and the dance form; also, name of the Brahman
Puranas: Hindu texts including mythology of the gods
caste to which these dancers belonged.
and goddesses. See Smritis.
kshatriya: a caste of warriors and royal kings.
purusha: man; person; pure Consciousness.
kurta: knee-length chemise.
Putana: a female demonic character in the epic
kundalini: that which is coiled at the base of Mahabharata who stealthily attempts to take the
muladhara in the body; a form of creative energylife of baby Krishna by having him suckle her
pervading, supporting and expressed in the formpoisoned breasts. However, Krishna, being the
of the whole universe. incarnation of Lord Vishnu, bites her hard and
destroys her.
lila: illusionary play
Ramayana: Hindu epic (not dated). See Smritis.
madhura bhava: divine love.
rasa: see note 9 below.
Mahabharata: Hindu epic (not dated). See Smritis.
sadhana: penance or practice by which the desired
moksha: spiritual state of bliss achieved through
siddhi may be attained.
liberation from the cycles of physical birth and
death. Samkhya: an intellectual movement, a methodology
for attaining liberation from the cycles of
muladhara: one of the six dynamic Tattvik centers of
physical existence or moksha throughjnanayoga,
the body, a triangular space in the midmost part
by way of "knowing"; the other two paths of
of the body with the apex pointing downwards.
moksha are karmayoga, by way of "action" and
Mula meaning root, dhara meaning support;
bhaktiyoga, by way of "devotional worship."
muladhara is the root on which the Kundalini
rests. sanchari bhava: secondary or transitory psychological
state or mood.
Natyashastra: oldest known Indian treatise on the
theory of performance and literature written in Sangitaratnakara: musicological text written in the
Sanskrit by (sage) Bharata Muni (approximately medieval period by sage Narada.
around second century B.C.).
Sanskrit: the classical language of ancient India and
nayaka: character role of the hero. the language of the sacred Hindu texts, epics and
classical scholarship.
nayika: character role of the heroine.
Shakti: Lord Shiva's consort symbolizing the
onnagata: term for the female role impersonated by a
primordial creative energy.
male actor in the Japanese theatrical art form
Kabuki. Shiva: one of the Trinity Gods (Brahma, Vishnu and
Shiva) within the Hindu religion.
palta: movement done to accomplish switching of
characters by the dancer. Shiva-linga: the phallic symbol for Lord Shiva.

pancha mahabhuta: the five gross elements that shlokas: Sanskrit poetic verses from sacred Scriptures.
constitute the entire universe: vayu (air), jala
Shrutis: "that which is heard"-sacred Hindu texts
(water), agni (fire), prithvi (earth) and akash
and scriptures passed on through an oral tradition.
(space). The physical body is the microcosm of
The Shrutis include the four Vedas, from which
the universe and hence manifest from the same
is derived the basis of Hindu religious thought.
five elements. A living body is therefore revered
as a sacred temple wherein dwells the atman or siddha svarupa: the self that has achieved a certain
the soul. level of spiritual accomplishment through
meditative practice or penance.
paramatman: universal omnipresence.
siddhi: accomplishment or achievement through
payjama: loose-fitting pants.
meditative practice or penance.
prakriti: primordial materiality.
Smritis: "that which is remembered"-sacred Hindu
prana: life force. texts and scriptures passed on through an oral

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 13

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
 tradition. The Smritis include the two great epics, concerning religious rituals. According to some
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and the scholars, the Natyashastra is additionally
eighteen Puranas. considered as the fifth Veda.

