IONIC FORMULA AND STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS

Ionic bonding only occurs between a metal and non-metal.

Metal (group 1,2, and 3) give electrons in their outer shell to form positive cations.
Non-metal (group 5,6, and 7) gain electrons to their outer shell to form negative anions.
Draw the dot and cross diagram of ionic bonding in magnesium chloride (MgCl2).

Ionic Formula
Writing the Chemical Formula for Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are made up of cations and anions (collectively known as ions). Ions
can be placed into two categories:
(i) Monatomic ions- formed from a single atom (e.g., Na+ (sodium cation), Cl-
(chloride anion))
(ii) Polyatomic ions- formed when a small group of more than one ion are bonded
together (NH4+ (ammonium ion)).
Facts about ions
 The number of positive charges and negative charges must be balanced.
 Metal atoms (Group I, II, and III) lose electrons to form positive cations. The
positive charge is the same as the group number (e.g., Na+, Mg2+, Al3+)
 Non-metal atoms (Group V, VI, and VII) gain electrons to form negative anions.
The negative charge is determined by 8 minus the group number (e.g., Br-, S2-,
N3-).
 The charge of transition ions may vary and must be learnt.
 The hydrogen ion is H+
 The number at the bottom of the atom in the formula shows the number of atoms
present (e.g., MgCl2, 1 magnesium atom and 2 chlorine atoms).
Common cations
Monovalent Divalent Trivalent
Hydrogen H+ Magnesium Mg2+ Iron (III) Fe3+
Lithium Li+ Calcium Ca2+ Aluminum Al3+
Sodium Na+ Barium Ba2+
 Potassium K+ =Iron (II) Fe2+
=Copper (I) Cu+ Copper (II) Cu2+
Silver Ag+ Zinc Zn2+
Ammonium NH4+ Tin (II) Sn2+
Lead (II) Pb2+

Common anions
Monovalent Divalent Trivalent
Fluoride F- Oxide O2- Nitride N3-
Chloride Cl- Sulfide S2- Phosphate PO43-
Bromide Br- Sulfite (sulfate(IV)) SO32-
Iodide I- Sulfate (sulfate(VI)) SO42-
Hydride H- Carbonate CO32-
Hydroxide OH- Dichromate (VI) Cr2O72-
Nitrite (nitrate(III)) NO2-
Nitrate (nitrate(V) NO3-
Hydrogen carbonate
(HCO3-)
Hydrogen sulfate HSO4-
Manganate(VII) MnO4-
Ethanoate CH3COO-

Naming ionic compounds

The name of an ionic compound can be determined as follows:
 Metals (cations) take the first part of the name, while non-metals (anions) take
the subsequent part (e.g., magnesium chloride).
 The cation’s name is the same as the element’s found in the periodic table.
  The name of the anion is formed from the name of the first half of that of the
element+ ‘-ide’ at the ending (e.g., nitride). Bromine – bromide oxygen- oxide
Iodine- iodide chlorine- chloride
 When oxygen is present in a polyatomic ion, the name of the anion is formed
from the first half of that of the element + ‘-ite’ or ‘-ate’. ‘-ate’ must be followed by
the oxidation number in brackets (e.g. Sulfite (sulfate(IV)).
Writing ionic formulas
During ionic bonding the total number of electrons lost by the metals are to be gained by
the non-metals. As such the sum of positive charges must be equal to the sum of
negative charges.
The chemical formula of an ionic compound can be determined as follows:
 Identify the metal(cation) and non-metal (anion).
 Write the formula of the cation without its charge.
 Write the magnitude of the anion’s charge as a subscript of the cation (at the
bottom).
 Write the formula of the anion without charge.
 Write the magnitude of the cation immediately after the formula of the anion as a
subscript (at the bottom).
 Polyatomic anions must be enclosed in brackets.

