Benha University

Shoubra Faculty of Engineering

Mechanical Power Department

Design and Construction of A

Hybrid Renewable Energy System

Supervisors

Prof.Dr. Osama Ezzat Dr. Mohamed El-Dsouki

Special Thanks to all people helped in

Delivering this Great Work

including but not limited

Mr. Mahmoud Eid Eisa

Eng. Ahmed (Egypt Fiber)

Eng. Mohamed AbdEl-Aati

All under Guidance of

Dr. Dsouki & Dr. Osama

 Done by:

- Aya Mohamed AbdEl-Aal

- Nada Alaa El-Din Amin
- Reham Ahmed Ali
- Salma Emam Ali
- Yasmin Saed Ahmed
- Ahmed Mohamed AbdEl-Aziz
- Ahmed Mohamed Reda
- Ahmed Mohamed Ismail
- Amr SalahEl-Din AbdEl-Sattar
- Mohamed Nagy Saber
- Hady Mohamed Ibrahim
- Moustafa Ibrahim AbdEl-Gawad
 Hybrid 2016 SFE

Abstract
Light is a source of life. We need it to study for our future, see the road in front of us, having the
ability to communicate with others. we had always depend on the on-grid system to make it
available for our houses and roads. But then what?
Our energy resources presented in fossil fuels are take millions of years to make. Fossil fuels are
the major energy source that are being used in the world today. But their over-consumption can
lead to serious environmental issues such as air pollution. Fossil fuels release carbon dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide etc. when burnt that can have severe
consequences on the habitats. They are non-renewable sources of energy as they are derived
from pre-historic fossils and won’t be available once they are fully used. Their sources are
limited and they are depleting at a faster rate.
The main problems found by using fossil fuels are: effect on human health, Non-renewable,
Impact on Aquatic life by oil spill, coal mining and need huge amount of reserves.
Which would be a risk to depend on it the next years because of its harmful effects and the next
generations.

Using Renewable energy system to enlighten our roads would be a great solution for this part.
Renewables are great for our energy portfolio because they are inexhaustible and won’t pollute
the planet for us or those of future generations by emitting toxic chemicals and gases. It is also
cheaper and more economically sound than other sources of generated energy. In addition to
environmental benefits, Reliable energy source, economic benefits, stabilize energy prices and
Jobs opportunities.
The main two sources of renewable energy are solar and wind energy which we can depend on
them in lightning systems.
Using solar energy (PV cells) is the first right move towards a greener life but in design
calculation we can get energy mostly from 5 to 7 hours’ maximum and stored it to be used later
at night. We found that we can develop this design by using vertical wind turbines in addition to
the PV.
this hybrid system would be a movement for the future as it won’t only have the ability to
produce the amount of energy needed for lighting but it be connected to the grid and feed it by
the generated green energy.
The hybrid renewable system is a new development for using of Renewable energy and
improving its efficiency. There were great obstacles facing the project beginning with:
 Wind energy
-using vertical wind turbine (VAWT) which was a hard decision while is known that the
horizontal wind turbine (HAWT) has a greater efficiency but more complicated in its
design. We found some advantages in using VAWT as we focused on a small wind
turbine size, have lower noise rate, easy in installment, cheap and low risk for human and
birds.
-Aero Foil Design between (symmetric and camber) studying different aero foils (NACA

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0012- NACA 0018 – NACA 0024 – S1210 – NACA 0030)

-Number of blades and a full comparison between the suitable options from 1 to 5 blades
After a long search we decided to use both of savonius and Darrius vertical wind turbines to get
over the self-starting required torque with 3 blades. We chose a NACA0030 profile after using a
CFD simulation program to analyze it.
 Battery charging:
Another problem we faced is how we can control the system of two sources of energy
feeding one battery and make it stable. This point was a main problem facing any Hybrid
system but when we thought about we couldn’t develop a new solution for it as our
background is mechanical engineering so we found that we can use a solar charge
controller (PWM type) which is cheap and available in the market. Part of our studying is
how to make two charge controllers as a one with editing its configuration with the
required needs to our project.
 Smart lighting system:
It can charge mobiles through USB charger connected to the pole that would help people
as an alternative source of charging of their mobile or any USB device while waiting for
transportation or a ride.
It is the first service that we can be available for people to use while we’re trying to
develop other ideas can be useful.
 Grid connected renewable energy system:
One of the main reasons to use Hybrid system is to have the ability to generate electricity
that is over produced from wind energy to feed the grid.
 Solar Photovoltaic
After calculations developed on Matlab and Excel to get the required number of modules
for charging our system. We made an easy sheet (excel sheet) can be used by customers
to get their calculations for the required system they want to install in their house (after
some modification on the loads sources).

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Index

Chapter 1 ……………………………………………………………………….1
1.1) Why we focus on Renewable energy
1.2) Current renewable energy capacity in Egypt
1.3) How much energy can we get from those renewable sources?
1.4) Electricity and Heat Generation from Renewables:
1.5) Sun Structure.

1.6) The Hydrogen Fusion Process (the proton-proton chain)

1.7) How much light actually reaches the Earth’s surface?
1.8) Sun causes the wind to blow
1.9) Why Hybrid Solar Wind system?
1.10) Solar-Wind systems
Chapter 2 ……………………………………………………………………….11
2.1) Introduction
2.2) Calculating Lumens and the luminaire power required
2.3) Load Calculations
2.4) Battery Sizing
2.5) Solar PV Panel Sizing
2.6) How solar panels work to generate solar energy?
2.7) Control unit in Hybrid systems.
2.8) Solar Controller Sizing
2.9) Our Model calculations
2.10) How to Figure the Correct Angle for Solar Panels - Solar Energy
Systems?

Chapter 3 ……………………………………………………………………….35
3.1 Formation of Wind
3.2 Wind Measurement
3.3 Wind Force

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3.4 Wind Power

3.5 Wind Energy Former & Present
3.6 Why Wind?
3.7 Turbines
Chapter 4 ……………………………………………………………………….42
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Design, Construction and Testing
4.3 Blade Element Method for H-VAWT
4.4 Dimensional Analysis
4.5 Calculations
4.6 Generators
Chapter 5 ……………………………………………………………………….78

5.1 PV Panel
5.2 Wind Turbine
Recommendations
References

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Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Why we focus on Renewable energy

Renewable energy:

It is energy which is generated from natural sources that are continuously replenished by
the nature, it comes to us at all times or at least for a very, very long time.

o Sources of renewable energy include:

 Solar energy
 wind energy
 hydro energy
 geothermal energy
 biomass energy
 tidal/ocean energy
Non-renewable energy:

It is energy which is taken from sources that are available on the earth in limited quantity

o Sources of non-renewable energy include:

 Nuclear energy
 Fossil fuel oil
 Natural gas
 Coal

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So the big question now is: what is the difference between renewable and non-renewable energy
and why do we use renewable energy?

1) Renewable energy sources are unlimited and non-renewable energy sources are
limited.
2) The usage of renewable energy sources such as solar power, wind power, hydro
power is environment-friendly. However, consumption of non-renewable energy
sources causes so many environmental problems.
3) Non-renewable energy sources are expensive, but most of the renewable sources
are freely available in the nature.
So governments prefer working in this field

According to Egypt

Egypt’s demand for electricity is growing rapidly and the need to develop alternative power
resources is becoming ever more urgent. It is estimated that demand is increasing at a rate of
1,500 to 2,000MW a year, as a result of rapid urbanization and economic growth. Egypt has been
suffering severe power shortages and rolling blackouts over the past years, necessitating the
requirement to look to alternative energy options to help meet increasing demand.

1.2 Current renewable energy capacity in Egypt

Hydro

Hydroelectricity has played a role in electricity generation in Egypt for decades. Projects such as
the Aswan Dam produce 15,300GWh a year, or roughly five to ten per cent of Egypt’s annual
energy needs. As 85 per cent of Egypt’s hydropower potential has already been developed, this is
not regarded as a premier growth sector and the Government’s focus has been directed more
towards the wind and solar energy sectors.
Solar
Due to its location, topography and climate, Egypt has an average level of solar radiation of
between 2,000 to 3,200kWh per square meter a year, giving it significant potential for utilizing
this form of renewable energy. To date, however, uptake of solar projects has been slow due to
high capital costs. In 2010, Egypt’s only major solar power project was commissioned in
Kuraymat. The plant is a 140MW solar thermal combined cycle power plant of which 20MW is
from solar energy.

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Egypt is recognized as having vast potential for solar energy application, but the investment cost
of solar power plants is currently very high in comparison with oil and gas fired power plants
and it is envisaged that Egypt’s strategy for developing its renewable energy capacity will be
mainly directed at the wind sector.
Wind
Egypt’s best-developed wind region so far is the Zafarana district, with average wind speeds of
around nine meters a second. The project (which is owned and operated by NREA) consists of a
series of linked wind farms, the first of which started construction in 2001. In 2010, Zafarana
wind farm’s total installed capacity reached 550MW, making it one of the largest onshore wind
farms in the world.

Egypt is recognized as having some of the world’s best wind resources, especially in the Gulf of
Suez area, with significant additional potential along the east and west banks of the Nile.
According to the Egypt Wind Energy Association, 700 square kilometers have been set aside for
new wind projects in the Gebel el-Zayt area which has wind speeds of 11 meters a second.
The NREA is currently ended a 200MW project in the Al-Zayt area which is worked in the first
quarter of 2014. Whilst there are a number of wind energy projects in the pipeline, the majority
of which will be managed by the NREA, renewable energy industry, investor uncertainty and a
weakened economy following the ousting of the previous government have slowed down
development significantly.

1.3 How much energy can we get from those renewable sources? What can
they deliver?
This was back in 2007, where humans consumed about 15 terra watts of energy, 24 hours a day,
every day, every week.

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Today, it's much higher and we predict by the year 2050, it's going to be 30 terawatts. So a near
doubling from the 2007 level, By the 21st century end, we'll be at 50 TW. And if we look at the
energy sources we have today, we know that fossil fuel, we already know this is not going to
help us. If we look at those different renewable energy sources and look at what their potential is,
how much can they give us theoretically and especially how much of it can we extract. For an
instance wind energy, there's plenty of wind in the middle of the Pacific-ocean but it's going to
be much more challenging to extract the wind energy out there, than it is going to be close to the
shore. So we can also talk about a technical practical value that these energy sources have. And
if you look at biomass, we have maybe five to seven terawatts accessible. So that's about half the
energy that we are consuming right now, that we can maybe get from biomass if we used it all.
Hydroelectric is a brilliant renewable energy source, but it's linked normally to places where you
have large reserves of water at high altitude close to a steep drop in, in altitude. So you can
extract it and in turbines et cetera, by liberating this water through a long hose going downhill.
There's also geothermal energy. In principle, there's a lot of it. More than we need in principle at
the moment. But it's also very, very tricky to extract, because you have to go deep down to
extract it, but it's there. So the practical potential at the moment is relatively small and limited to
areas where with volcanoes or with geothermic activities that is readily accessible at the surface
of the earth. Then there's tidal or ocean currents, which we can also use, but again they are linked
geographically to specific places at the moment. And then perhaps the largest one at the moment
is wind energy, it's also the most explored. The practical potential of wind energy is about the
level of what we are consuming at the moment. But it's clear that even if we add all those up, it's
not enough.

Then there is of course the solar energy that is little explored in fact, but it's has a vast potential.
The technical value for solar energy is 10,000 terawatts.

And if we think about what reaches the surface of, of the Earth it's over 100,000 terawatts.

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1.4 Sun Structure

The sun and its atmosphere are divided into several zones and layers. The solar interior, from the
inside out, is made up of the core, radiative zone and the convective zone.
The solar atmosphere above that consists of the photosphere, chromospheres, a transition region
and the corona.

The sun is a big ball of hot gases. These gases are converted into energy in the sun's core. The
energy moves outward through the interior layers, into the sun's atmosphere, and is released into
the solar system as heat and light.

It's about 70% Hydrogen and 28% Helium by mass, everything else ("Metals") is less than 2%.
This changes slowly over time as the Sun converts hydrogen to helium in its core. Nuclear fusion
is a nuclear reaction in which hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form helium nuclei and release
energy.

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1.5 The Hydrogen Fusion Process (the proton-proton chain)

The steps of fusion

1. Two pairs of protons fuse, forming two

deuterons
2. Each deuteron fuses with an additional
proton to form helium-3
3. Two helium-3 nuclei fuse to create
beryllium-6, but this is unstable and
disintegrates into two protons and a
helium-4
4. The reaction also releases two
neutrinos, two positrons and gamma rays.

1.6 How much light actually

reaches the Earth’s surface?
The sun’s radiation must make it through multiple
barriers before it reaches Earth’s surface. The first
barrier is the atmosphere. About 26% of the sun’s
energy is reflected or scattered back into space by
clouds and particulates in the atmosphere. Another
18% of solar energy is absorbed in the atmosphere.
Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation, while carbon
dioxide and water vapor can absorb infrared radiation
The remaining 56% of solar radiation is able to reach
the surface. However, some of this light is reflected
off of snow or other bright ground surfaces, so only
48% is available to be absorbed by land or water. Of the radiation that reaches the surface,
approximately half is visible light and half is infrared light . These reflection and absorption
percentages can vary due to cloud cover and sun angle. In cloudy weather, up to 70% of solar
radiation can be absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere.

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1.7 Sun causes the wind to blow

As the sun warms the Earth's surface, the atmosphere warms too. Some parts of the Earth receive
direct rays from the sun all year and are always warm. Other places receive indirect rays, so the
climate is colder. Warm air, which weighs less than cold air, rises. Then cool air moves in and
replaces the rising warm air. This movement of air is what makes the wind blow.

1.8 Why Hybrid Solar Wind system?

The combination of wind and solar has the advantage that the two sources complement each
other because the peak operating times for each system occur at different times of the day and
year. The power generation of such a hybrid system is more constant and fluctuates less than
each of the two component subsystems.
The hybrid system is the best for Remote Area Power Systems (RAPS) , as it is operational in all
weather, can be used for 24-hrs power generation, and the presence of two different energy
sources provide a diversity of supply, reducing the risk of power shortage or outages, in addition
to it is a green energy.

1.9 Solar and Wind around the world

-Here are some of the most widely used renewable energy states in the world

-First we will see how the spread of solar power in the world

1. Germany: 35.5 GW
(2010: 9.8 GW — 1st place)

In 2010, Germany was clearly the world leader, and has only continued the trend. In 2009
alone, Germany installed 3.8 GW of PV solar energy capacity, and the country has added at
least 3.3 GW of new solar capacity per year, and more like 6 GW per year between 2010 and
2012

2. China: 18.3 GW
(2010: .305 GW — 8th Place)

Since our 2009 research, China has grown its solar capacity by an astounding 6,000 percent —
from less than one-third of a gigawatt of capacity to 18.3 GW. It helps that China is a major

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solar panel manufacturer, and the government has had to repeatedly raise its renewable energy
targets — from a plan of 20 GW by 2020 to 20-30 GW by 2020 to the current target of an
astounding 70 GW of solar by 2017.

3. Italy: 17.6 GW
(2010: 1.2 GW — 5th Place)

Not only has Italy continued its leadership in solar — rising from fifth place in 2010 to third
place as of the end of 2013 — it generates more of its energy from solar than any other nation,
with 7.8 percent of its energy coming from solar, compared to 6.2 percent for Germany

4. Japan: 13.6 GW
(2010: 2.6 GW — 3rd Place)

Government residential PV programs, net-metering, high national solar energy goals to reach
28 GW by 2020 and 53 GW by 2030, as well as the support of local authorities and the private
sector make Japan a world leader in this field.

- Now we will move to wind power

1. Denmark
Denmark set a new world record for wind production in 2014, getting 39.1 percent of its overall
electricity from the clean energy source.
Last year, onshore wind was also declared the cheapest form of energy in the country.
2.United Kingdom
In the UK, wind power also smashed records in 2014, as generation rose 15 percent from 24.5
terawatt-hours (TWh) hours to 28.1 TWh.
That’s more than any other year, and the country now generates enough wind energy to supply
the needs of more than 6.7 million UK households.
3. Germany

Renewable energy was the biggest contributor to Germany’s electricity supply in 2014, with
nearly 26 percent of the country’s power generation coming from clean sources. That’s
according to Berlin-based think-tank Agora Energiewende.

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4. Ireland

Windy conditions in Ireland meant the country saw not one but two wind energy records set
already this year.
wind energy had created 1,942 MW of energy, enough to power more than 1.26 million homes.
And while we are still only a week into 2015, this announcement marked the second time this
year the country has seen this record broken. On the Jan. 1, wind energy output was at a previous
high of 1,872 MW.

1.10 China was an example of combining two

types of energies in one system
Solar-Wind systems

In several parts of China, there are lighting poles with

combinations of solar panels and wind-turbines at their top.
This allows space already used for lighting to be used more
efficiently with two complementary energy productions
units. Most common models use horizontal axis wind-
turbines, but now models are appearing with vertical axis
wind turbines, using a helicoidally shaped, twisted-Savonius
system.

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-We choose the lighting pole as an application to build on it the idea of power generation using
hybrid renewable energy.
-In Cairo, Egypt the solar energy has more potential all over the year than that of wind energy,
and the solar power system has better value for money in sites with average wind speeds less
than 5 meters per second.

-We managed to generate the power required for our system from both energy sources with
120% of it’s need, with 20% excess power generation to reduce the risk of power shortage in any
duration that may the two energy sources are not existing enough, and we take the solar to wind
ratio 80 % / 40 %.

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Chapter 2
Smart Lighting Pole
2.1 Introduction
-In the previous chapter we have seen an example on a street light pole made in china, we decided
to do it in addition to make a mobile USB charger that may be useful for people near bus stop,
while walking on the side walk, or in a tourist village.

2.2 Calculating Lumens and the luminaire power required

-We build our considerations on:
-The top standard of road lighting design is Rp-8-00 which is published by IES (American Standard).
-NasrSolar company: ‫شر كة مصرية مقيدة في األتحاد المصري لمقاولي التشييد و البناء في شعب األعمال المتكاملة و األعمال‬
‫ باألضافة الي الطلمبات‬,‫ الشركة متخصصة في مجال تصميم و تنفيذ المحطات الشمسية المستقلة و المتصلة بالشبكة‬،‫الكهروميكانيكية‬
‫الشمسية و نظم التسخين و اعمدة االنارة و لوحات االعالنات‬

-From the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES)

we take the minimum maintained average value for illumination = 12 Lux

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-Then we have to calculate to get the lumens required depending on

.Street width (W)

.Distance between poles (D)
.Maintenance factor (MF)
.Coefficient of utilization factor (Cu)

-From NasrSolar.com … we get that D = 2 * pole height

Hence, for our case study, we get that:

Lumens = (12 * 3 * 6) / (0.9 * 0.29) = 827 lm

-Then we have to get the power of the luminaire required, and to get the power required we need to
choose first the type of the luminaire to use.

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-We choose to use the LED as it has longer life time, and consumes less energy for the same
lumens of the other luminaries.

- For LED we need 10 W power.

-We purchased LED chip 10 W, 1000 lm

-Then we ensure our results on the Dialux 4.12 software.

- For street 6 m wide, poles arrangement on both sides, we in put our data in the following figures.

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-Then we calculated the results.

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- We found the Average lux reuired for the street as follows

-Then We output our results and found it optimized.

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2.3 Load Calculations

1. LED bulb

-Assume turning on hours = 10 hrs/day

- Therefore, LED energy = 10 * 10 = 100 WH/day

2. USB charger
- USB volt = 12 V
- USB current = 1 A
- USB power = 12 *1 = 12 W
-Assume charging hours = 6 hrs/day
- Therefore, USB energy = 12 * 6 = 72 WH/day

Therefore, Total Energy required for loads = 100 + 72 = 172

WH/day

2.4 Battery Sizing

-We should first know the types of batteries used in the solar energy storage.

1-Standard flat Plated lead acid

a. Flooded Lead Acid (FLA)

-In which the lead plates are totally flooded by the electrolyte.
-It requires regular maintenance.
-It has low cost.

b. Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) or Sealed lead acid

-If a battery is called ‘maintenance-free’ and is sealed (with no openings
for adding acid) it is probably a valve-regulated battery. This means that, ordinarily,
when gas is given off during charging, it is recombined into the battery as electrolyte.
-There are three types from this category.

1- Wet
2- Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM): maintenance free, higher cost
3-Gel: It has the more efficiency, longer life time, can discharge till 90% of the existing
charge, maintenance free, highest cost.

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2- Tubular plated lead acid

-Tubular batteries provide enhanced performance and improved reliability as compared

to flat plate technology.
- Higher life time (20:25 years)

3- A Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery

-Abbreviated NiMH or Ni–MH, is a type of rechargeable battery.

-Higher lifetime, not commonly used.
such as NiCad (Nickel Cadmium), NiFe (Nickel Iron)

4- Lithium-ion battery
lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are considered one of the most suitable storage technologies for deployment
in power grids. Li-ion technology offers advantages in performance and service life compared with
conventional storage batteries. Li-ion batteries can offer 95% efficiency, as well as a long calendar life
and cycle life - 20 years at 60% depth of discharge/day.

-We choose to purchase the Sealed lead acid battery (SLA) or (VRLA)
- Our choice was based on:
-Suitable for our case study.
-Suitable price.
-The availability and easy to purchase it in the market in Egypt.

-Steps to size the battery.

- Battery efficiency (η) = 80 %
- Depth of Discharge = 80 %
-System voltage = 12 V
- Average ambient winter multiplier = 1.19
- Days of Autonomy = 2

Therefore, Battery capacity = (172 * 2 * 1.19) / (0.8 * 0.8 * 12) = 53.3 AH/day

Therefore, the battery should be rated 12 V 55 AH. For 2-day autonomy

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-To increase the battery life time, we should assume average suitable charge rate, and suitable discharge
rate that can be controled by the solar charger controller.

-Assume C-rate …. 0.1 C

-It means that the time of charging the battery will last for 10 hrs

- Therefore, Amp rating charging the battery = 53.3 / 10 = 5.33 A for 10 hrs
for solar charge rate = solar share * Amp rating = 5.33 * 0.8 = 4.26 A

2.5 Solar PV Panel Sizing

-First we have to know what is the solar cell, how it works, and the types of solar cells and their
classifications.

What is the solar cell

The solar cell is a solar device that receives sunlight and converts it into
electricity? It's an old idea. It was observed long ago by a guy called
Becquerel. He observed the generation of an electrical current as a function
of incoming sunlight.
It took a long while from then until the solar cell as we know it today in the
form of an inorganic, shiny silicon-type solar cell.

1st Generation (Crystalline solar cells)

It was in the 50s, developed at, at Bell Labs. And just after this cell came out, it came out with an
astonishing efficiency of around 6%. Ideas were huge, vast of amount of ideas coming out on what to use
it for. People predicted a solar future with solar homes, etc. It quickly died out because it was simply too
costly.
And it took a long while to, shall we say, re-initiate the idea of using sunlight as an energy source. The

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energy crisis in the 70s surely helped, but that is probably what started it. And since the 80s and upwards,
the solar industry has become a real industry that is large today. It is clear that the early versions of the
solar cells the monocrystalline silicon solar cells, they were too expensive for anything. So they were only
used to power off-grid applications, satellites, things where you really had no cheap alternative to
electricity, where the price of a watt could be anything you like. They were named first generation solar
cell technologies, with mainly crystalline silicon covering this. They were hugely expensive in materials
use, thick wafers in the beginning. Later on we've became much better at cutting them. But they are still
first generation.

The variation that is observed in the first generation technologies which are normally understood as a bulk
semiconductor that's sliced into a thin sheet that can then be converted into a solar harvesting device.
Solar cells made of monocrystalline silicon (Mono-Si), also called single-crystalline silicon (Single-
Crystal-Si), are quite easily recognizable by an external even coloring and uniform look, indicating high-
purity silicon, as you can see on the picture below:

1-Monocrystalline solar:
Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of silicon ingots, which are cylindrical in shape. To optimize
performance and lower costs of a single monocrystalline solar cell, four sides are cut out of the cylindrical
ingots to make silicon wafers, which is what gives monocrystalline solar panels their characteristic look.
A good way to separate mono- and polycrystalline solar panels is that polycrystalline solar cells look
perfectly rectangular with no rounded edges.

Advantages
•Monocrystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency rates since they are made out of the highest-
grade silicon. The efficiency rates of monocrystalline solar panels are typically 15-20%. SunPower
produces the highest efficiency solar panels on the U.S. market today. Their E20 series provide panel

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conversion efficiencies of up to 20.1%. SunPower has now released the X-series at a record-breaking
efficiency of 21.5%.
•Monocrystalline silicon solar panels are space-efficient. Since these solar panels yield the highest power
outputs, they also require the least amount of space compared to any other types. Monocrystalline solar
panels produce up to four times the amount of electricity as thin-film solar panels.
•Monocrystalline solar panels live the longest. Most solar panel manufacturers put a 25-year warranty on
their monocrystalline solar panels.
•Tend to perform better than similarly rated polycrystalline solar panels at low-light conditions.

Disadvantages
•Monocrystalline solar panels are the most expensive. From a financial standpoint, a solar panel that is
made of polycrystalline silicon (and in some cases thin-film) can be a better choice for some
homeowners.
•If the solar panel is partially covered with shade, dirt or snow, the entire circuit can break down.
Consider getting micro-inverters instead of central string inverters if you think coverage will be a
problem. Micro-inverters will make sure that not the entire solar array is affected by shading issues with
only one of the solar panels.
•The Czochralski process is used to produce monocrystalline silicon. It results in large cylindrical ingots.
Four sides are cut out of the ingots to make silicon wafers. A significant amount of the original silicon
ends up as waste.
•Monocrystalline solar panels tend to be more efficient in warm weather. Performance suffers as
temperature goes up, but less so than polycrystalline solar panels. For most homeowner’s temperature is
not a concern.

2-Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells

The first solar panels based on polycrystalline silicon, which also is known as polysilicon (p-Si) and
multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si), were introduced to the market in 1981. Unlike monocrystalline-based
solar panels, polycrystalline solar panels do not require the Czochralski process. Raw silicon is melted
and poured into a square mold, which is cooled and cut into perfectly square wafers.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

Advantages
•The process used to make
polycrystalline silicon is simpler and
cost less. The amount of waste silicon
is less compared to monocrystalline.
•Polycrystalline solar panels tend to
have slightly lower heat tolerance than
monocrystalline solar panels. This
technically means that they perform
slightly worse than monocrystalline
solar panels in high temperatures. Heat can affect the performance of solar panels and shorten their
lifespans. However, this effect is minor, and most homeowners do not need to take it into account.
•Polycrystalline not affected so much by increased temperature compared to monocrystalline

Disadvantages
•The efficiency of polycrystalline-based solar panels is typically 13-16%. Because of lower silicon purity,
polycrystalline solar panels are not quite as efficient as monocrystalline solar panels.
•Lower space-efficiency. You generally need to cover a larger surface to output the same electrical power
as you would with a solar panel made of monocrystalline silicon. However, this does not mean every
monocrystalline solar panel perform better than those based on polycrystalline silicon.
•Monocrystalline and thin-film solar panels tend to be more aesthetically pleasing since they have a more
uniform look compared to the speckled blue color of polycrystalline silicon.

2nd Generation Solar cells (Thin film)

This first generation technology not only embodies a lot of energy; they are expensive to make. You have
to heat up semiconductors with high melting point, some refining, etc. They spawned the idea of making a
different class of solar cells.
Later on they were called second generation solar cells. But some people also called them thin film solar
cells. And the idea was, of course, instead of making a bulk material, that was then a solar cell, you could
make a thin film, on something else, on a carrier substrate, that was the solar cell.
The first really nice example was the amorphous silicon solar cell. That was made at much lower
temperature, just a few hundred degrees, as compared to a thousand degrees for the crystalized silicon
cells. But the amorphous silicon cell still had some inherent problems. And even though it came out very
quickly, it took a long while to solve some of the inherent instabilities it had, Staebler-Wronski Effect,
many other things, where the solar cell actually worked well, but didn't seem to like to operate without
decaying in performance.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

And to somebody with the first generation solar cell experience, where you made a block of
semiconductor that just worked stably for a long time without deterioration of the performance, this new
idea of having a thin-film solar cell, a new generation of solar cells that solved the problems of the high-
embodied energy, high temperatures, the enormous materials used. Those solar cells suddenly had this
new feature. They weren't stable.

There are several thin-film technologies, after the amorphous silicon solar cell, the cadmium telluride cell,
the CIGS solar cell, many others. All of them presented some sort of instability. It could be bad contacts,
sensitivity to atmospheric components such as water or oxygen. This was really a new thing. For this
reason, this new class of solar cells actually took off slowly. Even though they offered better materials
uses, lower temperatures, potentially faster manufacture.
The second generation solar cells are based on amorphous silicon, CIGS and CdTe, where the typical
performance is 10 - 15%. Since the second generation solar cells avoid use of silicon wafers and have a
lower material consumption it has been possible to reduce production costs of these types of solar cells
compared to the first generation. The second generation solar cells can also be produced so they are
flexible to some degree. However, as the production of second generation solar cells still include vacuum
processes and high temperature treatments, there is still a large energy consumption associated with the
production of these solar cells. Further, the second generation solar cells are based on scarce elements and
this is a limiting factor in the price.

And the fact that they

were so slow, actually
made room for
another generation,
the third generation.
That in addition, to
being low cost,
immature, and thin-
film, was even lower
cost materials, and
even thinner films,
and even lower
temperatures.

3rd Generation (Organic solar cells)

There are more contenders also, whereas in the bulk crystalline type solar cells, the first generation, there
are only a few. With thin-film ones, the second generation, there are a few more. But with the third
generation, it exploded. There's many contenders. Small variations - infinite variations in materials,
material composition, synthesis, combination, layer stacking, architecture, the way they're built up, the
substrates they are made of. They go from flexible to rigid substrates. They go everywhere. Common to

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

those, however, is that they have, until now, found it very difficult to make market, even though they
potentially offer efficiencies above 10%, very thin outline, very low materials usage, potentially very,
very fast manufacturing methods, much, much faster than the first and second generation. But they are
very unstable often, and this is a big challenge to solve. So you could say that the first generation were
simple in their constitution and inherently stable in operation, but also impossible to realize on the
gigawatt scale or the multi-gigawatt scale or even the terawatt scale, is the scale we need. The second
generation, perhaps, could address this - manufacturing speed. And if some of the other materials you use,
and some of them are esoteric or toxic, this could be a problem. The third generation solves all this.
Third generation solar cells use organic materials such as small molecules or polymers. Thus, polymer
solar cells are a sub category of organic solar cells. The third generation also covers expensive high
performance experimental multi-junction solar cells which hold the world record in solar cell
performance. This type has only to some extent a commercial application because of the very high
production price. A new class of thin film solar cells currently under investigation are perovskite solar
cells and show huge potential with record efficiencies beyond 20% on very small area. Polymer solar
cells or plastic solar cells, on the other hand, offer several advantages such as a simple, quick and
inexpensive large-scale production and use of materials that are readily available and potentially
inexpensive. Polymer solar cells can be fabricated with well-known industrial roll-to-roll (R2R)
technologies that can be compared to the printing of newspapers. Although the performance and stability
of third generation solar cells is still limited compared to first and second generation solar cells, they have
great potential and are already commercialized, e.g. by infinityPV.com. Research interest in polymer solar
cells has increased significantly in recent years and it is now possible to produce them at a price that
enables projects such as the free OPV initiative.
So the big question is, where's it going to end?

Where's it going to end? Well, to sum up, we had the bulk crystalline semiconductor type first generation
solar cells. They were there early. They worked well. But we only saw them in satellites. And we saw that
they were made in bulk lumps of semiconductor from which the solar cell was made. Then there was the
second generation that actually came out, and they were lousier in performance. They came out in pocket
calculators, and people speculated on putting them on the ground, deploying them in a simpler way. And
then the 3rd generation. Well, the 3rd generation, as I said, had an increasing variability. And this actually
led to the Nobel Prize for three guys in, in year 2000. And you can also see, when you look at it, the
number of publications appearing for third generation solar cells, far exceeds the number for second
generation and first generation. They're relatively few of the first, a little more of the second, but the third
generation is exploding. There are thousands and thousands and thousands of publications, and there's no
product. So, that's an interesting point, that maybe, something that quickly breaks market, stops in
science. There's fewer scientific development because it's already there and useful. Something that might
be, but that isn't quite, it interests people. It tickles interests and their curiosity. And therefore, scientists
begin to study and study. And this can be seen in this plot where you see how the number of publications
published each year, exploded for organic photovoltaics.
The Eco toxicity, the environmental impact of deploying these technologies on a huge scale, can we
handle it? That, I think, is one thing that really justifies the use of organic photovoltaics. Because in
principle, we can make a technology here, that is scalable. And on the scale that we're going to employ it,
we don't have any of these worries.
So, okay, at the moment, yes, they have a poor performance. Yes, they also have a shorter lifetime.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

But, it's also yes, they don't embody toxic materials forcibly. And yes, we can manufacture them on the
scale required, at a very low environmental impact. It beats any, every, and any other technology.
In addition, the third generation, especially the polymer photovoltaics, inherently enable us to recycle
materials and think cradle to cradle. So when we design the device, the technology, the process for it, its
installation, its operation phase, its decommission phase, it also becomes possible to manage the end of
life efficiency and reclaim resources that may have been used that are still valuable, or simply
decommission and dispose of it in a safe and clean manner. For this reason of small efficiencies, that is
the job of scientists to remove, it has all the advantages that no other photovoltaic technology presents.

Recommendation for the future

New discoveries
A) Perovskites Solar cells
Some of the most promising solar cells today use
light-harvesting films made from perovskites – a
group of materials that share a characteristic
molecular structure. However, perovskite-based
solar cells use expensive “hole-transporting”
materials, whose function is to move the positive
charges that are generated when light hits the
perovskite film.
The molecularly engineered hole-transporting material, called FDT, that can bring costs down while
keeping efficiency up to competitive levels. Tests showed that the efficiency of FDT rose to 20.2% –
higher than the other two, more expensive alternatives. And because FDT can be easily modified, it acts
as a blueprint for an entire generation of new low-cost hole-transporting materials.
FDT is easy to synthesize and purify, and its cost is estimated to be a fifth of that for existing materials.

B) Graphene solar panels

Scientists are developing graphene solar panels that
generate energy when it rains.
Key to the new process is graphene: a 'wonder' material
we've heard plenty about before. Because raindrops are not
made up of pure water, and contain various salts that split
up into positive and negative ions, a team from the Ocean University of China in Qingdao thinks we can
harness power via a simple chemical reaction. Specifically, they want to use graphene sheets to separate
the positively charged ions in rain (including sodium, calcium, and ammonium) and in turn generate
electricity.
They're now working on adjusting the technology to handle the variety of ions found in real raindrops and
figuring how to generate enough electricity from the typically low concentrations they come in.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

It's not the first time graphene has been used to boost solar energy technologies: earlier this year, a team
from the UK was able to create a graphene-based material that's very effective at absorbing ambient heat
and light, and which could eventually lead to solar panels that can work with the diffuse sunlight that
finds its way indoors.
If these scientists get their way, in the future, photovoltaic cells may not be hampered by a lack of direct
sunshine at all.

2.6 How solar panels work to generate solar energy?

When the sunlight strikes the cell, photons in the light knock some of the extra electrons loose from the
silicon, and they flow to the part of the cell that is missing electrons. This flow produces an electrical
current that eventually reaches the inverter, where it gets converted into usable electricity.

A photovoltaic cell is the smallest and basic building block of a photovoltaic system. A single
photovoltaic cell can produce about 1 to 2 watts of electricity. This energy is too less for use in any
household or commercial purpose. To increase the output of solar electricity, several photovoltaic cells
are electrically connected together to form a photovoltaic panel or photovoltaic module. These
photovoltaic panels / modules are further electrically connected to form a photovoltaic array. The number
of modules connected to form an array depends on the amount of solar electrical energy needed.
Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. When sunlight strikes a solar cell, electrons
get loose and move toward the treated front surface of the cell thus creating holes. When many electrons,
each carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the cell, it creates an imbalance of
electrons. When the front and back surface of the photovoltaic cell are joined by a connector, say a copper
wire, electricity is generated. This is how solar panels work to generate solar energy.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

However, not all of the energy from the sunlight can generate free electrons. There are several reasons for
this.
a) Part of the sunlight is reflected at the surface of the solar cell, or passes through the cell.
b) In some cases, electrons and holes recombine before arriving at the n-type and p-type regions.
c) Furthermore, if the energy of the photon is too low – which is the case with light at long wavelengths,
such as infrared – it is not sufficient to release the electron.
d) On the other hand, if the photon energy is too high, only a part of its energy is needed to release the
electron, and the rest converts to heat.

P-N junction
The standard silicon (Si) solar cell is based on a semiconductor p-n junction. The contact of n-doped and
p-doped layers forms a p-n junction. Doping is a process of introducing impurities into a pure
semiconductor.
n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping with impurity atoms having an excess valence electron, in the
case of Si (elements of group IV of the periodic table),
n-type semiconductor is the result of doping with (phosphorus), one of the elements of group V
p-type semiconductors on the other hand are obtained by doping with impurity atoms (from group III for
Si) with (boron), one valence electron less than the surrounding atoms. This can also be viewed as an
atom with an excess hole, which is just the absence of an electron that would be present otherwise. Atoms
of elements of group III are called in this case acceptors. these impurity atoms are called electron donors.
p-type semiconductors on the other hand are obtained by doping with impurity atoms (from group III for
Si) with (boron), one valence electron less than the surrounding atoms. This can also be viewed as an
atom with an excess hole, which is just the absence of an electron that would be present otherwise. Atoms
of elements of group III are called in this case acceptors.
A solar cell is a sandwich of n-type silicon (blue) and p-type silicon (red). It generates electricity by using
sunlight to make electrons hop across the junction between the different flavors of silicon:
1. When sunlight shines on the cell, photons (light particles) bombard the upper surface.
2. The photons (yellow blobs) carry their energy down through the cell.
3. The photons give up their energy to electrons (green blobs) in the lower, p-type layer.
4. The electrons use this energy to jump across the barrier into the upper, n-type layer and escape out into
the circuit.
5. Flowing around the circuit, the electrons make the lamp light up.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

-Now we have to size the panels required for our case study, depending on our location: Egypt,
Cairo.

-First we have to calculate the Panel generation factor “ PGF “

. The lowest month solar radiation KWh/m2/day value is the starting point.
.This is the same total energy as would come from the sun shining at 1000 W/m2 each day for the number
of hours equal to the KWh/m2/day figure.
.since the Wp of the panel is rated using a value of 1000 W/m2 that we calculated can be directly applied
to the Wp of the panel to get the Wh/day the panel would provide under perfect conditions.

-From the previous figure, Lowest month solar radiation ( December ) = 3 KWH/m2/day

-Therefore, For perfect conditions 1 Wp of the panel would deliver 3 WH/day

-But the conditions are not perfect so we have to correct for the variations from standard conditions.
-corrections include:
.15% for temperature above 25 C
.5%for losses due to sunlight not striking the panel straight on (caused by glass having increasing
reflectance at lower angle of incidence)
.10% for losses due to receiving energy at the maximum power point (not present if there is a MPPT
controller)
.5% Allowance for dirt.
.10% allowance for the panel being below specification and for ageing.
.Total power = .85 * .95 * .9 * .95 * .9 = 0.62 of the original Wp rating.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

-As calculated above, total power for panel = 0.62 of the original Wp rating.
-To get the Panel Generation Factor ( WH/day per Wp capacity ) ,multiply the daily sun hours
times 0.62 .

- Therefore, PGF = 0.62 * 3 = 1.86 WH/day /Wp

-That’s for every Wp capacity in the panel we can expect to get an average of 1.86 Wh/day
during the lowest solar month.

- And now we can continue our steps to size the panels required for our case study.
-Assume Loss factor in system = 1.3
-Solar share ratio in the system = 80%
-Therefore, Total energy needed from the panel = 172 * 1.3 * 0.8 = 178.88 WH/day
-Therefore, Total panel size required = 178.88 / 1.86 = 95.95 Wp

- No. of 20 Wp panels required = 95.95 / 20 = 4.79 panels

- Therefore, We have to get 5 panels 20 Wp rated

or 100 Wp panel.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

2.7 Control unit in Hybrid systems.

-Now, we have to control the two sources of energy through a control unit.
Charge Control Unit
-The smart system operation is achieved with the help of charge control unit. This acts as the heart of the
wind/solar PV hybrid energy system that controls the entire operation.
-The control scheme of the entire system is based on the accessibility of renewable energy. To ensure the
load demand is always met, single or up to two sources can be combined.
Different operating modes of the system are summarized below

-This model has high cost, so we have to use

two PWM charger controllers.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

2.8 Solar Controller Sizing

.Basic functions for the controller.
-Prevents battery overcharge
-Blocks reverse current
-Prevent over-discharge from batteries. (some models)
-Prevent electrical overload (some models)
-Displays battery status
-Types of controllers:
1-PWM charge (Pulse-Width Modulation) Controllers
-Latest technology in PV battery charging, provide tapering charge by rapidly switching the full charging
current on/off, Most PWM charge controllers have a built-in method to prevent current back-feed into the
Solar panels eliminating the need for additional blocking diode Battery is charged using pulses of energy
that can vary in length and speed according to battery condition.
-Advantages
-Ideal for situations where excess energy is often present
-higher charging efficiency
-rapid recharging
-healthy battery at full capacity
2-Maximum Power Point Tracking Controllers (MPPT controller)

-Adjusts the voltage output to take advantage of the Vpp and charge the battery more
-Operate at the maximum power point of the PV panel • Higher charging efficiency than PWM charge
controllers • Not cost-effective for Lower voltage PV systems e.g. 12/24 V • Beneficial at colder
temperatures and higher Array Voltages
Advantages
-Peak Power Voltage (Vpp) is the maximum power point that a PV system can deliver; varies with
temperature and sunlight intensity
-Vpp is higher in colder and sunnier conditions therefore, MPPT controllers are ideal for cold climate use
where battery use is high.

-Therefore, we purchased A PWM Charger controller.

-Maximum charging current = 5 * 1.23 * 1.25 = 7.68 A

= 7.68 * 1.25 = 9.6 A

-Therefore, 10 A controller will be ok.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

2.9 Our Model calculations

-Assume LED turning on = 2 hrs/day … LED energy = 2 * 10 = 20 WH/day
-Assume USB charging =1 hr/day … USB energy = 1 * 12 = 12 WH/day
-Therefore, Total system energy required = 32 WH/day
-Assume 1 day of autonomy.
-Therefore, Battery capacity = (32 * 1.19 * 1) / (12 * 0.8 * 0.8) = 4.96 AH/day

-We purchased SLA 7 AH, 12 V rated battery.

-assume C-rate = 0.2 C
-Therefore, Amp rating charging the battery = 7 / 5 = 1.4 A for 5 hours.
-for solar charge Amp rating = 0.8 * 1.4 = 1.12 A for 5 hours

-Total energy needed from the panel = 32 * 1.3 * 0.8 = 33.28 WH/day

-Therefore, the panel size required = 33.28 / 1.86 = 17.89 Wp

Hence, we purchased 20 Wp ratted panel (Polycrystalline).

-Maximum charging current = 1.23 * 1.25 * 1.25 = 1.92 A

Therefore, we purchased 5 Amp controller

In this figure we select the PWM

operating mode, We choose ( 0. ) mode:
Light control and delay, closed in 10 hrs.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

Solar panel characteristics

Dimensions (mm) 655 * 275 * 25
Weight (Kg) 2.2
Maximum power (Wp) 20
Maximum power voltage (V) 18
Maximum power current (A) 1.12
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 21
Short-circuit current (Isc) 1.23

-Panel efficiency calculation

-Area of the panel = 0.1445 m2 … at 1000 W/m2. would
deliver 20 Wp.
-At perfect conditions for 0.144 m2 … at 1000 W/m2.
would deliver 144.5 Wp.

Therefore, The panel efficiency = 20 / 144.5 = 13.8 %

Another method for calculating panel efficiency

-Fill factor (FF) = (18 * 1.12) / (21 * 1.23 ) = 0.78

-therefore the panel efficiency = (21 * 1.23 * 0.78 ) / (1000 * 0.144) = 13.9 %

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

2.10 How to Figure the Correct Angle for Solar Panels - Solar Energy
Systems?

Solar panels need the maximum amount of sunlight to produce the maximum amount of solar
power. They need to be pointed in the direction that captures the most amount of sunlight.
If you live in the northern hemisphere, you would point your panels due south. If you live in
southern hemisphere, your panels should be pointed north. Most homeowners with solar energy
systems mount their panels in a fixed position, where the panels can be manually tilted as needed
(for example, they can be adjusted seasonally). Here are some ways to calculate the best angle
for your solar panels.
Methods of calculation:
Method 1: Quick and Easy (But Less Effective)

Take your latitude and add 15 degrees for the winter, or subtract 15 degrees for the summer.
For example: if your latitude is 30 degrees, the angle you want to tilt your panels in the winter is:
30 + 15 = 45 degrees.

In the summer, it would be: 30 - 15 = 15 degrees.

Method 2(a): The Better Way (Winter)

In the winter months, when there's less sun, take your latitude, multiply it by 0.9, and then add 29
degrees.
For example: if your latitude is 30 degrees, the angle you want to tilt your panels in the winter is:
(30 * 0.9) + 29 = 56 degrees.

This is about 10 degrees steeper than the "quick and easy" way! It's also more effective, because
you want your panels to be directly facing the sun at mid-day during those short winter days.

Method 2(b): The Better Way (Summer)

Take your latitude, multiply it by 0.9, and subtract 23.5 degrees.

For example: if your latitude is 30 degrees, your panels should be tilted at: (30 * 0.9) - 23.5 = 3.5
degrees.

Method 2(c): The Better Way (Spring & Fall)

Take your latitude and subtract 2.5 degrees.

For example: if your latitude is 30 degrees, the best tilt for your panels in the spring & fall is: 30
- 2.5 = 27.5 degrees.

But if it’s going to be a fixed Tilt, then it should be at angle equals to Latitude angle
For example: if your latitude is 30 degrees, your panels should be fixed at Tilt angle of 30

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

Chapter 3
Wind

3.1 Formation of Wind

the perceptible natural movement of the air, especially in the

form of a current of air blowing from a particular direction.
Wind is caused by differences in the atmospheric pressure.
When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists, air moves
from the higher to the lower pressure area, resulting in winds of
various speeds. On a rotating planet, air will also be deflected
by the Coriolis effect, except exactly on the equator. Globally,
the two major driving factors of large-scale wind patterns (the
atmospheric circulation) are the differential heating between
the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of solar
energy leading to buoyancy forces) and the rotation of the planet. Outside the tropics and aloft
from frictional effects of the surface, the large-scale winds tend to approach geostrophic balance.
Near the Earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise.
Surface friction also causes winds to blow more inward into low pressure areas. A new,
controversial theory suggests atmospheric gradients are caused by forest induced water
condensation resulting in a positive feedback cycle of forests drawing moist air from the
coastline.

Winds defined by an equilibrium of physical forces are used in the decomposition and analysis
of wind profiles. They are useful for simplifying the atmospheric equations of motion and for
making qualitative arguments about the
horizontal and vertical distribution of winds.
The geostrophic wind component is the result
of the balance between Coriolis force and
pressure gradient force. It flows parallel to
isobars and approximates the flow above the
atmospheric boundary layer in the
midlatitudes. The thermal wind is the
difference in the geostrophic wind between
two levels in the atmosphere. It exists only in
an atmosphere with horizontal temperature
gradients. The a geostrophic wind component
is the difference between actual and
geostrophic wind, which is responsible for air
"filling up" cyclones over time. The gradient
wind is similar to the geostrophic wind but also includes centrifugal force (or centripetal
acceleration).

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

3.2 Wind Measurement

Wind direction is usually expressed in terms of the direction from which

it originates. For example, a northerly wind blows from the north to the
south. Weather vanes pivot to indicate the direction of the wind. At
airports, windsocks indicate wind direction, and can also be used to
estimate wind speed by the angle of hang. Wind speed is measured by anemometers, most
commonly using rotating cups or propellers. When a high measurement
frequency is needed (such as in research applications), wind can be
measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound signals or by the effect
of ventilation on the resistance of a heated wire. Another type of
anemometer uses pitot tubes that take advantage of the pressure
differential between an inner tube and an outer tube that is exposed to the
wind to determine the dynamic pressure, which is then used to compute the wind speed.

Sustained wind speeds are reported globally at a 10 meters (33 ft) height
and are averaged over a 10-minute time frame. The United States reports
winds over a 1-minute average for tropical cyclones, and a 2-minute
average within weather observations. India typically reports winds over a
3-minute average. Knowing the wind sampling average is important, as
the value of a one-minute sustained wind is typically 14% greater than a
ten-minute sustained wind. A short burst of high speed wind is termed a wind gust; one technical
definition of a wind gust is: the maxima that exceed the lowest wind speed measured during a
ten-minute time interval by 10 knots (19 km/h). A squall is a doubling of the wind speed above a
certain threshold, which lasts for a minute or more.

3.3 Wind Force

Historically, the Beaufort wind force scale provides an empirical description of wind speed based
on observed sea conditions. Originally it was a 13-level scale, but during the 1940s, the scale
was expanded to 17 levels. There are general terms that differentiate winds of different average
speeds such as a breeze, a gale, a storm, tornado, or a hurricane. Within the Beaufort scale, gale-
force winds lie between 28 knots (52 km/h) and 55 knots (102 km/h) with preceding adjectives
such as moderate, fresh, strong, and whole used to differentiate the wind's strength within the
gale category. A storm has winds of 56 knots (104 km/h) to 63 knots (117 km/h). The
terminology for tropical cyclones differs from one region to another globally. Most ocean basins
use the average wind speed to determine the tropical cyclone's category. Below is a summary of
the classifications used by Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers worldwide:

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

General wind
Tropical cyclone classifications (all winds are 10-minute averages)
classifications
Australian
10- 10- NE Pacific
region
minute minute N Indian SW Indian &
Beaufort General South Pacific NW Pacific NW Pacific
sustained sustained Ocean Ocean N Atlantic
scale[18] term[21] BoM, JMA JTWC
winds winds IMD MF NHC &
BMKG,
(knots) (km/h) CPHC
FMS, MSNZ
0 <1 <2 Calm
1 1–3 2–6 Light air
Light
2 4–6 7–11 Low
breeze
Pressure
Gentle Area
3 7–10 13–19
breeze Tropical Tropical
Moderate disturbance low Tropical Tropical Tropical
4 11–16 20–30
breeze Tropical depression depression depression
Fresh Depression
5 17–21 31–39
breeze
Depression
Strong
6 22–27 41–50
breeze
28–29 52–54 Moderate Deep Tropical
7
30–33 56–61 gale depression depression
Fresh
8 34–40 63–74 Moderate Tropical
gale Cyclonic Tropical
tropical cyclone
Strong storm storm
9 41–47 76–87 storm (1)
gale Tropical Tropical
89– Whole storm storm
10 48–55 Severe Severe Tropical Severe
102 gale
cyclonic tropical cyclone tropical
104– storm storm (2) storm
11 56–63 Storm
117
119– Severe Hurricane
12 64–72
133 tropical (1)
135– Tropical cyclone Hurricane
13 73–85 (3)
157 cyclone (2)
159–
14 86–89 Major
165 Very Severe Typhoon hurricane
167– severe tropical (3)
15 90–99
183 cyclonic cyclone
Hurricane storm Intense (4) Typhoon
100– 185–
16 tropical
106 196
cyclone Major
107– 198–
hurricane
114 211
Severe (4)
115– 213–
Very tropical
17 119 220
intense cyclone Super
Super tropical (5) typhoon Major
>120 >222 cyclonic cyclone hurricane
storm (5)

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

3.4 Wind Power

Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for
electricity. Wind power, as an alternative to burning fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely
distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation, and uses little land.
The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable power
sources.

Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind. For more than two
millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water. Wind power was
widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later, requiring sources
of fuel. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in arid regions such as
the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for livestock and
steam engines.

The first windmill used for the production of electricity was built in Scotland in July 1887 by
Prof James Blyth of Anderson's College, Glasgow (the precursor of Strathclyde University).
Blyth's 10 m high, cloth-sailed wind turbine was installed in the garden of his holiday cottage at
Mary Kirk in Kincardineshire and was used to charge accumulators developed by the Frenchman
Camille Alphonse Faure, to power the lighting in the cottage, thus making it the first house in the
world to have its electricity supplied by wind power. Blyth offered the surplus electricity to the
people of Mary Kirk for lighting the main street, however, they turned down the offer as they
thought electricity was "the work of the devil." Although he later built a wind turbine to supply
emergency power to the local Lunatic Asylum, Infirmary and Dispensary of Montrose the
invention never really caught on as the technology was not considered to be economically viable.

Across the Atlantic, in Cleveland, Ohio a larger and heavily engineered machine was designed
and constructed in the winter of 1887–1888 by Charles F. Brush, this was built by his
engineering company at his home and operated from 1886 until 1900. The Brush wind turbine
had a rotor 17 m (56 foot) in diameter and was mounted on an 18 m (60 foot) tower. Although
large by today's standards, the machine was only rated at 12 kW. The connected dynamo was
used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs, three
arc lamps, and various motors in Brush's laboratory.

With the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting
buildings remote from centrally-generated power. Throughout the 20th century parallel paths
developed small wind stations suitable for farms or residences, and larger utility-scale wind
generators that could be connected to electricity grids for remote use of power. Today wind
powered generators operate in every size range between tiny stations for battery charging at
isolated residences, up to near-gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide electricity to
national electrical networks.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

Wind energy is the kinetic energy of air in motion, also called wind. Total wind energy
flowing through an imaginary surface with area A during the time t is:

where ρ is the density of air; v is the wind speed; (Avt) is the volume of air passing through A
(which is considered perpendicular to the direction of the wind); (Avtρ) is therefore the mass m
passing through "A". Note that ½ ρv2 is the kinetic energy of the moving air per unit volume.

Power is energy per unit time, so the wind power incident on A (e.g. equal to the rotor area of a
wind turbine) is:

Wind power in an open air stream is thus proportional to the third power of the wind speed; the
available power increases eightfold when the wind speed doubles. Wind turbines for grid
electricity therefore need to be especially efficient at greater wind speeds.

3.5 Wind Energy Former & Present

by the passage of time world noticed the dedicated power in the wind and started making a use of
it in different ways, nowadays we hear of relying heavily on wind energy to generate required
electrical power, following figure shows development of usage of wind.

5000 BC 500-900 AD 1300 AD 1850s Late 1880s

Sailboats used First First Daniel Halladay Thomas O. Perry
on the Nile windmills horizontal- and conducted 5,000
indicate the developed in axis John Burnham wind experiments
power of wind Persia windmills in build
Europe Halladay
Windmill

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

1888 Early 1900s 1941 1979

Charles F. Brush Windmills in CA In VT, First wind
used windmill to pumped saltwater Grandpa’s turbine
generate electricity to evaporate ponds Knob turbine rated over 1
in Cleveland, OH supplies power MW
to began
town during operating
WWII

1985 1993 2004 2011

CA wind capacity US Wind Power developed Electricity from Wind power provided
exceeded 1,000 first commercial variable- wind generation over 12% of
MW speed wind turbine costs 3 to 4.5 renewable
cents per kWh energy used in US

3.6 Why Wind?

Is it true that we need wind?

The answer of this question is so simple after knowing the advantages of wind and wind power
which can be simplified in next points:

. Wind is free.

. No fossil fuels are used to generate electricity.

. Clean, No Emissions (NOx, SO2, CO, CO2 )

. Newer technologies make energy production much more efficient.

. Wind turbines take up less space than the average power station.

. The turbines can be placed in remote locations, such as offshore, mountains

and deserts.

. When combined with other alternative energy sources, wind can provide a reliable supply of electricity.

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3.7 Turbines
Wind turbines are the way of conversion of wind energy into mechanical one Turbines can be
categorized into two classes based on the orientation
of the rotor:

. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

. Omni-directional

. Components can be mounted at ground level

. Lighter weight towers

. Can theoretically use less materials to capture the

same amount of wind

. Rotors generally near ground where wind is poorer

. Poor self-starting capabilities

. Requires support at top of turbine rotor

. Requires entire rotor to be removed to replace bearings

. Overall poor performance and

reliability

. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines

. The towers are relatively tall which

allows the blades to face much higher
velocity winds in high altitude.

. High efficiency, the blades always

move perpendicular to the wind,
receiving power through the whole
rotation.

. High construction and installation

costs.

. Difficult to Design

. Maintain acne difficulty

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Chapter 4
Wind Turbines

Design, Development and Testing of a Combined Savonius and Darrieus

Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

4.1 Introduction
Wind power is one of the most important part of renewable energy resources. Wind power (P)
depends on wind speed (V), density of air (ρ), for a turbine intercepting a cross-section (A) and
efficiency factor (Cp) as given in Eq. 1. At the same time particular construction of the wind
turbines contribute to the wind power through efficiency factor.

P = ½ Cp ρ A V3
The combination of Darrieus-
Savonius turbine was observed
that due to Savonius rotor the
torque was increased at a lower
speed; however, at the same
time, power coefficient was
decreased. The performance of a
hybrid vertical axis wind turbine
comprised of Savonius wind
turbine, combined with a three
blades H-rotor wind turbines
with NACA0030 airfoils was
investigated. It was concluded
that when H-rotor and Savonius
were combined, a higher performance was obtained as compared to the H-rotor only.

The lift type vertical axis wind turbines (Darrieus wind turbine) performance prediction is a very
complex task, since its blades move around the rotor axis in a three dimensional aerodynamic
environment that lead to several flow phenomena, such as, dynamic stall, flow separation, flow
wake deformations and their natural inability to self-start. These issues can be overcome with the
use of several more or less complex solutions, being one of them the development of a blade
profile capable of making the wind turbines self-start. This Chapter focuses on presenting a
methodology for the development of self-start capable Darrieus wind turbines with the
improvement in the blade design and the integration of Savonius device.

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With a 3-bladed vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT), there are no in-plane and out-of-plane rotor
vibrational modes which is observed in 2-bladed and 4bladed configurations. The symmetrical
loading of a 2-bladed VAWT rotor can be eliminated entirely by the inclusion of a third blade. In
addition to an increase in the dynamic structural stability of the rotor, the third blade reduces
torque ripple in the rotor’s torque output, thus reducing the compliance that must be built into the
drive train of a 2-bladed VAWT. It was found that the thicker the blades the higher the drag
contribution to the forward movement of the wind turbine blades .In the NACA0025 airfoil the
drag forces contributing to the tangential force are 110% higher than in NACA0012, and in the
NACA0030 the forces are 150%higher than in NACA0012.The thicker blades are able to
provide the wind turbine the self-start capabilities, while the thinner blade wind turbines are
observed most likely unable to self-start .The NACA0030 present 26% better performance than
NACA0012 .

4.2 Design, Construction and Testing

Based on detailed study and calculation, the diameter of the turbine calculated is almost 1.5m
with 50~100 Watts of power, at wind speed of 4~7 m/s. Structure was made of fiber glass, steel
to ensure high strength to weight ratios and durability. The base made from steel 10mm thickness
with proper supports keeps it stable. Two roller bearings were used in the base to support the
shaft. A Savonius-type drag device was made from steel 2mm thickness and mounted to the main
shaft. All the tests on the turbines were performed in the sub-sonic wind speed. Digital
Anemometer and tachometer were used to measure the wind speed and revolutions per minute of
the turbine.

Design Procedure
-Blade Element Method (BEM) & Matlab

-Simulation by ANSYS

4.3 Blade Element Method for H-VAWT

The method uses simplified assumptions to determine the torque and power exerted by the wind
blowing at certain speed on a turbine rotating at a certain speed
 Assumptions:
1) The flow field for one blade is as if the blade existed alone (no inter-blade effects)
2) 2D flow (no velocity component in the direction of span), Also no tip flow effects
3) The flow at every instant of time is steady for each blade (steady flow is assumed to
occur instantaneously at every azimuthal angle Φ)
 Definitions and Concepts:
1) Azimuthal angle Φ:
angle between a line attached to the turbine and rotating with it and a line in the stationary
frame.
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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

- We choose the stationary axis to be the X-axis and the moving axis to be a line extending
from the center of the turbine to the center of one blade (the center of a blade is a point at the
middle of the chord line).
2) Pitch angle θ:
angle between the following vectors as they emerge from the same point:
a- Vector in the radial direction.
b- Vector from the center of a blade to its leading edge.
3) Angle of attack α:
It’s the angle between the chord line (Vectorially towards the trailing edge) and the relative
wind direction.
4) Lift L:
The force acting on the blade by the wind normal to the relative wind.
5) Drag D:
The force acting on the blade by the wind parallel to the relative wind.
6) Tangential force Ft:
Causes torque which does work on turbine when it rotates. Algebraic sum of components of
lift and drag in the tangential direction.
7) Radial force Fr:
Causes bending on the blades and does no work. Algebraic sum of the components of lift
and drag in the radial direction.

 Methodology:
Suppose we have a 3-bladed H-Vawt at Radius ( R ) and each blade has height ( H ) , Chord
length ( C ) and pitch angle ( θ ) and that this Turbine rotates at Tip Speed Ratio of ( TSR ) in air
of Density (ρ ) , Kinematic viscosity ( ν ) and moving at speed ( V ) in a direction as that shown
in figure, then the Torque and Power can be Calculated at any instant of time using the following
procedures:
𝑉 . 𝑇𝑆𝑅
1 – Get the Rotational Speed ( ω ) in rad/s: 𝜔 =
𝑅
2 – Get the 3 azimuthal angles for the three blades at any time t from the following equations:

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120 . 𝛱 240 . 𝛱
Φ1 = ω t , Φ2 = ω t + , Φ3 = ω t +
180 180

At t = 0  Φ1 = 0 ̊ , Φ2 = 120 ̊ , Φ3 = 240 ̊
3 – Get the blade Speeds in Cartesian form where
for each blade U = ( - ω R sin Φ ) і + ( ω R cos Φ ) ј
4 – Get Relative wind speed vectors where for each
blade W = V – U = (ω R sin Φ) і + (v -ω R cos Φ) ј
5 – Get ec unit vector for each blade
ec = cos ( Π – θ – Φ ) i – sin ( Π – θ – Φ ) j
6 – Get the angle of attack α for each blade as
𝑊 . 𝑒𝑐
α= cos-1 ( |𝑊|
) , where |𝑊 | = √𝑊𝑥2 + 𝑊𝑦2 , W. ec = 𝑊𝑥 . 𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑊𝑦 . 𝑒𝑐𝑦

and to know whether α is +ve or -ve we Define Z = 𝑊𝑥 . 𝑒𝑐𝑦 − 𝑊𝑦 . 𝑒𝑐𝑥

if Z ˃ 0 then α is +ve
|𝑊| 𝐶
7 – Get Reynolds number for each blade Re = 𝜈

8 – from α and Re we get the Drag and Lift Coefficients ( CD and CL ) for each blade from the
airfoil data available as tables or charts
9 – Get the Lift and Drag for each blade
L = CL . ½ . ρ C H |𝑊 |2 , D = CD . ½ . ρ C H |𝑊 |2
10 – Get radial and tangential force on each blade
Fr = L cos ( θ + α + Π/2 ) + D sin ( θ + α + Π/2 )
Ft = L sin ( θ + α + Π/2 ) - D cos ( θ + α + Π/2 )
11 – Get the Torque and power at given time on the turbine
T = R . [𝐹𝑡1 + 𝐹𝑡2 + 𝐹𝑡3 ]
P=T.ω
** All these calculations where developed and done using MATLAB

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4.4 Dimensional Analysis

For any wind turbine for which the flow can be considered incompressible, the output power can
be expressed as
P=f(V,N,R,A,C,ρ,μ,n,…)
Where
P : output power
V : wind speed
N : turbine rpm
R : turbine radius
A : turbine swept area
C : chord length of the airfoil section of the blade
ρ : air density
μ : air viscosity
n : number of blades
other variables include Geometrical features of the turbine as blade height , bucket radius for
Savonius turbines , …
Using Buckingham Pi theorem the previous equation can be reduced to
𝑅 𝐶
Cp = G ( TSR , , , Re , ϭ , … )
√𝐴 √𝐴

And for H-Darrieus Vawt of Certain Airfoil Section this reduces to

Cp = G ( TSR , A.R , C/H , Re , ϭ )
Where
𝑃
Cp = 1 Power Cofficient
𝜌𝐴𝑉 3
2

2𝛱𝑁
( ).𝑅
60
TSR = Tip Speed Ratio
𝑉

A.R = D/H Aspect ratio

𝜌𝑉𝐷
Re = Reynolds number
𝜇

𝑛𝐶
Ϭ= Solidity
𝑅

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4.5 Calculations
1-For the preliminarily design process the following data are either available, selected or
estimated;
-Air density(ρ)=1.2 Kg/m3 (available)
-Wind Speed(V)=4 m/s (estimated)
-Power Coefficient “Turbine aerodynamic efficiency"(Cp)=0.2 (estimated)
-Blade Span “Turbine height" (H)=1.5 m (selected)
-Required output power (P) =18 W (selected)
and from power equation: P=1/2 ρAV3 Cp
where A “Swept Area"= H D
The diameter(D) of the turbine is determined to be 1.5 m
2-Turbine efficiency is a measurement of the amount of wind energy that can be extracted and
made available as mechanical energy. This depend s on the total blade surface that interacts with
the wind through aerodynamic forces that do work on turbine load. It may be expected that as
this surface of interaction increase in size, the amount of energy extracted will increase.
That is in fact the case, but as the size exceeds certain limit another factor gets involved.
Blockage of Air flow dissipates wind energy and the turbine efficiency starts decreasing.
-What are the parameters that control total surface area of interaction for a given turbine swept
area?
a-Number of blades (direct proportional)
b-Blade Chord length (direct proportional)
c-Blade speed w.r.t wind speed (direct proportional)
-and in normalized form:
a-Solidity(σ)=n*c/D where
n: number of blades
C: Chord length
b-Tip Speed Ratio(TSR)=U/V where U=ω*D/2
ω:rotational speed in rad/s
-According to the above discussion, it is expected that for a given turbine operating in a given
wind speed there will be a value conversely, for a given TSR and a given wind speed there will
be a value for turbine solidity at which Cp is maximum

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Recommended solidity range as a function

of TSR
-From this figure we select TSR=2 [The
reason for such a small value is that
turbines designed to operate at higher
values are not self-starting and require
certain aids to reach their design TSR
before they can generate power].
-The corresponding range of σ is
[0.26:0.5]. We select from this σ to be 0.4.
And from σ=n*c/D we get chord length (C)
=0.2m (n is selected temporarily to be 3
blades)
3-It is usually recommended to use a
symmetric airfoil for the blade section. The reason is to extract as much energy from the wind as
possible during sweeping both the front and back faces of the turbine because such airfoils have
opposite and equal lift forces when the angle of attack is equal and opposite i.e. L(α)=-L(-α) in
contrast to the cambered airfoils which usually have much less lift force when α is equal and
opposite to that at which the lift force is high.
-So the section is selected to be the symmetric NACA0012 for which lift and drag coefficient
data is available for a wide range of angle of attacks and Reynold`s numbers.
4-A Matlab program based on BEM was programmed and used to determine the effect of
number of blades on turbine performance

-Performance of 2-blades

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-Performance of 3-blades

-Performance of 4-blades

-Performance of 5-blades

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-From these figures it can be seen that as the blade number increases, the average torque during
one complete turn decreases. Also the frequency of loading increases (which may cause fatigue
failure)
-This suggests to use one or two blades. But this must be considered:
1-For one blade: a balancing weight should be used to prevent failure of the shaft which requires
calculations and skill for installation
2-For two blades: There are certain positions w.r.t wind direction from which the turbine cannot
start and generally an even number of blades causes self-starting problems.
-So, the number of blades id confirmed to be 3 blades
5-The Matlab program was also used to study the effect of pitch angle (θ).

-At θ=70 degree

-At θ=75 degree

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-At θ=80 degree

-At θ=85 degree

-At θ=90 degree

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-At θ=95 degree

-At θ=100 degree

-At θ=105 degree

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At θ=110 degree
-From these figures it is seen that the optimum pitch angle is 90 degrees which gives the
maximum positive average torque.
6-The Matlab program was then used to determine the average torque at various rotational
speeds and a curve between the average torque and the number of revolutions per minute was
plotted as shown

-At 20 rpm

-At 40 rpm

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-At 60 rpm

-At 80 rpm

-At 100 rpm

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-At 120 rpm

-At 140 rpm

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BEM results
1.5
torque

0.5
rpm
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

-3

BEM results

-From these results, it can be seen that the turbine will not be able to accelerate to higher than 25
rpm at no load (which is below any generator rated speed). This means that some external prime
mover must be employed to accelerate the turbine beyond about 230 rpm after which turbine can
accelerate at no load. This is too complex for a simple project.
-The solution is to find a way to make the turbine self-start and accelerate from rest.
7-The first suggestion was to use the cambered high lift airfoil Selig S1210 which has very high
lift coefficient at low Reynolds number.
8-A second suggestion was to design auxiliary Savonius VAWT and install it together with the
H-VAWT on the same shaft.
-But it was also considered that such a drag machine cannot go faster than the wind .i.e. operates
at TSR around 1 and hence would hinder the H-VAWT as the rotational speed increased.
-That is why we needed to apply the two suggestions so we can compare and choose one of
them.
9-It was found that another symmetric airfoil NACA0030 which has higher drag coefficient than
other symmetric airfoils had acceptable self-starting ability and higher Cp at higher TSRs than
S1210.
-That was confirmed via a simulation done on Ansys CFX for both airfoils and the figures
recommended the use of NACA0030

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-Naca0030 torque-time curve at 40rpm, wind speed 4 m/s

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S1210

S1210

S1210 torque-time curve at 40rpm, wind speed 4 m/s

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10-The Savonius VAWT is a simple 3-Bucket Savonius without overlap ratio. The buckets are
half cylinders of diameter 0.4m and height of 0.6m. They were arranged at 120 degree angles
around the shaft with a turbine diameter of 0.9m.
11-After all geometrical features of the turbine were determined a simulation for the complete
turbine was done on Ansys cfx.

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-A number of 7 steady flow simulations were done at different rotational speeds

(20,40,60,80,100,120,140 rpm)
-The results were then used as initial conditions for other 7 transient flow simulations at the same
corresponding rotational speeds.
-In each transient simulation, the turbine was rotated two times through 200 time steps (100 time
steps for each complete revolution).
-The great resemblance between the results of the two turns indicated high accuracy of the
results at (20,40,60 and 80 rpm). While the results for (100,120 and 140 rpm) were not accurate
as the turbine needed to be rotated through more turns to achieve the required result repeatability.

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-At 20 rpm

-At 40 rpm

-At 60 rpm

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-At 80 rpm

-At 100 rpm

-At 120 rpm

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-At 140 rpm

-From these results we notice:
a-The average torque on the H-VAWT generally increased with the rpm, peaked at 80 rpm and
decreased after that.
b-The average normal moment on H-VAWT caused by pressure follows the same scenario.
c-The average tangential moment on H-VAWT is always negative and increases with rpm ( it is
caused by shear stress).
d-The average normal moment on Savonius starts as positive,decreases with the increase in rpm
until it is reversed and becomes negative at about 60 rpm (TSR=0.7)which is in very good
agreement with the experimental results for this type of VAWTs
e-The average tangential moment on Savonius is almost zero (actually, it is negative )and
increases with the increase in rpm.
12-With these results, reasonable accurate results can be obtained for the output power at
different rpms and also for the turbine efficiency.These are explained in the following tables and
figures.
4 m/s wind speed
TSR
Savonius darrieus rpm
0.235619449 0.392699082 20
0.471238898 0.785398163 40
0.706858347 1.178097245 60
0.942477796 1.570796327 80
1.178097245 1.963495408 100
1.413716694 2.35619449 120
1.649336143 2.748893572 140

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average torque (N.m) based on pressure

total Savonius darrieus
1.3 0.4 0.9
2.75 0.25 2.5
2.8 -0.2 3
2.75 -0.5 3.25
1.4 -0.8 2.2
0.26 -1.44 1.7
-1.95 -2 0.05

average torque (N.m) based on shear

total Savonius darrieus
-0.05 0 -0.05
-0.125 0 -0.125
-0.22 0 -0.22
-0.45 0 -0.45
-0.48 0 -0.48
-0.67 -0.02 -0.65
-0.848 -0.048 -0.8

power (watt)
total Savonius darrieus
2.617993878 0.837758041 1.780235837
10.99557429 1.047197551 9.948376736
16.21061809 -1.256637061 17.46725515
19.26843494 -4.188790205 23.45722515
9.634217471 -8.37758041 18.01179788
-5.152211952 -18.3469011 13.19468915
-41.02082248 -30.02524819 -10.99557429
Available Wind Power(Watts)= ½ Cp ρ A V 3

total Savonius darrieus

98.496 12.096 86.4
Cp
total Savonius darrieus
0.026579697 0.069259097 0.020604581
0.111634729 0.086573872 0.115143249
0.164581486 -0.103888646 0.202167305
0.195626573 -0.346295487 0.271495661
0.097813287 -0.692590973 0.208469883
-0.052308845 -1.516774231 0.15271631
-0.416471963 -2.482246047 -0.127263591

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0.5
Cp

rpm
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

-3

darrieus savonius turbine

13-From these results we deduce that Savonius is useful under 40 rpm but if the speed is to
exceed 40 rpm, H-VAWT should function alone because Savonius above 40 rpm actually
consumes power not generates power.
14-The code used in the Matlab program
clc,clear
theta=90*pi/180;
v=4;
r=.75;
TSR= ? ;
C=.2;
H=1.5;
rho=1.225;
new=1.46*10^-5;
w=v*TSR/r;
t=0:.001*2*pi/w:2*pi/w;
if w==0
t=0:10000;
end
a1=w*t;
a2=w*t+(2*pi/3);
a3=w*t+(4*pi/3);
fay=[a1,a2,a3];
U1=[-w*r*sin(a1);w*r*cos(a1)];ca1=sin(a1);
U2=[-w*r*sin(a2);w*r*cos(a2)];ca2=sin(a2);

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U3=[-w*r*sin(a3);w*r*cos(a3)];ca3=sin(a3);
wx1=w*r*sin(a1);wy1=v-w*r*cos(a1);
wx2=w*r*sin(a2);wy2=v-w*r*cos(a2);
wx3=w*r*sin(a3);wy3=v-w*r*cos(a3);
W1=sqrt(wx1.^2+ wy1.^2);
W2=sqrt(wx2.^2+ wy2.^2);
W3=sqrt(wx3.^2+ wy3.^2);
W=[W1,W2,W3];
EC11=cos(pi-theta-a1);EC21=cos(pi-theta-a2);EC31=cos(pi-theta-a3);
EC12=-sin(pi-theta-a1);EC22=-sin(pi-theta-a2);EC32=-sin(pi-theta-a3);
alpha1=acos((wx1.*EC11+wy1.*EC12)./W1);alpha2=acos((wx2.*EC21+wy2.*EC22)./W2);alpha3=acos((wx3.*EC
31+wy3.*EC32)./W3);
for n=1:length(wx1)
if (-wx1(n)*EC12(n)+wy1(n)*EC11(n))>0
alpha1(n)=abs(alpha1(n));
else
alpha1(n)=-abs(alpha1(n));
end
end
for n=1:length(wx1)
if (-wx2(n)*EC22(n)+wy2(n)*EC21(n))>0
alpha2(n)=abs(alpha2(n));
else
alpha2(n)=-abs(alpha2(n));
end
end
for n=1:length(wx1)
if (-wx3(n)*EC32(n)+wy3(n)*EC31(n))>0
alpha3(n)=abs(alpha3(n));
else
alpha3(n)=-abs(alpha3(n));
end
end
Re1=W1*C/new;
Re2=W2*C/new;
Re3=W3*C/new;
Re=[Re1,Re2,Re3];
alpha=[alpha1,alpha2,alpha3];
…..
…...
…..
…..
…..
……
L=(cl.*W.^2)*rho*C*H/2;D=(cd.*W.^2)*rho*C*H/2;
Ft=(L.*sin(theta+alpha-pi/2))-(D.*cos(theta+alpha-pi/2));
Fr=(L.*cos(theta+alpha-pi/2))+(D.*sin(theta+alpha-pi/2));
Ft1=zeros(1,length(Ft)/3);Fr1=zeros(1,length(Ft)/3);Ft2=zeros(1,length(Ft)/3);Fr2=zeros(1,length(Ft)/3);Ft3=zeros(
1,length(Ft)/3);Fr3=zeros(1,length(Ft)/3);
for k=1:length(Ft)/3
Ft1(k)=Ft(k);

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

Fr1(k)=Fr(k);
Ft2(k)=Ft(k+length(Ft)/3);
Fr2(k)=Fr(k+length(Ft)/3);
Ft3(k)=Ft(k+2*length(Ft)/3);
Fr3(k)=Fr(k+2*length(Ft)/3);
end
sum_Ft=Ft1+Ft2+Ft3;
T=r*sum_Ft;
average_T=sum(T)/length(T);
subplot(1,2,1),plot(a1*180/pi,T,a1*180/pi,average_T),set(gca,'XTick',90:90:360)
set(gca,'XTickLabel',{'90','180','270','360'})
xlabel('azimuth angle');
ylabel('torque');grid,
subplot(1,2,2),plot(a1*180/pi,alpha1*180/pi,a1*180/pi,alpha2*180/pi,a1*180/pi,alpha3*180/pi),set(gca,'XTick',90:9
0:360)
set(gca,'XTickLabel',{'90','180','270','360'})
xlabel('azimuth angle');
ylabel('angle of attack');grid,

-The following tables list the lift and drag coefficients for the NACA 0012 airfoil at Reynolds
numbers varying from 10,000 to 160,000

10000 Re
Cd Cl alpha #
0.0337 0 0 1
0.0338 0.083 1 2
0.0343 0.1534 2 3
0.0351 0.2009 3 4
0.0359 0.2003 4 5
0.0351 0.0328 5 6
0.046 -0.1413 6 7
0.058 -0.1142 7 8
0.072 -0.0703 8 9
0.086 -0.0215 9 10
0.101 0.0311 10 11
0.117 0.0848 11 12
0.134 0.1387 12 13
0.152 0.1928 13 14
0.171 0.2468 14 15
0.19 0.3008 15 16
0.21 0.3548 16 17
0.231 0.4079 17 18
0.252 0.4606 18 19
0.274 0.5121 19 20
0.297 0.5838 20 21
0.32 0.6161 21 22
0.344 0.6687 22 23
0.369 0.7216 23 24

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0.394 0.7744 24 25
0.42 0.8276 25 26
0.446 0.881 26 27
0.473 0.9345 27 28
0.57 0.915 30 29
0.745 1.02 35 30
0.92 1.075 40 31
1.075 1.085 45 32
1.215 1.04 50 33
1.345 0.965 55 34
1.47 0.875 60 35
1.575 0.765 65 36
1.665 0.65 70 37
1.735 0.515 75 38
1.78 0.37 80 39
1.8 0.22 85 40
1.8 0.07 90 41
1.78 -0.07 95 42
1.75 -0.22 100 43
1.7 -0.37 105 44
1.635 -0.51 110 45
1.555 -0.625 115 46
1.465 -0.735 120 47
1.35 -0.84 125 48
1.225 -0.91 130 49
1.085 -0.945 135 50
0.925 -0.945 140 51
0.755 -0.91 145 52
0.575 -0.85 150 53
0.42 -0.74 155 54
0.32 -0.66 160 55
0.23 -0.675 165 56
0.14 -0.85 170 57
0.055 -0.69 175 58
0.025 0 180 59

20000 Re
Cd Cl alpha #
0.0245 0 0 1
0.0247 0.1057 1 2
0.0251 0.2072 2 3
0.0259 0.3032 3 4
0.027 0.3929 4 5
0.0282 0.4781 5 6
0.046 -0.0298 6 7
0.058 -0.1089 7 8
0.072 -0.0699 8 9
0.086 -0.0198 9 10

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

0.101 0.032 10 11
0.117 0.0856 11 12
0.134 0.1894 12 13
0.152 0.1934 13 14
0.171 0.2474 14 15
0.191 0.3014 15 16
0.21 0.3554 16 17
0.23 0.4089 17 18
0.252 0.462 18 19
0.274 0.5147 19 20
0.297 0.5663 20 21
0.32 0.6184 21 22
0.344 0.6709 22 23
0.369 0.7238 23 24
0.394 0.7765 24 25
0.42 0.8297 25 26
0.446 0.8831 26 27
0.473 0.9365 27 28
0.57 0.915 30 29
0.745 1.02 35 30
0.92 1.075 40 31
1.075 1.085 45 32
1.215 1.04 50 33
1.345 0.965 55 34
1.47 0.875 60 35
1.575 0.765 65 36
1.665 0.65 70 37
1.735 0.515 75 38
1.78 0.37 80 39
1.8 0.22 85 40
1.8 0.07 90 41
1.78 -0.07 95 42
1.75 -0.22 100 43
1.7 -0.37 105 44
1.635 -0.51 110 45
1.555 -0.625 115 46
1.465 -0.735 120 47
1.35 -0.84 125 48
1.225 -0.91 130 49
1.085 -0.945 135 50
0.925 -0.945 140 51
0.755 -0.91 145 52
0.575 -0.85 150 53
0.42 -0.74 155 54
0.32 -0.66 160 55
0.23 -0.675 165 56
0.14 -0.85 170 57
0.055 -0.69 175 58
0.025 0 180 59

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40000 Re
Cd Cl alpha #
0.0175 0 0 1
0.0177 0.11 1 2
0.0181 0.22 2 3
0.0189 0.3376 3 4
0.0199 0.4464 4 5
0.0218 0.5276 5 6
0.0232 0.6115 6 7
0.058 -0.0212 7 8
0.072 -0.0615 8 9
0.086 -0.016 9 10
0.101 0.0344 10 11
0.117 0.0869 11 12
0.134 0.1406 12 13
0.152 0.1945 13 14
0.171 0.2484 14 15
0.19 0.3024 15 16
0.21 0.3563 16 17
0.231 0.4107 17 18
0.252 0.4644 18 19
0.274 0.5178 19 20
0.297 0.5708 20 21
0.32 0.6232 21 22
0.344 0.6755 22 23
0.369 0.7283 23 24
0.394 0.7809 24 25
0.42 0.834 25 26
0.445 0.8873 26 27
0.473 0.9407 27 28
0.57 0.915 30 29
0.745 1.02 35 30
0.92 1.075 40 31
1.075 1.085 45 32
1.215 1.04 50 33
1.345 0.965 55 34
1.47 0.875 60 35
1.575 0.765 65 36
1.665 0.65 70 37
1.735 0.515 75 38
1.78 0.37 80 39
1.8 0.22 85 40
1.8 0.07 90 41
1.78 -0.07 95 42
1.75 -0.22 100 43
1.7 -0.37 105 44

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1.635 -0.51 110 45

1.555 -0.625 115 46
1.465 -0.735 120 47
1.35 -0.84 125 48
1.225 -0.91 130 49
1.085 -0.945 135 50
0.925 -0.945 140 51
0.755 -0.91 145 52
0.575 -0.85 150 53
0.42 -0.74 155 54
0.32 -0.66 160 55
0.23 -0.675 165 56
0.14 -0.85 170 57
0.055 -0.69 175 58
0.025 0 180 59

80000 Re
Cd Cl alpha #
0.0133 0 0 1
0.0134 0.11 1 2
0.0138 0.22 2 3
0.0145 0.33 3 4
0.0155 0.44 4 5
0.017 0.55 5 6
0.0189 0.6384 6 7
0.0204 0.7227 7 8
0.0222 0.693 8 9
0.06 -0.001 9 10
0.06 0.0413 10 11
0.117 0.0911 11 12
0.134 0.143 12 13
0.152 0.1966 13 14
0.171 0.2504 14 15
0.19 0.3043 15 16
0.21 0.3582 16 17
0.231 0.4139 17 18
0.252 0.4689 18 19
0.274 0.5232 19 20
0.297 0.577 20 21
0.32 0.6305 21 22
0.344 0.6839 22 23
0.369 0.7373 23 24
0.394 0.7902 24 25
0.42 0.8432 25 26
0.446 0.8963 26 27
0.473 0.9496 27 28
0.57 0.915 30 29
0.745 1.02 35 30

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

0.92 1.075 40 31
1.075 1.085 45 32
1.215 1.04 50 33
1.345 0.965 55 34
1.47 0.875 60 35
1.575 0.765 65 36
1.665 0.65 70 37
1.735 0.515 75 38
1.78 0.37 80 39
1.8 0.22 85 40
1.8 0.07 90 41
1.78 -0.07 95 42
1.75 -0.22 100 43
1.7 -0.37 105 44
1.635 -0.51 110 45
1.555 -0.625 115 46
1.465 -0.735 120 47
1.35 -0.84 125 48
1.225 -0.91 130 49
1.085 -0.945 135 50
0.925 -0.945 140 51
0.755 -0.91 145 52
0.575 -0.85 150 53
0.42 -0.74 155 54
0.32 -0.66 160 55
0.23 -0.975 165 56
0.14 -0.85 170 57
0.055 -0.69 175 58
0.025 0 180 59

160000 Re
Cd Cl alpha #
0.0103 0 0 1
0.0104 0.11 1 2
0.0108 0.22 2 3
0.0114 0.33 3 4
0.0124 0.44 4 5
0.014 0.55 5 6
0.0152 0.66 6 7
0.017 0.746 7 8
0.0185 0.8274 8 9
0.0203 0.8527 9 10
0.0188 0.1325 10 11
0.076 0.195 11 12
0.0134 0.1533 12 13

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0.152 0.203 13 14
0.171 0.2546 14 15
0.19 0.3082 15 16
0.21 0.362 16 17
0.231 0.42 17 18
0.252 0.4768 18 19
0.274 0.5322 19 20
0.297 0.587 20 21
0.32 0.6414 21 22
0.344 0.6956 22 23
0.369 0.7497 23 24
0.394 0.8034 24 25
0.42 0.8572 25 26
0.446 0.9109 26 27
0.473 0.9646 27 28
0.57 0.915 30 29
0.745 1.02 35 30
0.92 1.075 40 31
1.075 1.085 45 32
1.215 1.04 50 33
1.345 0.965 55 34
1.47 0.875 60 35
1.575 0.765 65 36
1.665 0.65 70 37
1.735 0.515 75 38
1.78 0.37 80 39
1.8 0.22 85 40
1.8 0.07 90 41
1.78 -0.07 95 42
1.75 -0.22 100 43
1.7 -0.37 105 44
1.635 -0.51 110 45
1.555 -0.625 115 46
1.465 -0.735 120 47
1.35 -0.84 125 48
1.225 -0.91 130 49
1.085 -0.945 135 50
0.925 -0.945 140 51
0.755 -0.91 145 52
0.575 -0.85 150 53
0.42 -0.74 155 54
0.32 -0.66 160 55
0.23 -0.675 165 56
0.14 -0.85 170 57
0.055 -0.69 175 58
0.025 0 180 59

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

4.6 Generator
Why Use a Motor to Generate Electricity?
The most important reason is that it is cheaper than electric generators and it also contains many
components we utilize in our daily lives. A motor is a device that converts electric energy into
mechanical energy when electrified via its outputs; however, permanent Magnet DC motors can
also have some adverse effects. The magnetic field created by the magnets causes a current to
flow through a coil.
Permanent Magnet DC Motor Types for Generating Electricity
Permanent magnet DC motors are divided into two groups. The first is the permanent
outer magnet and moving coil, while the second is the permanent coil and moving magnet.
Brushed DC Motor:
These motors contain a permanent magnet and a moving coil within the magnet. The required
electricity is produced by conveying the energy produced by the revolving brushes. Brushed DC
motors are not the preferred method for producing electricity because the coil's, being in
continuous motion, can have the following affects on the brushes:
a.) Degradation
b.) Difficulty in producing electricity because of the brushes

Brushless DC Motor:
These motors are the preferred choice of motors for producing electricity. Thanks to the moving
magnet unit in the permanent coil, it easily produces electricity. Producing high efficiency and
continuous electricity are the main
features of brushless DC motors.
It is one of the most easily found
motor types for those that want to
build a wind generator at home.
Wind energy is converted into
rotation energy with the help of the
blades installed on the edges of the
motor and then converted into
electricity with the help of the
motor.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

Best Motor Types to Build Wind Energy Turbine

Some types of motors are more efficient than others.
With the same wind speed one can produce 10W
whereas the other produces 40W.
1.) Treadmill Motors: These motors are both
robust and efficient. This is our top
recommendation for motors for producing
electric energy. You can find them easily
online or in stores selling second hand
products. Its values in relation to output
current and output voltage, it can easily be
used as wind turbine generator.
2.) Stepper Motors: Although highly
efficient, stepper motors have a lower
output voltage and current than treadmill
motors. It can be used in wind systems that
have a lower power output.

3.) Standard Permanent Magnet

Motor: These are for people who want
produce electricity out of wind energy.
They are cheaper than treadmill motors,
standard permanent magnet motors are
our second choice for wind energy
systems.

-How a Permanent Magnet motor works as a generator!

Inside a permanent magnet motor is a coil of wound copper surrounded by permanent magnets.
These motors rotate using electromagnetic induction, which means electricity is supplied to
wound copper wire which creates a magnetic field. The magnetic field created by the electricity
flowing through the copper wire opposes the permanent magnets in the motor housing. As a
result, the copper wire that is attached to the shaft of the motor tries “to push” itself away from
the permanent magnets. So your motor starts spinning!

The same reasoning is applied when considering a permanent magnet motor as a generator.
Spinning the copper wire by using the energy from the wind in the presence of the magnets
creates a voltage difference between the two ends of the copper wire. The difference in voltage
causes the electric charges (electrons) to flow in the copper wire, generating electric current.

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

-Volts-to-RPM Ratio
The Volts-to-RPM Ratio is one of the most important specifications to look out for in selecting
your motor. Most DIYers(handyman) use their motor to charge a 12-Volt battery, because of
their cost and widespread availability. Charging a 12-Volt battery requires that the permanent
magnet motor be generating at least 12 volts. If it doesn't, then it can't overcome the impedance
of the 12V battery and the motor will never charge the battery.
The volts-to-RPM ratio of a permanent magnet motor is defined as the volts required to spin the
motor at a given RPM (rotations per minute). So let's assume you have a permanent magnet
motor that says the following on its label: “100 Volts, 2500 RPM.” This simply means if you
supply the motor with 100 volts, it will spin at 2500 rpm. Its volts to RPM ratio is 0.040 V/RPM
(100 divide by 2500).

This number provides a rough estimate of how many volts the motor will generate at a given
rpm. Let's assume this motor spin at 1000rpm this means its volt is 1000rpm multiplied by
(100/2500)(V/RPM)=40 Volts , that’s if it runs as a motor but if it works as generator its
efficiency dropped from 100% to 75-80% so we must multiply those 40volts by 0.8 will get only
32 Volts.
Amperage Rating
The next item is the amperage rating of the motor. This provides information regarding how
much current the motor will put out as a generator. From our experience, it is very difficult to
predict what type of current your motor will put out as a generator. We’ve seen motors that expel
more amps than that for which they are rated. However, one thing remains true: The higher the
amperage rating, the better. You should be looking for a motor with a minimum amperage rating
of at least 5 Amps. Anything above 5 Amps and you are good to go.
The power that a wind generator produces is directly proportional to the amps and voltage:

In fact, Power = Volts x Amperage

Remember, the more amps and volts the wind generator creates the more power it is producing!

Recommendations :
 Work with a permanent magnet motor
 Its Volts to RPM ratio of 0.035
 Its minimum amperage rating of 5
 Preferred the motor is brushless

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

Chapter 5
Results & Conclusion

5.1 PV Panel
1- PV Panel
Solar Panel classification Polycrystalline
Dimensions (mm) 655 * 275 * 25
Weight (Kg) 2.2
Maximum power (Wp) 20
Maximum power voltage (V) 18
Maximum power current (A) 1.12
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 21
Short-circuit current (Isc) 1.23

-Panel efficiency (η) = 13.9 %

2- Solar charger controller

Type PWM
Size 5A
Operating mode (0. )
Light control and delay, closed in 10 hrs.

78
 Hybrid 2016 SFE

3- Battery
Type Sealed Lead Acid (SLA)
Capacity 7 AH

Results
-Battery Voltage reading = 13 V, the battery is fully charged by the solar PV
-Current reading = 0.74 A, and the LED chip is operated

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

5.2 Wind Turbine

* Experimental setting for the full-scale H-Darrieus VAWT:
1- Generator:
- A DC PM motor of 18V, 3.2A and 280 rpm was used as a generator
- The armature resistance was measured (Ra = 1.25Ω)
20−3.2∗1.25
- Ratio of generated Voltage to RPM is = 0.05
280
2- Battery:
Same Battery used for Solar System was used for Wind Turbine
3- Charger Controller:
Same Battery used for Solar System was used for Wind Turbine with only one change of using
PURE CHARGER mode which only charges the battery and the terminals of load are unused
4- Braking Circuit (Dumping Load):
- It’s a rheostat connected in parallel with the charger controller circuit to dissipate power
from the generator when the other circuit (charging circuit) is open to prevent turbine
from accelerating and have mechanical damage.

 Results:
- The accuracy of the results is subjected to the discontinuous and highly variable wind at
the location of experiments.
- The turbine self-started at wind speed of 1 – 1.25 m/s Declaring a high self-start
ability
- Readings
- Wind Speed m/s - Turbine RPM - Generator Voltage
3 90 5
4 180 10.3
5 200 11.4
6 260 14.8
7 300 17.1

- Sad fully the high wind blow came at a speed more than 8 m/s caused the turbine to
highly accelerate (also it was loaded) what caused a fatal damage in one of the
connecting arms which connects the blade to the base what prevented us (also damaged
parts where replaced and fixed) from reaching high speeds further cause windy days
where up but from reading above the system was able to charge the battery at wind speed
𝑉𝐺 −𝑉𝐵
about 5m/s with a current of I = .
𝑅𝐺 +𝑅𝐵 +𝑅𝐶

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 Hybrid 2016 SFE

** in order to charge a battery with 2 charger controllers at the same time a Balancing Circuit is
needed (which wasn’t common) so a single battery for each system should be used.
 Conclusion:
1) Other than Savonius VAWTs, the self-starting ability of an H-VAWT can be increased
by using airfoil sections of either high drag or lift coefficients at low Reynolds numbers.
2) For airfoils utilizing lift, the self-starting ability is reasonably improved but the turbine
efficiency is significantly reduced due to the cambered (asymmetric) profile of high lift
airfoils. Also the peak efficiency is shifted a little to a lower TSR.
3) For airfoils utilizing drag, the self-starting ability is greatly improved but the turbine
efficiency is significantly reduced due to the higher drag coefficient. The peak efficiency
is shifted a lot to a lower TSR.
4) Lift airfoils can operate at higher TSRs than drag airfoils.
5) Generally, as the Darrieus VAWT becomes more able to self-start, it approaches the
behavior of a Savonius VAWT.

 Recommendations:
1) The airfoil section NACA0030 is very suitable for a small-scale self-starting H-VAWT
that is used to charge a battery set in connection with PV panels in a hybrid system.
2) Careful design should be made for the connecting arms fixation points to prevent high
levels of vibrations and withstand the high cyclic loads generated by the wind on the
blades.
3) To get highest efficiency from PV panel positions of seasons should be considered in
fabrication of the light pole
4) Pole need Civil work to withstand vibrations and high weight over it
5) Charge controller of MPPT type is more Recommended than PWM

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 References:

1- http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/8/7/6926/htm
2- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_hybrid_power_systems
3- DTU – Technical University in Denemark – Organic solar cells.
4- http://pureenergies.com/us/blog/top-10-countries-using-solar-power/
5- http://ecowatch.com/2015/01/09/countries-leading-way-renewable-energy/
6- http://www.universetoday.com/18707/fusion-in-the-sun/
7- http://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/knowledge/publications/74735/renewable-
energy-in-egypt-hydro-solar-and-wind
8- http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-
measurements/parameters/weather/photosynthetically-active-radiation/
9- https://nasrsolar.com/
10- https://www.altestore.com/howto/sizing-pwm-solar-charge-controllers-a91/
11-Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) (American Standard for street lighting)
12-http://www.sciencealert.com/how-graphene-could-help-solar-panels-produce-energy-
when-it-s-raining
13-http://news.stanford.edu/2016/04/06/pressure-solar-perovskite-040616/
14-https://www.academia.edu/9496594/Modeling_and_Control_of_a_Solar_Wind_Hybrid_Energy_System_for_BTS
15-http://www.solarpoweristhefuture.com/how-to-figure-correct-angle-for-solar-
panels.shtml
16-www.leonics.com
17-www.firstgreen.co
18- Reepro tool solar home system sizing
19- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_generation_factor
20- http://energyinformative.org/best-solar-panel-monocrystalline-polycrystalline-thin-
film/
21- MECH 4010 Design Project, Vertical Axis Wind Turbine, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Dalhousie University, December 5, 2005.
22- Improvements to vertical axis wind turbine blades to aid in self-starting, Joseph P.
Tillman, Eastern Illinois University.
23- Iranica Journal of Energy & Environment. Design, Development and Testing of a
Combined Savonius and Darrieus Vertical Axis Wind Turbine, M. Abid, K. S. Karimov,
H. A. Wajid, F. Farooq, H. Ahmed, O. H. Khan.