sthayi bhava: the dominant psychological state or
mood of the character.
svayambhu: emerged from, or born of, the Earth.
Tantra: sacred texts.
Tantricf/antrism: a cult within Hinduism that worships
Shakti, the female aspect of godhead.
thumri: semi-classical songs composed of emotionally
rich poetic verses, usually depicting the joys of
a romantic reunion, or pangs of love and
separation from the beloved. A genre of vocal
music, thumri was incorporated in the Kathak
repertoire by maestro Bindadin Maharaj, in the
court of Navvab Wajid Ali Shah during the first
half of the nineteenth century.
Upanishads: sacred Hindu texts, commentaries on the
Vedas.
Vedas: sacred texts from which the basic Hindu
religious thought is derived. There are four Vedas:
yoni: symbol for female sexual organ.
the Rig Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda and
the Atharva Veda. The Vedas are further divided
into texts of sacred hymns and precepts
Vishnu: one of the Trinity Gods (Brahma, Vishnu and
Shiva) within the Hindu religion. Bhagavad
Purana lists Dashavatara, the ten incarnations
of Vishnu in the order of evolution of life on earth.
An avatara or godly incarnation manifests when
evil by far outweighs the good on earth and as
such, each avatara is associated with a story. The
ten incarnations are: Matsyavatara (incarnation
in the form of fish), Kuchhavatara (tortoise),
Varahavatara (boar), Vamanavatara (dwarf),
Narasimhavatara (half man, half lion)
Parashurama (the warrior Brahman who avowed
the destruction of all kshatriyas), Ramavatara
(as Lord Rama of Ramayana), Krishnavatara (as
Lord Krishna of the Bhagawad Purana,
Mahabharata), Buddhavatara (as Buddha), and
finally, the tenth incarnation yet to be, Kalki
avatara (as Kalki on a white horse).
Vrajaloka: the people of Vraja; the imaginary realm
of Vraja.
yugal: couple

N1 OTES

1. Abhinaya is the art of creative, imaginative, mimetic very natural and simplified, abhinaya actually
portrayal of the narrative theme through facial and demands the most intense internal focus and undivided
bodily expressions, including codified and natural attention on the part of the performer. It leads equally
hastamudras or hand gestures. Nritya in Indian dance to an inner satisfaction or meditation of the performer
is the rendering of meaning or import of a song or and to the entertainment, transformation and
story through abhinaya, a Sanskrit term implying the enlightenment of the audience. Although the
translation of the "knowing" into "telling." It is derived transformation for the spectators is temporary, a
from the root word ni, which means to lead, the same complete retrieval to their previous state of being is
root from which are derived the words for the dramatic never possible; every performance renews and refills
hero (nayaka), and heroine (nayika). In the abhinaya their experience.
of any particular episode, every single line of the sung
2. 'Kathak' is a masculine common noun that
text or poetic verse is thematically interpreted in
addresses the professional male dancers who belong
various ways with a touch of individuality. Each
to the kathak caste. Women dancers from respecta
Kathak contributes his imaginative interpretation to
families started performing classical Kathak only af
the traditional text performed. The artist's virtuosity
the 1940s and 1950s. Considering the limitations
and creativity is measured not only in the portrayal of
space for this paper, I have constrained my discuss
the story but in the originality of its interpretation and
in relation to the ancient tradition of male Kathak
presentation. Familiarity of the text on the part of
performers only.
Indian audiences is assumed. Hence, the same
episodes enacted many times engage the spectator in 3. The word "Kathak" has been found in ancient
a new aesthetic experience each time. In dance, a formliterature: the eleventh-century Kathasaritsagara
of bodily expression of the narrative, the enactment mentions that King Sahasranika is entertained
of the physical description and the mental state of thelistening to a love story enacted by a Kathak named
characters is very elaborate. While appearing to beSangataka (Bhatta 1839, 107). Traced back to the pre-