Write the ionic formula of

(i) aluminum oxide
(ii) sodium chloride
(iii) iron(III) sulfate
(iv) barium hydroxide
(v) iron (II) hydrogen carbonate
(vi) calcium nitride
(vii) aluminum sulfite
(viii) iron(III) hydroxide
(ix) iron(II) sulfate
(x) lead(II) nitrate
 The Structure and Properties of Solids
There are four types of solids:
 Ionic solids (ionic bonding)
 Simple molecular solids (covalent bonding)
 Giant molecular solids (covalent bonding)
 Metallic solids (metallic bonding)

Ionic solids
Ionic compounds mostly exist as crystalline lattice with regularly repeating cations and
anions which are held together in a three-dimensional pattern.
A crystal lattice consists of a regular repeating pattern of ions, atoms, or molecules.
An ionic lattice consists of oppositely charged ions (cations and anions) held together by
a strong electrostatic force called an ionic bond. This force is very strong and takes a
large amount of energy to break it.
Example of an ionic crystal

Figure 1. Crystal structure of NaCl.

Sodium chloride is a well-known example of an ionic crystal.
Each sodium ion (Na+) is bonded to six chloride ions (Cl-). A Cl- ion is bonded to six Na+
ions.
NB: All other ionic compounds exist as ionic crystals.
Properties of ionic crystals
The physical properties of ionic crystals can be explained based on the structure of the
ionic crystals and the bonding within the crystal. The following are properties of ionic
compounds:
1. They are brittle (hard but easily broken)- The ionic crystal possesses layers
which can split apart when hit along a plane of the layers. As the layers slide over
each other, similar charges repel within the crystal causing it to split.

2. They have high melting points- Due to the strong attractive forces between the
oppositely charged anions and cations, a lot of heat energy is needed to
overcome such forces to allow melting to occur.

3. They are hard- The strong attractive forces between the ions requires a lot of
energy to scratch the surface of the crystals.

4. They are soluble in water (dissolves in water)- As water is a polar substance like
ionic compounds, the water molecules can form weak bonds with the ions on the
surface of the crystals. This allows water molecules to surround the ions as the
force of attraction between the water molecules and ions are stronger than the
force between the ions. The causes the crystal to dissolve.

5. Most are insoluble in non-polar organic substances (such as kerosene, gasoline

and tetrachloromethane)- no bond can be formed between the ions and non-
polar molecules. If a bond is formed, it is extremely weak.

6. They are unable to conduct electricity in a solid state- In a solid state, the ions
are not free to move as they are held together by strong ionic bonds.

7. They conduct electricity in a molten (melted) or aqueous (dissolved in water)

state- the ionic bonds are broken, and the ions are free to move to carry
electricity.
 Figure 2. Polar and nonpolar substances.
https://sciencenotes.org/polar-and-nonpolar-molecules/
 Figure 3. Dissolving of ionic crystals in water.
(https://www.cbsetuts.com/why-do-ionic-compounds-dissolve-in-water/)
Simple molecular solids (covalent bonding)

Simple molecular crystals form crystals which are regularly arranged in a molecular
lattice with weak attractive forces known as intermolecular forces. Such forces hold
small molecules together.

The atoms within the molecules are bonded by strong covalent bonds.

Examples of simple molecular crystals are ice (H2O), dry ice (CO2), iodine (I2), sulfur
(S8) and glucose (C6H12O6).

Figure 4. Simple molecular crystal lattice.

Properties of simple molecular crystals

The following are the physical properties of simple molecular crystals:

1. They are soft- not much energy is needed to overcome the weak forces of
attraction between the molecules when it is scratched.

2. They have low melting points- intermolecular forces between molecules are weak
and not much heat energy is needed to over these forces.

3. They do not dissolve in water- as they are not polar molecules, they do not form
strong bonds with water molecules which would lead to them being surrounded
by the water molecules.

4. They dissolve easily in non-polar solvent- forces form between the non-polar
solvents and simple molecular molecules which are stronger than that between
the molecules themselves.

5. They do not conduct electricity when solid or molten- there are no electrically
charged particles such as ions or electrons that can move.

NB: some molecular crystals such as sucrose are soluble in water. Why?
 Figure 5. Insolubility of non-polar substances.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book
%3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/10%3A_Solids_Liquids_and_Solutions/
10.19%3A_Solubility_and_Molecular_Structure
Giant molecular structures (Covalent bonding)

These crystals have a three-dimensional giant molecular lattice where strong

covalent bonds hold non-metal atoms together in a regular arrangement.

Examples of giant molecular structures are diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide

(SiO2).

Allotropes are different molecular or structural forms of the same element in the
same physical state. They have the same chemical properties as they are made
from the same element but different physical properties as they are bonded
differently.

Examples of allotropes are diamond and graphite. They are both made of carbon
atoms but are structurally different.

Figure 6. Allotropes of carbon.

Diamond

Each carbon atom is bonded covalently to four others and are arranged in a
tetrahedron.

Figure 7. Structure of diamond.

Graphite
Each carbon is bonded covalently to three others to form hexagonal rings which
are bonded weakly by intermolecular forces (Van der Waals) to form layers. The
fourth electron becomes delocalized and can move around the lattice.

Figure 8. Structure of graphite.

Physical properties of diamond and graphite

Table 1. Table comparing physical properties of diamond and graphite.

Property Diamond Graphite
Melting points Very high melting point- a lot of heat energy is
needed to break the strong covalent bond between
atoms.
Solubility Insoluble in water and organic solvents- the strong
covalent bonds do not allow solvent molecules to
form strong bonds with the atoms.
Hardness Extremely hard- strong Soft and flaky-
covalent bonds between intermolecular forces
the carbon atoms make between the layers of
it extremely difficult to carbon atoms are weak
scratch the surface. so layers slide over each
other when force is
Can be used for edges applied.
of cutting tools.
Graphite can be used as
lubricant and in ‘leads’ of
pencils.
Electrical conductivity Does not conduct Conducts electricity in
electricity- all valence solid state- Carbon has
electrons are shared four valence electrons.
between carbon atoms Three of them are used
and not free to move. to form covalent bonds.
The fourth valence
electron from each
carbon atom is
delocalized and free to
move.

Used to make electrodes

for electrolysis.
Lubricating power None- atoms are Very good- the weak
covalently bonded and intermolecular forces
do not slide over each between layers allow
other. them to slide over each
other.

Used in air compressors

and railway tracks as
lubricants.
Metallic crystals

Atoms in a metal are arranged regularly in layers and packed closely together.

Metal atoms lose their valence electrons to form cations. Such outer electrons
are now free to move around throughout the lattice and are referred to as
delocalized.

Metallic bond is a strong attractive force between the cations and delocalized
electrons.

Figure 9. Structure of metals.

 Physical properties of metals

1. High melting and boiling points- Strong electrostatic forces between cations and
delocalized electrons act in all directions. It needs a lot of energy to break.

2. Malleable (can be shaped by hitting) and ductile (can be drawn into wires)- As
force is applied, layers slide over each other. However, metals are not brittle like
ionic compounds as there is a strong attractive force between cations and
delocalized electrons.

3. Solid at room temperature- The temperature at room temperature is not high

enough to break the strong electrostatic force between the cations and
delocalized electrons.

4. Insoluble in water and organic solvents- metallic bonds are too strong to allow
solvent molecules to form strong bonds with individual atoms and cause them to
separate.

5. Conduct electricity when solid or molten- delocalized electrons can move easily
can carry electricity through the metals when a potential difference is applied.

6. High density- atoms are packed very close together.

7. Conducts heat- delocalized electrons can move and carry heat through the
metal.
Comparing properties of the solids
Properties Ionic crystals Simple Giant Metallic
molecular molecular crystals
crystals crystals

Examples NaCl, MgBr2 I2, CO2, S8 Carbon, SiO2 Fe, Mg, Zn, Au

Bonding type

Melting point

Solubility

Electrical
conductivity

Heat
conductivity