14 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Christian era, the earliest reference to the art of Kathak
is found in the Mahabharata, the great epic poem. A
passage from the Arjunavanavasa section of the
Adiparva indicates that amongst the entourage that
followed Arjuna on his departure for the forest were
men of religious learning, forest dwelling ascetics,
Kathaks and Brahmans who sweetly recited the divine
stories. However, William Crooke mentions one of
the legendary claims that Kathaks were Gaur
Brahmans who used to sing and dance in the temples
of the gods but at the onset of the Moghal rule in India,
one of the Mohammedan Emperors, pleased by their
performance skills, asked them to perform in the royal
courts (Crooke 1896, 173).
4. Until the early 1900s, female dancers in the North
were relegated to the "low art" of male entertainment
called nach (or Nautch as [mis]pronounced by the
British) and were outcast as nachnis/tawayifs or
women of easy virtue. During the Moghal rule (late
fifteenth to early nineteenth century), many dancing
girls were imported from Persia in service of, and for
the entertainment of, the Muslim royalty. Local
dancing girls or tawayifs incorporated their style to
win the Navvab's favors, and a totally different
sensuous style of presentation, heavily influenced by
the court form of classical Kathak, known as the
mujra, evolved through this institution. It emphasized
seductive movements and expressions danced to
ghazals or romantic Urdu poetry, usually sung by the
tawayifor courtesan herself. Often, these dancing girls
or nachnis were trained by male Kathaks of lesser
achievements. However, the Kathak imparted the art
to the nachni selectively, only to the extent that he
considered appropriate to her calling. While Kathak,
danced by the males either in the temples or in royal
courts, was considered "classical," "high art," and
Kathaks as dancers received acclaim among both the
royalty and the society, tawayifs, as mentioned before,
well trained in song, dance and poetry, were relegated
to the "low art" and were socially ostracized as women
of low morals. Highly artistic as they were, what
lowered their social status was their indignity in
presenting themselves to the male gaze and engaging
in the art of seduction. However, it is important to
know that prostitution was not pursued by all tawayifs.
Some of them entertained only through song, dance
and poetry.
5. For an English translation of Natyashastra see
Ghosh 1950. Still a question of debate, the text of the
Natyashastra has been dated, according to some
scholars, around the second century B.C. to second
century A.D. (Kane 1961, 47 and Krishnamachariar
1974, 852).
Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 15
This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
6. Chapter 6 of the Natyashastra lists bhavas, the
durable psychological states (dominant moods) as: rati
(love); hasya (mirth, laughter); shoka (sorrow); krodha
(anger); utsaha (excitement, anxiousness, energetic
feeling); bhaya (terror, fear); jujupta (disgust); and
vismaya (astonishment). There are thirty-three
sanchari bhavas or secondary/ transitory/
complementary psychological states. Abhinaya is
expressed through dominant and transitory bhavas or
emotional states, which are used to evoke rasa in the
audience. Since rasa is the aesthetic experience
derived by the spectator from a given emotional
situation, each rasa is associated with a dominant
bhava: 1) shringara rasa: the erotic mood evoked by
the emotion of love; 2) hasya rasa: the comic mood
corresponding to laughter; 3) karuna rasa: the mood
of pathos or compassion corresponding to sorrow; 4)
raudra rasa: the furious mood corresponding to anger;
5) vira rasa: the heroic mood corresponding to
fortitude; 6) bhayanaka rasa: the mood of terror
corresponding to fear; 7) bibhatsa rasa: the mood of
loathing corresponding to disgust; 8) adbhuta rasa:
the mood of wonder corresponding to astonishment;
and 9) shanta rasa: the mood of tranquility
corresponding to equanimity or inner peace (Ghosh
1950).
7. Chapter 24 of the Natyashastra classifies the nayika
according to one who belongs to her lover, one who
belongs to another, or one who belongs to whomever
(that is, a courtesan); according to one who is naive,
innocent and in the early stages of experiencing love,
or one who is a matured and experienced woman;
according to one who has a refined character or not.
Natyashastra further classifies character portrayal in
terms of ashtanayika or eight classified situations
which determine the mood or type of the nayika in
question and the classification of nayakas into five
male types. The ashtanayika are described as: 1)
vasakasajja: one who is dressed and adorned in
anticipation of the arrival of her lover; 2)
virahotkanthita: one who is distressed in separation
and is longing for her lover; 3) svadhinapatika: one
who is in a dominant situation where her lover stays
by her side and is in her power; 4) kalahantarita: one
whose relationship with her lover is estranged because
of a quarrel; 5) khandita: one who is brokenhearted
and enraged when she discovers that her lover has
been with another woman; 6) vipralabdha: one who
is disappointed and frustrated when her lover does
not appear for the tryst; 7)prositabhartrka: one whose
lover has gone on a journey to distant lands; and 8)
abhisarika: one who is lovesick, and abandons all
modesty, caution and fear in order to meet with her
lover in the dark of the night. Chapter 25 of the
Natyasastra describes the five male types (in love)
as: 1) clever: one who is sympathetic, skilled,
enduring, controlled in anger and love as well, expert
in sexual acts, and is honest; 2) superior: one who
does not do anything displeasing [to his beloved], has
a good memory, has self command, is dignified, knows
thoroughly the mysteries of human feelings, is well
mannered, feels love but is not overcome with passion
and is self-respecting; 3) middling: one who is level
headed, understands a woman's feelings, one who
would be disgusted upon discovering her deceit; 4)
inferior: one who shamelessly approaches a woman
even after she has insulted him and has gone to
another, loves her openly and more strongly despite a
friend's advice to the contrary, even after knowing
her deceit; 5) vrttaka or novice: one who is foolish
and does not care about fear or anger, has excessive
feelings, is artless in the acts of love, and ends up
being a plaything for women.
Chapter 24 of the Natyashastra lists ten alankaras or
natural graces of women: lila (sportive mimicry);
vilasa (amorous gesture); vicchitti (in a disheveled
state); vibrahma (confusion, intoxication); kilakivicita
(in a hysterical mood); mottayita (manifestation of
affection); kuttamita (pretended anger) bibboka
(affected coldness); lalita (lolling, graceful
movements of the woman's hands, feet, brows, eyes,
Though seemingly two, they are fundamentally one.
lips); and vihrta (in want of response). Eight aspects
"For the sake of the universe and its creatures, the
of male sattva are: shobha (brilliant character); vilasa
(graceful bearing); madhurya (self-possession);
sthairya (steadiness); gambhirya (gravity, serious-
ness); lalita (sportiveness); audarya (nobility); and
the phenomenal world" (Zimmer 1968, 179). He is
tejas (enlightened spirit) (Ghosh 1950).
8. Female roles portrayed with "lowered eyes" should
encounter with the text or performance of the
character's bhava or emotions through which she or
he is temporarily transformed into an "extra-worldly"
state of being. Rasa is essentially the flavor that the
Kathak distills from a given emotional situation in
order to present it for aesthetic appreciation. The
experience of rasa is absolutely individual, not
universal, and it may not be experienced by the
spectator in every performance or even throughout a
single performance. Various spectrums within the
audience experience it in various subtle ways
depending upon the historiography of their emotions,
identity, life-experiences, and above all, their relative
knowledge of dance, music, mythology, religious
symbolism, philosophy, poetics and aesthetics
associated with all of these. Rasas exist only for the
duration of the performance but not beyond.
Performers themselves do not experience rasa, that
is, the emotions of the characters portrayed are not
identical to the personal feelings of the performer. For
details, see Mason and Patwardhan 1970.
10. See Bosch 1960; O'Flaherty 1973, 1975 and 1980;
Singer 1966; and Zimmer 1946 and 1968.
11. The literal meaning of the name ardanarishwara
is Lord (Ishvara) who is half (arda) a woman (nari).
Absolute has apparently unfolded into this duality, and
out of them derive all life polarities, antagonisms,
distinctions of powers, and elements that characterize
the Eternity and She is Time; each are both and the
two are one.

not necessarily be read as an indication of weakness

12. A different version is documented in a study
or submission, but rather as a sign of refinement
the Tamils of South India: "The stone civalinkam
showing respect towards an elderly person, or towards
[Shiva-lingam] or the phallus is a male form, but the
adult males as the case may be, unless particular
substance within it which is liquid (semen) or light
characters portrayed indicate differently.
(the deity), which is its action, is cakti [Shakti],
9. The sixth chapter of Natyashastra is devoted to female.... The sign of maleness is really the locus of
rasa, a key word significant to Sanskrit poetics, female qualities in a man, the male womb [that yields
literary criticism and performance practice. Rasa has a] milky, generative substance" (Egnor 1978, 69).
many connotations. However, for purposes of this
13. Five sense capacities of hearing, touching, seeing,
study, following the twelfth-century commentator
tasting and smelling and the respective five subtle
Abhinavagupta, rasa signifies the reader's/spectator's
elements such as sound, touch, form, taste and smell.
reaction to his personal involvement with the
literature/performance. It is a reader's/spectator's 14. Five gross elements: see pancha mahabhuta in
experience of aesthetic pleasure arising from the glossary.

REFERENCES

Barthes, Roland. Empire of Signs. Translated by

Avalon, Arthur, trans. Mahanirvana Tantra (Tantra
of the Great Liberation). New York: Dover Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 1982.
Publications, 1972.

16 Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998)

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
Bhatta, Somadeva. Katha Sarit Sagara. Edited and Majumdar, Abhay Kumar. The Samkhya Conception
translated by Hermann Brockhaus. Leipzig: F. A. of Personality. Delhi: Bharatiya Book Corporation,
Brockhaus, 1839. 1981.

Birju Maharaj. Personal communication with author,
Summer 1991.
Bloch, Maurice. "Descent and Sources of Contra-
diction in Representations of Women and Kinship."
In Gender and Kinship, edited by Jane F. Collier and
Sylvia J. Yanagisako, 324-340. Palo Alto: Stanford
University Press, 1987.
Bosch, F. D. K. The Golden Germ: An Introduction
to Indian Symbolism. The Hague: Mouton and Co.,
1960.
Crooke, William C. The Tribes and Castes of the
Northwestern Provinces and Oudh 3. Calcutta:
Superintendent of Government Printing, 1896. Harmondsworth, Baltimore: Penguin, 1975.
Mason, J. L., and M. V. Patwardhan. Aesthetic
Rapture: The Rasadhyaya of Natyashastra. Poona:
Deccan College and Postgraduate Research Institute,
1970.
Meigs, Anna. "Multiple Gender Ideologies and
Statuses." In Beyond the Second Sex: New Directions
in the Anthropology of Gender. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990.
O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. Asceticism and Eroticism
in the Mythology of Shiva. London: Oxford University
Press, 1973.
, trans. Hindu Myths: A Source Book.

Egnor, Margaret Trawick. "The Sacred Spell and .Women, Androgynes, and Other Mythical
Other Conceptions of Life in Tamil Culture." Ph.D.
Beasts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.
dissertation University of Chicago, 1978.
Phelan, Peggy. "Broken Symmetries: Memory, Sight,
Love." In Unmarked: The Politics of Performance.
Foley, Kathy. "My Bodies: The Performer in West
Java." The Drama Review 34/2 (1990):62-80. London: Routledge, 1993.

Ghosh, Manomohan, trans. The Natyasastra: A

Rawson, Philip S. The Art of Tantra. Greenwich: New
Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy and Histrionics.
York Graphic Society, 1973.
Calcutta: Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1950.
Shah, Purnima. "Innovations in Contemporary
Gross, Rita. "Hindu Female Deities as a ResourceKathak."
for Master's thesis, Department of Dance,
the Contemporary Rediscovery of the Goddess." University of California at Los Angeles, 1992.
Journal of the American Academy of Religion 46
. "Farmayishi Poetics of Kathak: Significance
(1978):269-92.
of Reception." UCLA Journal of Dance Ethnology
18 (1994):1-7.
Haberman, David L. Acting as a Way of Salvation: A
Study of Raganuga Bhakti Sadhana. Oxford: Oxford
Singer, Milton, ed. Krishna: Myths, Rites and
University Press, 1988.
Attitudes. Honolulu: East-West Center Press, 1966.
Hein, Norvin. The Miracle Plays of Mathura. New
Zarrilli, Phillip B. The Kathakali Complex: Actor,
Haven: Yale University Press, 1972.
Performance and Structure. New Delhi: Abhinav
Publications, 1984.
Kane, P. V. History of Sanskrit Poetics. Delhi: Motilal
Banarasidas, 1961.
. "What Does it Mean to 'Become a Character':
Katz, Jonathan. "The Musical Portions of Power, Presence and Transcendence in Asian In-body
Sangitaratnakara: A Critical Edition and Disciplines of Practice." In By Means of Performance:
Intercultural Studies of Theatres and Ritual, edited
Commentary." D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford,
1987. by Richard Schechner and Willa Appel, 118-132.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Krishnamachariar, M. History of Classical Sanskrit
Literature. 3d. ed. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas, 1974.Zimmer, Heinrich. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art
and Civilization. Edited by Joseph Campbell. New
Larson, Gerald James, and Ram Shankar
York: Harper and Row, 1946.
Bhattacharya, eds. Samkhya: A Dualist Tradition in
Indian Philosophy. Encyclopedia of Indian . The Art of Indian Asia: Its Mythology and
Philosophies. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton Transformations. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press, 1987. University Press, 1968.

Dance Research Journal 30/2 (Fall 1998) 17

This content downloaded from 128.226.37.5 on Fri, 02 Dec 2016 18:38:45 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms