Easily Confused Words

Easily confused words Typical errors
There are many words in the English language that are easily confused because they  We don’t use over to mean ‘higher level’.
have a similar spelling or a related, but different, meaning.
Most of the race is 500 metres above sea level.
Not: Most of the race is 500 metres over sea level.
Above or over?  We don’t use above when one thing touches or covers another.
Pour some cream over the tart and serve it warm.
When we use above as a preposition, it means ‘higher than’. Its meaning is close to that Not: Pour some cream above the tart
of the preposition over. In the following sentences, over can be used instead of above:
 We don’t use above with numbers.
The waves came up above her head and she started screaming. (or … came up over her
head …) Over 100 people complained about the programme.
She is a nervous flier. But once the plane got above the clouds, she started to relax. (or Not: Above 100 people complained
… got over the clouds …)
We use above, but not over, to refer to things that are at an upper or higher level:
[a ‘chalet’ is a small wooden building usually found in mountainous areas]
Across, over or through?
Do they live in that chalet above the village?
Not: Do they live in that chalet over the village?
Across
We usually use above, but not over, when there is no contact between the things
We use across as a preposition (prep) and an adverb (adv). Across means on the other
referred to. Over or on top of have a more general meaning, and can be used when one
side of something, or from one side to the other of something which has sides or limits
thing touches or covers another:
such as a city, road or river:
They made her comfortable and put a blanket over her.
We took a boat [PREP]across the river.
Not: They made her comfortable and put a blanket above her.
[PREP]Across the room, she could see some old friends. She got up and went to join
We normally use over not above with numbers: them.
I get over sixty emails a day. My neighbour came [ADV]across to see me this morning to complain about our cat.
Not: I get above sixty emails a day. The road was so busy that we found it difficult to get [ADV]across.
If you weigh over 100 kilograms, then you may need to start a diet. We also use across when something touches or stretches from one side to another:
Not: If you weigh above 100 kilograms The Ponte Vecchio is a beautiful old bridge across the river Arno in Florence.
Warning: She divided the page by drawing a red line across it. Then she cut it in two.
When we talk about temperatures in relation to zero or (the) average, we Especially in American English, across from is used to refer to people or objects being
use above not over: ‘opposite’ or ‘on the other side’:
It was three degrees above zero. The pharmacy is across from the Town Hall.
Not: It was three degrees over zero. Helen’s office is just across from mine.
When we refer to temperatures in other contexts, we can normally use above or over: We use across to emphasise that something is happening at the same time in many
places, e.g. within an organisation, a city or a country:
The temperature is already above 30 degrees. (or … over 30 degrees.)
She’s opened coffee shops across the city and they’re very successful.
Across the country, people are coming out to vote for a new president.
B2 – First Certificate – Easily Confused Words 1 B2 – First Certificate – Easily Confused Words 2
We also use across to refer to the width or diagonal measurement of something: The office is open Monday through Friday, 9 am–5 pm. (preferred British form: from
Monday to Friday)
The size of a television screen is measured from the higher corner of one side to the
lower corner of the other side, that is, from one corner across to the opposite corner. Warning:
Across comes after measurements when we talk about diameter or width: We use over, not through, to refer to periods of time from start to finish when a number
is specified (of days, weeks, etc.):
The building is 157 metres long, 92 metres across and the façade is 68 metres wide.
Over the last few days, I have been thinking a lot about quitting my job.
Over
Across, over and through: typical errors
We use over as a preposition and an adverb to refer to something at a higher position
than something else, sometimes involving movement from one side to another:  When moving from one side to another while surrounded by something, we
use through not across:
From the castle tower, you can see [PREP]over the whole city.
We cycled through a number of small villages.
We toasted marshmallows [PREP]over the fire.
Not: We cycled across a number of small villages.
We drove high up [PREP]over the mountains on a narrow dangerous road.
 When we talk about something extending or moving from one side to another,
Suddenly a plane flew [ADV]over and dropped hundreds of leaflets.
we use across not on:
Come over often means to come to the speaker’s home:
The papers were spread across the table.
You must come [ADV]over and have dinner with us some time.
Not: The papers were spread on the table.
Especially when we use them as adverbs, over can mean the same as across:
 We don’t use through when we’re talking about periods of time from start to
We walked over to the shop. (or We walked across to the shop – the shop is on the other finish and we mention a specific number of days, weeks, etc:
side of the road)
We haven’t seen each other much over the last four years.
I was going across to say hello when I realised that I couldn’t remember his name. (or I
Not: We haven’t seen each other much through the last four years.
was going over to say … meaning ‘to the other side of the street or room’)
Across or through?
Movement
Advice or advise?
When we talk about movement from one side to another but ‘in something’, such as long
Advice /ədˈvɑɪs/ is a noun and means a suggestion about what someone should do. It is
grass or a forest, we use through instead of across:
uncountable:
I love walking through the forest. (through stresses being in the forest as I walk)
Let me give you some advice: stay away from Margaret.
Not: I love walking across the forest.
Not: Let me give you an advice
When my dog runs through long grass, it’s difficult to find him. (through stresses that
She gave him a lot of advice, but I don’t think he listened.
the dog is in the grass)
Not: …a lot of advices …
Not: When my dog runs across long grass …
If we want to use advice in a countable way, then we use the phrase a piece of advice:
Time I have two pieces of advice for you about the holiday.
When referring to a period of time from start to finish, American English speakers often We use the verb advise /ədˈvɑɪz/ to mean ‘to give someone advice’:
use through where British English speakers say from … to/till …: I strongly advise you to lose weight.
They finally did what we advised.
Affect or effect? All and every + nouns
The meaning of all and every is very similar but we use them in different ways. We
Affect is a verb meaning ‘influence or cause someone or something to change’: use all with plural and uncountable nouns and every with singular nouns:
The cold weather has really affected her health. All donations will be sent to the earthquake relief fund.
New technologies continue to affect how we live. All equipment must be returned by the end of June. (uncountable)
Effect is a noun that means ‘the result of an influence’: Every donation is appreciated.
The pollution in the city had a bad effect on me. We can use all and all of before determiners, but we don’t use every before determiners:
Most people these days understand the serious effects of smoking. I invited all (of) my friends.
Not: … every my friends
All or every? All (of) the
We can use all and all of before articles (the, a/an), demonstratives (this, that) and
All and every are determiners. possessives (our, his) but we can’t use every before them:
We use both all and every to refer to the total number of something. All refers to a [talking about a library]
complete group. Every refers to each member of a complete group: It has got all (of) the books that have ever been published.
The questionnaire was sent to all employees. Not: It has got every the book or It has got the every book
The questionnaire was sent to every employee. She’s gone to all (of) their concerts this year. She hasn’t missed one.
We can use every to focus on each individual member. Not: … every their concerts
Compare
All day, every day

All passengers must turn off their mobile phones. refers to the whole
group We use all day, all week, all month to mean ‘one entire day/week/month’:
We spent all day at the beach yesterday.
Every passenger must turn off their mobile phone. Every day (week/month) focuses on each individual day (week/month):
focuses on each We spent every day at the beach in the holidays.
(We use their instead of his or her to refer back to a individual member of the
singular noun (passenger) because we are referring to whole group Not: We spent all days at the beach
both male and female passengers.)
Fuel prices are rising every week.
We can use all, but not every, on its own without a noun. We Not: Fuel prices are rising all weeks.
use everyone/everybody/everything instead:
The meeting is at Oriel Hall. It begins at 8 pm and all are welcome. All or every: typical errors
Not: … every is welcome  We don’t use every before determiners:
Everyone is welcome to join the village social club. He sold all (of) his books.
Not: … every his books.
 We don’t use every with uncountable nouns:
All (the) information can be saved in the computer memory. The whole performance was disappointing from start to finish. (or The whole of the
performance was disappointing …)
Not: Every information can be saved …
When we can split up a thing into parts, we can use either whole or all with the same
 We don’t use every with plural nouns:
meaning:
We should organise a trip for all students.
You don’t have to pay the whole (of the) bill at once.
Not: … for every students
You don’t have to pay all (of) the bill at once.
 We don’t use every on its own without a noun; we
She ate the whole orange.
use everyone, everybody or everything instead:
She ate all of the orange.
He suggested cancelling the trip and everyone agreed.
We often use the whole of with periods of time to emphasise duration:
Not: … every agreed
We spent the whole (of the) summer at the beach.
All the with uncountable nouns

All or whole?
We use all the and not the whole with uncountable nouns:
She was given all the advice she needed.
All and whole are determiners.
Not: She was given the whole advice …
We use them before nouns and with other determiners to refer to a total number
or complete set of things in a group. All the equipment is supplied.
Compare
All and whole with plural nouns
All the cast had food poisoning. They were forced to all + determiner + We usually use all the and all of the with plural nouns:
cancel the show. noun
It’s funny when all the actors come in dressed up in their costumes.
She opens all the cupboard doors and doesn’t close them after her.
The whole cast had food poisoning. They were forced to determiner + whole + You have to try all of the activities.
cancel the show. noun
When we use whole with plural nouns, it means ‘complete’ or ‘entire’.
Compare
All my family lives abroad. or My whole family lives abroad.
We often use all and the whole with of the:
Whole families normally shared one room in the nineteenth
She complains all of the time. or She complains the whole of the time. entire families
century.
We use a/an with whole but not with all:
I spent a whole day looking for that book and eventually found it in a little old bookshop
on the edge of town. All families normally shared one bedroom in the nineteenth each and every
Not: … all a day … century. family
All or whole for single entities
We use the whole or the whole of to refer to complete single things and events that are
countable and defined:
Passive with permit and allow
We often use the passive with permit and allow. Permit is often used for official public
All and whole: typical errors notices:
Photography is permitted for non-commercial use only.
 We don’t use all before a and an:
She ate a whole bar of chocolate in one go. [talking about a diet]
You’re allowed to eat as much fruit as you like.
Not: She ate all a bar …
We’re not allowed to put posters on the walls.
 We can’t omit the before whole with a singular noun:
Warning:
We travelled throughout the whole country.
Not: … throughout whole country. We don’t usually use the passive with let:
The children were allowed to do whatever they wanted.
Not: The children were let do …
Allow, permit or let?
Allow, permit and let are verbs that all have a similar meaning: ‘give permission Almost or nearly?
or make it possible for somebody to do or have something’.
Permit is more formal than allow. Allow is more formal than let: We use almost and nearly to refer to the progress of things, especially if we are
The University has established a Museums Committee to permit more formal discussion measuring and counting things. In these examples, almost and nearly can both be used:
of common problems amongst its museums. [someone has been running five miles on a running machine in a gym]
The plan for Heathrow will allow airport operator BAA to build a third, shorter Don’t give up! You’re almost there.
runway.
It’s time for bed. It’s nearly 10 o’clock.
Will you let me pay for the meal?
Their CD has sold almost 90,000 copies in the last week.
Let me show you how to open it. It’s a bit tricky.
Nearly all my friends were in the photograph.
We also use almost and nearly with extreme adjectives such
Permit/allow someone + to do something as perfect, impossible or frozen:
We use a direct object + to-infinitive after permit and allow: That guy is almost impossible.
[from a newspaper report about a rugby player] The chicken is still nearly frozen. I thought you’d taken it out of the freezer.
He has not decided yet whether his leg injury will permit him to play this weekend. We use almost (but not nearly) to soften statements:
I would not allow a child to have a TV or a computer in their room. I almost wish I hadn’t offered to pay his fine.
We use almost before any and before negative words such
Let someone + do something as no, none, never, nobody, nothing. We don’t use nearly in this way:
We use an infinitive without to after let: [describing computer software which traces the history of towns]
[child to parent] Using this special software, you can find the history of almost any building.
Why don’t you let me go? All my friends are going. They’ve almost no confidence that they can use the new phone properly.
We don’t let employees use the office telephone for personal calls. She almost never raises her voice.
Not: She nearly never raises her voice. There were lots of shops along the main street.
I saw three different boats along the bank of the river.
Alone, lonely, or lonesome? We use along as an adverb with verbs of motion meaning ‘together with’:
Why don’t you come along with us to the party?
They said they’d bring the bikes along and we can ride to the swimming pool.
Alone or lonely?
Alone is an adjective and an adverb meaning that no other person is with you. When we Alongside
use alone as an adjective, it never comes before the noun (predicative adjective):
She was alone when she heard the sad news. (adjective) As a preposition, alongside means ‘close beside’, ‘next to’ or ‘together with’:
It’s impossible to discuss as a committee. The chairman alone will decide. (adverb) The trees alongside the fence have all been damaged by the wind. (near)
Did they travel alone or did they take the children with them? (adverb) Put your bike alongside mine. (next to)
Do you live alone? (adverb) I find it difficult to cope with this illness alongside all my other problems. (together
with)
Lonely means that no other person is with you and that you are sad and unhappy as a
result. We may choose to be alone but generally we do not choose to be lonely: We also use alongside as an adverb, meaning ‘along the side of’ or ‘next to’ something:
Without her friends, it was a long and lonely journey. I parked my car in the drive and William parked his alongside.
She says she feels very lonely and depressed living in that big house.
We don’t use lonely as an adverb:
I prefer going to lunch alone. Already, still or yet?
Not: I prefer going to lunch lonely.
Already or yet?
Lonesome We use already to refer to something which has happened or may have happened before
the moment of speaking. Already can sometimes suggest surprise on the part of the
In American English, lonesome means the same as lonely: speaker, that something is unexpected:
If they’re away from home, they get lonesome. (If they’re away from home, they Is it seven o’clock already? (The speaker didn’t expect it to be so late.)
get lonely).
We use yet most commonly in questions and negatives, to talk about things which are
expected but which have not happened:
Is it seven o’clock yet? (The speaker thinks that probably it’s almost seven o’clock.)
A:
Along or alongside? Where will you be staying?
B:
Along and alongside are prepositions or adverbs. I haven’t decided yet, but somewhere in the city centre.
Already refers to things which have happened or which people think may have
happened. Yet refers to things which have not happened or which people think may not
Along have happened.
As a preposition, along means ‘in a line next to something long and thin’, e.g. a road, a
path:
Already, yet or still?
I haven’t finished yet. I still haven’t finished.
We use still not yet or already to refer to the continuation of a situation:
I still meet my friends from my schooldays now and then. (I continue to meet my friends)
You know, it’s dark now and she hasn’t You know, it’s dark now and
Not: I already meet my friends or I yet meet my friends arrived yet. she still hasn’t arrived.
Compare
Negatives with already are far less common than negatives with yet and still. They
usually refer to things which should have happened before they did happen:
A:
If you’ve already registered, the price is 50 pounds. If you haven’t already registered,
I know she was at university. Does that it’s 75 pounds for late registration.
Is your sister still at university?
continue to be true? I was surprised that they hadn’t already told me the news.
B:
Yes. She’s got one more year to do.
A: Also, as well or too?

Is your sister at university yet?
I expect that she will go to university. Is
B: she there now? Also, as well and too are adverbs and mean ‘in addition’.
No. She’s only 17. She’ll go next year.

Also
A: Also is commonly used in writing, but is less common in speaking. Also occupies
Is your sister already at university? different positions in a sentence.
She’s only 17! I’m surprised if your sister is at We use also in front position to emphasise what follows or to add a new point or topic:
university. I did not expect it to happen
B: It’s very humid. Also, you can easily get sunburnt.
until later.
Yes. She started this year. She’s so [on the telephone]
clever they let her enter a year early.
OK, I’ll phone you next week and we can discuss it then. Also, we need to decide who
will be going to Singapore.
We use also in the normal mid position for adverbs, between the subject and main verb,
or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb. In this
Negatives with already, still, yet position, the meaning of also usually connects back to the whole clause that comes
Negatives with yet mean that something has not happened up to now: before:
I haven’t spoken to Henry about the car yet. She works very hard but she also goes to the gym every week.
Negatives with still suggest that the situation should have changed, but it has not: I’ve been working in the garden this week, and I’ve also been reading a lot.
I still haven’t found my passport. I know it’s here somewhere. (I’ve been looking for it In end position, also normally connects two phrases. We use as well and too instead
for a long time. I should have found it by now) of also, in end position, especially in speech:
Warning: She contacted him in the office but he didn’t answer the phone. His mobile phone was
silent also. (or His mobile phone was silent too. or … was silent as well.)
We usually put yet after the main verb, whereas we usually put still after the subject.
Compare
As well In imperative clauses, as well and too are normally preferred to also:
Spoken English: [customer in a post office, buying books of first and second class stamps]
Give me a book of ten first and a book of ten second as well then please. (preferred to
As well is much more common in speaking than in writing, and is more common in
speaking than also. … and a book of ten second also then please.)
As well almost always comes in end position:

Linking negatives
[In a restaurant. Customer (A) is ordering from a waiter (B)]
A: We use either not also, as well or too to connect two negative ideas:
I’ll have steak please. Bill’s not here. I don’t think Dave is either, is he?
B: Not: I don’t think Dave is also/as well/too.

A:
Yes.
A: That’s not in paperback yet. It’s not been in any book clubs either, has it?
B:
And I’ll have the mixed vegetables as well.
No.
Too Not: It’s not been in any book clubs also/as well/too, has it?
We usually put too in end position:

Also, as well and too: typical error
Gill’s having chicken. I’ll probably have chicken too.
She looks really tired and she must be really hungry too.  We don’t use as well at the beginning of a clause. As well usually comes at the
end of a clause:
Too can occur immediately after the subject, if it refers directly to the subject. It does
not normally occur after a modal or auxiliary verb. We sometimes write commas before I just ignored it. I think everybody else did as well.
and after too: Not: As well I think everybody else did.
I too thought she looked unwell.
We, too, have been very pleased to receive the prize on her behalf.
Not: We have too been very pleased …
Alternate(ly), alternative(ly)
Too is especially common in responses to fixed expressions such as giving good wishes,
and in responses consisting of a single object pronoun:
Alternate(ly)
A:
The adjective alternate and the adverb alternately mean ‘first one thing, then another
Enjoy the play. thing and then the first thing again’. When we refer to time, we can also use the
B: phrase every other day, every other week, etc.
The trouble is you can only park in the hospital on alternate days. (or … in the
Thanks. You enjoy your evening too. (preferred to You enjoy your evening as well.
hospital every other day.)
or You also enjoy your evening.)
A: Not: on alternative days
She was alternately pleased and angry.
I need to go to the gym.
B:
Alternative(ly)
Yeah, me too. (preferred to Yeah, me also. or Yeah, me as well.)
Alternative(ly) means ‘something that is different and unusual and offers a possible Peter, although working harder this term, still needs to put more work into
choice’: mathematics.
We can’t use that room for meetings. They’ll have to find us an alternative room. [a doctor talking about a patient]
Not: …an alternate room … The patient, though getting stronger, is still not well enough to come off his medication.
Alternatively, we could just stay in.
Although and though with reduced clauses
Not: Alternately, we could …
In formal speaking or writing, we can use although, though and even
though to introduce a clause without a verb (a reduced clause):
Raymond, although very interested, didn’t show any emotion when she invited him to
go for a walk.
[referring to a car]
Though more expensive, the new model is safer and more efficient.
Although or though?
Although and though meaning ‘but’

Although and though meaning ‘in spite of’
When the although/though clause comes after a main clause, it can also mean ‘but it is
Although and though both mean ‘in spite of something’. They are subordinating also true that …’:
conjunctions. This means that the clause which they introduce is a subordinate
clause, which needs a main clause to make it complete: Karen is coming to stay next week although I’m not sure what day she is coming.
[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the trip to the final although [subordinate clause]we lost the We didn’t make any profit though nobody knows why.
match!
[subordinate clause]Though it was rainy, [main clause]we put on our jackets and went for a
walk. Though meaning ‘however’
Spoken English:
Spoken English:
Though is more common than although in general and it is much more common
than although in speaking. For emphasis, we often use even with though (but not Especially in speaking, we can use though (but not although or even though) with a
meaning similar to however or nevertheless. In these cases, we usually put it at the end
with although).
of a clause:
Warning:
A:
When the though/although clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a
You have six hours in the airport between flights!
comma at the end of the clause. When the main clause comes first, we don’t need to use
a comma: B:
Even though I earn a lot of money every month, I never seem to have any to spare! I don’t mind, though. I have lots of work to do. I’ll just bring my laptop with me.
I still feel hungry even though I had a big lunch. A:
It’s expensive.
Although and though with -ing clauses
B:
In formal situations, we can use although and though to introduce an -ing clause:
It’s nice, though.
[a teacher talking about a student] A:
Yeah, I think I’ll buy it. Amount of or number of?
We use amount of with uncountable nouns. Number of is used with countable nouns:
We use a huge amount of paper in the office every day.
As though
The amount of time it took to finish the job was very frustrating.
As though has a meaning very similar to as if. As if is much more common than as
A great number of students volunteer each year for environmental projects.
though:
Not: A great amount of students volunteer …
You look as though/as if you have seen a ghost!
I have a number of things I want to talk to you about.
He looks as though/as if he hasn’t slept.
Altogether or all together? A quantity of or quantities of?
Quantity is more formal than amount or number. A quantity of or quantities of can be

followed by a countable noun or an uncountable noun. They are most commonly used
Altogether with an adjective such as huge, big, large, small:
Altogether means ‘completely’ or ‘in total’: The soldiers discovered a large quantity of weapons hidden under the floor of a disused
building. (countable)
In 1997 the sales tax was lowered to 4%, then in 2001 it was abolished altogether.
You only need a very small quantity of cement to mix with the sand. (uncountable)
The book was €13.50 and the magazine was €5.25, so it was €18.75 altogether.
Large quantities of illegal drugs had been discovered. (countable)
All together Aid workers have delivered huge quantities of food to the refugee camps. (uncountable)
All together means ‘with each other’, and is similar to together:

Put your clothes all together in one pile and I’ll wash them for you.
Not: Put your clothes altogether in one pile … Any more or anymore?
[a group of five people are waiting at the entrance to a restaurant]
Waiter: Any more as a determiner
We use any more as a determiner to describe ‘an indefinite quantity of something’. Any
Are you all together? more is similar to some more. Some more is more common in affirmative
Customer: statements; any more is more common in questions, in clauses with if and in sentences
with negative words such as hardly, never, scarcely:
Yes. Can you do a table for five?
Would you like any more tea?
If you find any more books, please let us know.
She doesn’t want any more contact with him.
There are hardly any more people here than last month.
Amount of, number of or quantity of? Yes, I’d like some more information about trains to Berlin, please.
Not: Yes, I’d like any more information about …
Any more as an adverb
Any more is also an adverb and has the meaning of ‘no longer’ or ‘in the past but not
now.’ In this meaning, we use it in end position: Apart from or except for?
We don’t go to Cornwall on holiday any more. (We used to go in the past but not now.)
The cost of electricity is not cheap any more. Apart from and except for are multi-word prepositions. Apart from can mean either
‘including’ or ‘excluding’:
Especially in American English, any more, as an adverb, can be written as one
word, anymore: Apart from Germany, they also visited Italy and Austria. (including Germany, in
addition to Germany)
He doesn’t cycle anymore.
I like all vegetables apart from tomatoes. (excluding tomatoes)
Apart from Friday, I’ll be in London. (excluding Friday)
Except for or except only mean ‘not including’ or ‘excluding’:
Anyone, anybody or anything?
I like all vegetables except for tomatoes. (excluding tomatoes)
Anyone, anybody and anything are indefinite pronouns. We Except for Jim, who is unwell, they are all ready to leave for America tomorrow.
use anyone, anybody and anything to refer to both an open, unlimited set of things or She enjoys all sports except swimming.
people and specific things or people. We use them with a singular verb:
Has anyone got a dictionary?
Arise or rise?
Anybody is welcome to join. There aren’t any rules.
Can I do anything to help?
Arise means ‘happen’ or ‘occur’. We use it with abstract nouns (e.g. problem). The
I don’t know anybody who speaks Portuguese. three forms of arise are arise, arose, arisen. It is used in formal contexts:
We often use the plural pronoun they to refer back to (singular) anyone when we do not An opportunity arose and he decided to take the job in Brussels.
know if the person is male or female:
A problem has arisen with my passport.
If anyone would like further information about the dogs, they should call Canine
Rescue on 0502 75257. (The same as If anyone would like further information about the Rise means ‘go up’. The three forms of rise are rise, rose, risen:
dogs, he or she should call Canine Rescue on 0502 75257.) The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Anything, anyone, anybody don’t have a negative meaning on their own: Food prices have risen a lot in the last few months.
We stayed in Sevilla for the rest of our holidays. No one wanted to come back, but we
had to.
Not: Anyone wanted to come back. Around or round?
Around and round are prepositions or adverbs. We use around and round when
Anyone and anybody we refer to movements in circles or from one place to another. Around and round can
both be used. Around is more common in American English. Round is a little more
Anyone and anybody have no difference in meaning. Anybody is a little less formal common in speaking:
than anyone. Anyone is used more in writing than anybody: The earth goes round the sun. (movement in circles)
I didn’t know anybody at the party. We spent a very pleasant day walking round the town. (movement from one place to
[talking about the New Zealand rugby team, the All Blacks] another)
It is hard to find anyone who thinks that the All Blacks will face a stronger team. Now they are retired, they are planning a trip around the world.
We also commonly use around and round in phrasal verbs:
Can you pass these application forms around to all the people present?
We spent the whole day moving round some furniture in the bedroom. As your father, I’ll help you as
much as I can. The speaker is the listener’s father.
Around and round also mean ‘in different places’ and ‘here and there’:
People were panicking and running round and shouting.
A: Like your father, I’ll help you as The speaker is not the father but wishes to act in a
much as I can. similar way to the father.
Where’s Jill?
B:
We use like (but not as) to compare two things:
I know she’s around somewhere in the office.
She’s got a headache like me.
Around can also mean ‘approximately’: Not: She’s got a headache as me.
A:
Like the other students, he finds it a bit difficult to get to lectures early in the morning.
How old do you think the castle is? Not: As the other students, he finds it …
B: When we compare appearance or behaviour, we use like, not as:
I’d say around 500 years. That house looks like a castle.
Not: That house looks as a castle.
As is commonly used to talk about jobs:
Arouse or rouse? He worked for a long time as a teacher in Africa.

Not: … like a teacher in Africa.
Rouse and arouse are both used in formal contexts. Arouse means ‘make someone have The conjunctions as and like have the same meaning when used in comparisons. Like is
a particular feeling’: a little more informal.
Both lecturers aroused a lot of interest in the subject of geology. Nobody understands him as I do.
Rouse means ‘wake someone up’ or ‘make someone active’: Nobody understands him like I do.
The goal roused the supporters and they began to really get behind the team. (get
behind means ‘support’)
We also use rouse as a reflexive verb:
She finally roused herself at lunchtime and got out of bed.
As, because or since?
As, because and since are conjunctions. As, because and since all introduce subordinate
clauses. They connect the result of something with its reason.
As or like?
result reason
As and like are prepositions or conjunctions. The prepositions as and like have different
meanings. As + noun means ‘in the role of’, like + noun means ‘similar to’ or ‘in the He decided to go to the conference in
same way as’. as he was in Spain anyway.
Barcelona,
Compare
Cos
result reason
We often shorten because to cos /kəz/ or /kɒz/ in informal speaking and writing:
I’m laughing cos I’m so happy.
Are you angry with me because I opened the letter?
As and since
Bilardo coaches his team by telephone,
since half of them play in Italy, We often use as and since when we want to focus more on the result than the
(Bilardo was the coach of the Argentinian France or Spain. reason. As and since are more formal than because. We usually put a comma
football team) before since after the main clause:
[result]I hope they’ve decided to come as [reason]I wanted to hear about their India trip.
[result]They’re rather expensive, since [reason]they’re quite hard to find.
Because
We often use as and since clauses at the beginning of the sentence. We use a comma
Because is more common than as and since, both in writing and speaking. When we after the as- or since- clause:
use because, we are focusing on the reason: Since everything can be done from home with computers and telephones, there’s no
She spoke quietly because she didn’t want Catherine to hear. need to dress up for work any more.
We’ll come over on Sunday because David’s got to work on Saturday. As everyone already knows each other, there’s no need for introductions. We’ll get
straight into the business of the meeting.
We often put the because-clause at the beginning of a sentence, especially when we
want to give extra focus to the reason. We use a comma after the because-clause: We use because, not as or since, in questions where the speaker proposes a reason:
Because breathing is something we do automatically, we rarely think about it. Are you feeling unwell because you ate too much?
We can use a because-clause on its own without the main clause in speaking or Not: Are you feeling unwell since you ate too much? or … as you ate too much?
informal writing:
A:
Would you like to go to school there?

As, when or while?
B:
Yes.
As, when and while are conjunctions. In some uses as, when and while can mean the
A: same, but they can also have slightly different meanings. We use them to introduce
subordinate clauses.
Why?
We can use as, when and while to mean ‘during the time that’, to connect two events
B:
happening at the same time:
Because my best friend goes there. (I would like to go to school there because my best Another coach-load of people arrived as we were leaving.
friend goes there.)
We often use them with the past continuous to refer to background events:
Warning:
When the men were out working in the field, I helped with milking the cows, feeding the
We don’t use a because-clause on its own in formal writing: calves and the pigs.
In 1998, the government introduced a new import tax because people were importing While he was working, he often listened to music.
cars from abroad.
We can put clauses with as, when and while before or after the main clause. When they
Not: … a new import tax. Because people were importing cars from abroad. come before the main clause, we use a comma:
As she was leaving the court, a crowd of photographers gathered around her. (before When and while without a subject
the main clause, followed by a comma)
We can use when and while without a verb, or without a subject + auxiliary verb be:
Steven was very unhappy when things weren’t going well for him.
Go past the village signpost and you get to a church. When there, take the next turning
Lucy came into the room while he was waiting. right. (formal)
He read his book while waiting for the bus. (while he was waiting)
As Warning:
We can use as to introduce two events happening at the same time. After as, we can use We can’t use as in this way:
a simple or continuous form of the verb. The continous form emphasises an action that
We ate our sandwiches as we walked around the park.
interrupts or occurs during the progress of another action:
Not: … as walking around the park.
As she walked to the door, she thanked them for a lovely dinner.
As they were signing the contract, they noticed that a page was missing.
When Been or gone?

We can use when to introduce a single completed event that takes place in the middle of
a longer activity or event. In these cases, we usually use a continuous verb in the main We often use been to, instead of gone to, when we refer to completed visits to a place:
clause to describe the background event:
Have you ever been to Budapest?
He was walking back to his flat when he heard an explosion.
Not: Have you ever gone to Budapest?
Depending on the context, when can mean ‘after’ or ‘at the same time’.
If the visit is not complete, we use gone.
Compare
Compare
When you open the file, check the second page. when meaning ‘after’
Joan’s just gone to the shop. She’ll be back in about Joan has not yet returned
ten minutes. from the shop.
I eat ice cream when I am on holiday. when meaning ‘at the same time’
Joan’s just been to the shop. She bought some cakes. Joan has returned from the
We often use just with when or as to express things happening at exactly the same time: Would you like one? shop.
The phone always rings just when I’m closing the front door.
She was a brilliant gymnast, but she had a terrible accident in 1999, just as her career
was taking off.
While and as
Begin or start?
We can use while or as to talk about two longer events or activities happening at the
We can use the verbs begin and start to mean the same thing but begin is more formal
same time. We can use either simple or continuous verb forms:
than start. Begin is an irregular verb. Its past simple form is began and its -ed form
We spent long evenings talking in my sitting-room while he played the music he had is begun:
chosen and explained his ideas.
When did you begin learning English?
We were lying on the beach sunbathing as they were playing volleyball.
The meeting didn’t start until 9 pm.
We use start, but not begin, to talk about machines: The ancient fountain was hidden among the trees. (surrounded by trees)
Press this button to start the printer.
Not: …to begin the printer. Between and prepositional phrases
The lawnmower won’t start. (this means that it doesn’t work) Between is most often used to introduce a prepositional phrase which contains
Not: The lawnmower won’t begin. two singular or plural noun phrases:
Start, but not begin, is used to talk about creating a new business: There was a cyclist [prepositional phrase]between the car and the lorry.
She started a new restaurant and it’s been going really well. I didn’t see any difference [prepositional phrase]between the real bags and the imitation
bags.
Not: She began a new restaurant …
We can also use between + pronoun when referring to two people or things:
I gave Yolanda and Lynn some money and told them to share it between them.
We can also use between, but not among, to connect times or numbers:
Beside or besides? They lived in New York between 1998 and 2004.
Not: They lived in New York among 1998 and 2004.
Beside What were you doing between 5.30 pm and 7.00 pm?
Beside is a preposition. It means ‘at the side of’ or ‘next to’. It is rather formal:
Nouns and verbs followed by between
He would like to take a photograph of us. Would you come and sit beside me?
The most common nouns often followed
There was a small table beside the bed, on which there was a book.
by between are: connection, difference, distinction, link, relationship:
Besides Is there a connection between his arrival and her disappearance?
Besides is a preposition or a linking adverb. It means ‘in addition to’ or ‘also’: There’s a strong link between clean drinking water and reduced infant mortality.
What other types of music do you like besides classical? The most common verbs often followed
by between are: choose, differentiate, distinguish, divide:
As a linking adverb, we usually put a comma before and after besides in writing:
[talking about judging a competition]
I don’t think going for a walk is a good idea. It’s quite cold, and, besides, it’s getting
late and we don’t want to be out in the dark. I didn’t want to have to choose between the singers.
Her money was divided between her son and her daughter.
Between or among? Among meaning ‘surrounding, part of or included in’
Between and among are prepositions. We use among to suggest a sense of being a part of or surrounded by or included in
something else. It is typically followed by a plural noun phrase:
She wanted to be among friends.
Between, among: meaning and use
Among his books, we found some rare first editions.
We use between to refer to two things which are clearly separated. We use among to
talk about things which are not clearly separated because they are part of a group or
crowd or mass of objects: Among others and among other things
Our holiday house is between the mountains and the sea. (the mountains are on one In the phrases among others and among other things, among means ‘as well as’:
side and the sea is on the other)
Her parents, among others, were worried about her travelling alone. Compare
Among other things, I still have to pack.
It can be dangerous to cycle This expresses what the speaker believes is a general
in the city. truth or known fact, or a strong possibility.
Born or borne? It could/may be dangerous to This does not express a general truth. The speaker is
cycle in the city. only expressing a weak possibility.
Born It’s dangerous to cycle in the This expresses a real fact using the present simple.
city. The speaker is certain and no modality is used.
We use born in the phrase be born to indicate that a child has entered the world:
They say that in China a new baby is born every five minutes.
Permission
Warning:
We use can, could and may to ask for permission. We use can and may, but not could, to
We use was/were born when we talk about when or where someone started their life: give permission. May is less common:
I was born in 1988. Compare
Not: I am born in 1988. or I born in 1988.
giving
Bear, bore, borne asking for permission formal/polite? formal/polite?
permission
Bear means to tolerate something, usually something that you dislike. It is most
commonly used in the expression can’t bear. The past form is bore and the -ed form
is borne: Can I ask you a
informal informal
question?
I can’t bear so much football on television.
She has borne all her problems with great courage. Yes, you can.
Could I use your
The verb bear is sometimes used to describe the act of giving birth. It is most commonly more formal/polite Yes, you may.
phone?
used in the past tense and in rather formal situations. Have is more common when Yes, you could.
talking about giving birth: formal/polite
She bore twelve children in twenty-two years. (or, more commonly, She had twelve even more
May I use your phone?
children …) formal/polite
Requests
Can, could or may? When we make requests, we can use can or could (but not may). Could is more polite
than can:
Possibility Can you call back later? I’m busy now.

Could you call back later? I’m busy now.
When we talk about possibility, we use can, could and may, but they are different in
meaning. Teachers and parents often use can and could in requests:
Can you open you books at page 34, please. Tolstoy’s ‘War and Peace’ is a classic.
Can you please refrain from chewing gum. I never read modern novels. I always prefer the classics, such as Dickens and Jane
Austen.
Could you just sit down and listen!
Classics without an article means the academic subject which includes the study of
Ancient Greek and Latin:
Can, could or may: typical errors
My sister is studying Classics at Manchester University right now.
 Could in the present only expresses weak possibility. Can expresses strong
possibility: Classical: adjective
I can travel in July because my exams will definitely be finished at the beginning of that We use classical to refer to the culture of the past and to art forms which belong to a
month. (strong possibility) long formal tradition:
I could travel in July because my exams will probably be finished at the beginning of Mozart is probably the best-known classical composer.
that month. (weak possibility)
She’s only eight years old and she has learned to dance both classical and modern
 We don’t normally use could to talk about general truths which refer to ballet.
the present time. We use can instead:
Not everyone can afford to buy organic food.
Not: Not everyone could afford …
 We use could, not can, to express future possibility. Can expresses that we are Come or go?
certain of something:
Working in London next summer could be a great experience. (The speaker thinks this We use come to describe movement between the speaker and listener, and movement
is possible, in particular circumstances) from another place to the place where the speaker or listener is. We usually use go to
talk about movement from where the speaker or listener is to another place.
Not: … can be a great experience.
When we talk about another person (someone who is neither the speaker nor the
listener), we can use either come or go, depending on whether the speaker sees things
from the receiver’s viewpoint (come) or the doer’s viewpoint (go).
Classic or classical?
[doer]Yolanda came to [receiver]her We use come when we see things from the
mother for help. receiver’s viewpoint (in this case the
mother).
Classic: adjective
Classic means ‘high quality’. In particular, we use it to mean something that

[doer]Melissawent to [receiver]her We use go when we see things from the
is valued because it has a traditional style:
mother for help. doer’s viewpoint (in this case Melissa).
She was wearing a classic dark blue skirt.
It’s a classic motorbike from the 1940s.
Classic also means a perfect or most typical example of something: Come in, go in
The show is a classic example of TV made for children. Come in and go in both mean ‘enter’:
[dentist’s assistant to a patient who is waiting]
Classic: noun
Will you come in now, please.
We can use a classic and the classics to refer to the greatest and most famous works of
literature from the past: [at a beach on a cold day]
It’s so cold! I don’t want to go in the water. The government regards the economy as a main priority.
Not: The government is regarding the economy …
Consider or regard?
Consider and regard can both mean ‘believe’ or ‘realise’ or ‘understand’. When they
mean ‘believe’ or ‘realise’ or ‘understand’, we don’t often use the continuous forms.
Consist, comprise or compose?
Consider
Consist, comprise and compose are all verbs used to describe what something is ‘made
Consider takes several different patterns.
of’. We don’t use them in continuous forms.
Consider + that-clause
Consist
When you consider that she was very scared, her story is even more remarkable.
Their diet only consisted of fruit and seeds.
The whole group consists of students.
Consider + object + to be
We only use the active form of consist of:
They consider him to be the best chef in the country.
Their flat consists of two bedrooms, a kitchen and a bathroom.
Not: Their flat is consisted of two bedrooms…
Consider + object + to have
The ministry of trade considered the company to have the best vision for exports. Comprise
Warning:
Comprise is more formal than consist:
We don’t use as with consider:
The USA comprises 50 states.
We consider this to be a very serious issue.
We can also use it in the passive voice in the form ‘be comprised of’:
Not: We consider this as a very serious issue.
The course is comprised of ten lectures and five seminars on the theory of economics
and banking.
Regard
Comprise, but not compose, can be used with the parts that make up something as the
We often use regard in the phrase ‘regard as’: regard (+ object) + as + noun phrase or subject:
adjective phrase: Oil and coal comprise 70% of the nation’s exports.
The United Nations regard human rights as their main priority. Compose of is even more formal than consist of and comprise. Compose of is only used
Alexander Graham Bell is regarded as the inventor of the telephone. in the passive voice:
Do you regard their behaviour as good or bad? Muscle is composed of different types of protein.
Typical error Typical errors
 We don’t use consist, comprise and compose in a continuous form:

 We don’t usually use the continuous forms of consider and regard:
When you consider that he was too young, you have to blame his parents. The whole group consists of students.
Not: When you are considering that he was too young … Not: The whole group is consisting of students.
Content or contents? Do or make?
Content and contents are nouns.
When we use do and make with noun phrases, do focuses on the process of acting or
Content (uncountable) performing something, make emphasises more the product or outcome of an action:
When I was [action]doing the calculations, I [outcome]made two mistakes.
Content as a singular noun is uncountable. It means the ideas that are contained in a
piece of writing or a film or a speech: I [action]did some work for her last summer; I [outcome]made a pond in her garden.
This film has adult content; it is not suitable for children.
Examples of nouns used with do and make
His speech was very flowery, but it lacked content and was quite superficial.
Content can also mean the amount of a particular substance contained in something:
Nouns which combine with do
These hamburgers have a high fat content; they’re not good for you.
activity damage favour job task

Contents (plural)
The contents of a book is the list of chapters or articles or parts that are in the book,
with the number of the page they begin on: business drawing gardening laundry test
If you look at the contents, you’ll see there’s a chapter on Japanese folk music.
cleaning duty harm one’s best washing (up)
cooking exam(ination) homework painting work
Different from, different to or different than?

course exercise ironing shopping
The adjective different means ‘not the same’. When we compare two or more items, it is
I do the shopping on Fridays usually.
usually followed by from. We also use different to, especially in speaking:
Could you do a job for me next week?
Adam is so different from/to his brother.
Who does the cooking in your house?
This house is very different from/to your last one.
In American English it is also common to say different than:
Nouns which combine with make
This tea tastes very different than the one I usually drink. (or … very different
from/to the one I usually drink)
apology coffee excuse love offer remark
In British English, people often say different than before a clause, but many speakers
consider this to be incorrect:
His accent is different now than before he went to Australia. (or assumption comment friends lunch phone call sound
… different now from before he went to Australia.)
bed complaint guess mess plan soup
Downwards, downward
breakfast dinner law mistake profit speech
Downwards is an adverb. It means ‘movement towards a lower position’:
The garden slopes gently downwards in the direction of the river.
cake effort list money progress statement
Could you point the reading lamp downwards? It’s shining in my eyes.
In American English, downward (with no final -s) is used as an adverb:
change error loss noise promise tea
Since the nineteen seventies, our country has really taken some steps downward.
In British English, downward (with no final -s) is normally only used as an adjective:
They made me an interesting offer of a job in Warsaw.
The statistics for violent crimes have shown a downward trend in the last two
Not many building firms will make a profit this year. years. (The numbers have gone down.)
I have to make a phone call.
During or for?
Down, downwards or downward? We use during to say when something happens, if it happens in or over a period of time.
We use for to talk about the length of time something lasts.
Down
Compare
We use down mostly as a preposition or adverb. It means ‘in or moving to a low or
lower position or level’:
They went to Florida during the
We ran down the hill like two little children. winter. They went at one point in the winter.
Jamie, put that vase down! You’ll break it!
We can also use down to mean ‘towards the south’, ‘generally in the south’, or ‘towards
the place where a river meets the sea’: They went from the beginning to the end of the
They went to Florida for the winter.
winter.
When you were living in Spain, did you ever go down to Granada?
We went on a cruise down the Nile for seven days. It was fantastic.
She phoned me during the week to tell me that she was getting married. (referring to a
In informal situations, we can use down to talk about a quick trip to a destination which point in the week)
we consider to be less central than where we are. In this meaning, we can use it with or
We were in the cinema for three and a half hours.
without to. Without to is less formal:
Not: … during three and a half hours.
I’m just going down (to) the shop. Do you want anything?
Our flight to New York was delayed for seven hours.
Are you going down (to) the golf club tonight?
Not: … during seven hours.
Down can also mean ‘along’. We can use it with from:
We went to Italy for a week.
Mila’s office is just down the corridor, second door on the left.
Not: … during a week.
They live just down the street from our house.
We can also use for to refer to public holidays and seasons:
A good dictionary will tell you more meanings of down, especially when it is used as
part of a phrasal verb. He always goes to his mother’s house for New Year.
Not: … during New Year.
Each or every? East or eastern; north or northern?
We use each to refer to individual things in a group or a list of two or more things. It is North, south, east, west
often similar in meaning to every, but we use every to refer to a group or list of three or
more things. We usually use north, south, east, west, not northern, southern, eastern and western, to
refer to specific places or to direction of movement. We can use north, south,
Compare east and west as adjectives or adverbs and occasionally as nouns:
More and more people are buying second homes on the south coast of
Each stresses individual members of a Ireland. (adjective)
Each one takes turns cooking dinner in group.
After Bangkok, we drove north for about six hours without stopping. (adverb)
the evenings. Each refers to two or more people who
share the work. Strong Atlantic winds are forecast in the west of Portugal. (noun)
We normally use capital letters in place names with north, south, east and west:
The conference is taking place in North Dakota.
Every stresses all the members of the
Everyone takes turns cooking dinner in complete group. [from an advertisement in a travel magazine]
the evenings.
Every refers to three or more people. Bargain flights to South America from London Gatwick from £350.
We use adverbs such as almost, practically and nearly with every, but not with each:
Northern, southern, eastern and western: larger areas
Almost every car in the car park was new.
We commonly use northern, southern, eastern and western (without capital letters) to
Not: Almost each car …
refer to larger areas or territory. We can only use them as adjectives:
Practically every house now has at least two televisions.
The northern parts of India have suffered severe flooding.
Not: Practically each house …
Houses are more expensive in most western parts of the country.
We can use each of + pronoun or each of + determiner + noun, but with every we must
Some names of specific places have capital letters for northern,
use every one + pronoun or every one + determiner + noun:
southern, eastern and western:
Each of us has a bicycle.
We are holidaying in Northern Ireland next year. (name of a region)
Every one of us has a bicycle.
Perth is the capital of Western Australia. (name of a state)
Not: Every of us …
San Diego is my favourite place in southern California. (a part or region of a state but
Each of the children received a special gift. not the name of a state)
Every one of the children received a special gift.
Not: Every of the children …
Economic or economical?
Economic and economical are adjectives.

We use economic to mean ‘related to trade, industry or money’:
The economic forecast for next year is not good.
The President spoke mostly about economic policy.
We use economical to mean ‘not using a lot of money’: Older and oldest can be used to refer to the age of things more generally:
Hybrid cars are very economical. (They do not cost a lot of money to run.) The town hall is by far the oldest building in the whole region.
Solar energy for your home is expensive in the short term but it is more economical in Not: The town hall is by far the eldest building …
the long term.
We can use older and oldest after a linking verb (as predicative adjectives):
I think her grandfather must be older than her grandmother.
Not: I think her grandfather must be elder than …
Efficient or effective?
Efficient and effective are adjectives.

End or finish?
We use efficient to describe something or someone that works in a quick and organised
way:
The new online banking system offers a convenient and efficient way to check your We use the verbs end and finish in similar ways, to mean ‘come to a stop’:
account. I think that his contract ends this month.
[extract from a reference for someone applying for a job] What time does the film finish?
I have always known James to be highly competent and efficient in all aspects of his We use finish to say that we complete something that we are doing. It emphasises that
job. the process stops within a specific period of time. End would not normally be used in
We use effective to describe something that gives you the results you want: these examples:
Taking this tablet is a very effective cure for travel sickness. He finished his meal in just three minutes.
In this light, the camera is more effective if you use the flash. If we had the right tools, we could finish the job by Friday this week.
Her brother finished last in the race.
We use end to say that stopping something is significant, and has a clear conclusion or
shape. Finish wouldn’t normally be used in these examples:
Elder, eldest or older, oldest? The course of the river ended in a delightful harbour with small sailing boats
everywhere.
Elder and eldest mean the same as older and oldest. We only use the Many historians agree that the medieval period in Europe ended in the mid-sixteenth
adjectives elder and eldest before a noun (as attributive adjectives), and usually when century.
talking about relationships within a family: Verbs that end in -ed are usually in the past tense.
Let me introduce Siga. She’s my elder sister. Finish can be followed by the -ing form, but not by a to-infinitive:
Not: … She’s my sister. She’s elder. They’ve finished playing those computer games.
It’s Catherine’s eightieth birthday on Thursday and she is now the eldest member of the Not: They’ve finished to play …
family.
I haven’t finished drying my hair yet.
We also use elder and eldest as nouns:
Not: I haven’t finished to dry …
Jack is the eldest of four brothers.
End cannot be followed by either a to-infinitive or the -ing form:
Older and oldest are used in similar ways:
Call me when you’ve finished writing the report.
My older sister is coming to stay with us at the weekend.
Not: Call me when you’ve ended writing …
Matt is the oldest of our children and Simon is the youngest.
Especially or specially?
expect + object: She’s expecting a second baby.
Especially and specially are adverbs.

Especially means ‘particularly’ or ‘above all’: expect + to-infinitive: We expect to move into our new flat next week.
She loves flowers, especially roses.

I am especially grateful to all my family and friends who supported me. We expected that the guest house would have much
expect + that-clause:
better rooms.
Not: Especially I am …
We use specially to talk about the specific purpose of something:
expect + object + to-
This kitchen was specially designed to make it easy for a disabled person to use. The company expects her to be early.
infinitive:
He has his shirts made specially for him by a tailor in London.
Especially can also be used to mean ‘for a particular purpose’: Expect also means ‘think’ or ‘suppose’. When expect has this meaning, we do
not commonly use it in the continuous form:
I bought these (e)specially for you.
A:
Will he have bought the necklace by now?

B:
Except or except for? I expect so.
Not: I’m expecting so.
We often use except and except for as prepositions to mean ‘not including’ or
‘excluding’. They are followed by a noun or noun phrase or a wh-clause. I expect that he’ll be wearing that bright blue shirt.
Both except and except for are correct after a noun: Not: I am expecting …
I like all fruit except (for) oranges. (excluding oranges) When we expect that something will not happen or is not true, expect is most commonly
Except for Louisa, who’s away in Berlin this weekend, we’ll all be at the party. used in a negative form:
She likes going to most sports events, except cricket matches. I don’t expect she will pass the exam. (preferred to I expect she won’t pass …)
Except can also be used as a conjunction. We don’t use except for in this way: Hope
The brothers are very alike, except (that) Mark is slightly taller than Kevin.
We use hope when we do not know whether something will happen or not but we want it
Except and except for are used in similar ways to apart and apart from. to happen. We use hope in the following patterns:
hope + to-infinitive: I think you were hoping to see your family next week.
Expect, hope or wait?

hope + that clause: I hope that your sister recovers quickly from the operation.
Expect
We use expect to say that we believe that something will happen. We use expect in the [parents discussing the birth of their next child]
following main patterns: hope + for:
We’ve already got two boys so we’re hoping for a girl.
We use hope to express good intentions and wishes for the future: Experience or experiment?
I hope we can see each other soon.
Not: I wish we can see each other soon.
We use experience as a verb when something happens to us, or we feel it. It is rather
I hope you enjoy your stay in Greece. formal:
Not: I wish you enjoy your stay in Greece. I experienced a feeling of deep sadness as I entered the refugee camp.
Wait Customers have experienced problems in finding parking places at the mall.
Warning:
We use wait when we refer to letting time pass because we are expecting that something
is going to happen. We use wait in the following main patterns: We don’t use live instead of experience:
How children behave when they grow up depends on what they experience during early
wait (imperative): Just wait here with the bags and I’ll go and get a taxi. childhood.
Not: … what they live during early childhood.
wait + for: Don’t worry. I’ll wait for you. Experiment as a verb means ‘try something in order to discover what it is like or to find
out more about it’:
Scientists have experimented with liquids and gels in which plants can grow
wait + to- When the band arrived at the concert hall, a large crowd of artificially.
infinitive: screaming fans were waiting to greet them.
I wish the government would stop experimenting with new teaching methods for our
kids every couple of years.
wait + for + object + to-infinitive: Warning:
They’re waiting for him to make up his mind and won’t do anything until he does. We don’t use experiment when we are talking about feelings or things which happen:
She suddenly experienced a sensation of homesickness.
Not: … experimented a sensation …
Expect, hope or wait: typical errors
The company’s Asia branch experienced a sharp drop in profits in 2007.
 We don’t use
wait or wait for to say that we believe that something will happen. Not: … experimented a sharp drop…
We use expect:
People usually expect holidays to revive their spirits and renew their souls and they
often succeed in achieving that target.
Not: People usually wait for holidays to … Fall or fall down?
 We don’t useexpect to refer to time passing when we are talking about
something that we hope is going to happen:
We can use fall as a noun or a verb. It means ‘suddenly go down onto the ground or
I look forward very much to hearing from you soon, and I wait anxiously for a positive towards the ground unintentionally or accidentally’. It can also mean ‘come down from
answer. a higher position’. As a verb, it is irregular. Its past form is fell and its -ed form
is fallen. Fall does not need an object:
Not: … and I expect anxiously a positive answer.
Mrs McGrath had a terrible fall yesterday. She’s in hospital now. (noun)
Four trees fell in the storm. (verb)
Oil prices have fallen recently.
Fall down is a phrasal verb. We use it when something falls to the ground from its We have to go to Cathy’s place first to pick her up.
normal position:
B:
The picture keeps falling down. (from the wall to the ground)
Is it a long way from here?
He slipped and fell down.
A:
Warning:
No, it’s not far.
We use fall, not fall down, when trees drop their leaves during the autumn:
Far is used in affirmative statements with words such as so, too, enough and as. These
As autumn came and the leaves fell from the trees, she began to feel sad. expressions can refer to time as well as distance:
Not: … the leaves fell down … So far, we have sent four letters to the Council about the litter on the street. (time until
now)
We can’t use fall down to mean ‘come down from a higher position’:
Six months is too far ahead. The restaurant only takes bookings for up to two months in
House prices have fallen a lot this year.
advance.
Not: House prices have fallen down a lot …
Where we live is far enough away from the city. I don’t want to move any further away.
From here, you can see as far as the ocean.
Far is also used in comparatives to mean ‘much’:
Far or a long way? The roads here are far better than in our country.
Food costs far more in the UK.
Far and a long way both describe something at a great distance:
We can use by far before a superlative adjective to add emphasis:
I can’t see very far without my glasses on.
With more than seven million people, London is by far the biggest city in England – the
San Francisco is a long way from New York. second city, Birmingham, has just over one million.
Far is used mostly in negatives and questions: We use the phrase has come a long way to mean ‘has improved or developed’:
There’s a Thai restaurant not far from here. Our team has come such a long way. We lost our first game 5-0!
How far is your house from the station? We can use the phrase to be a long way off (+ noun or -ing form) to refer to a long
time:
A long way is used mostly in affirmative statements but we also use it in questions and
negatives: The holidays are a long way off.
A: We’re a long way off retiring yet, Marlene.
How long did it take you to get here today?
B:
I left home at half past ten this morning. Farther, farthest or further, furthest?
A:
Comparative forms
Six hours. That’s a long time, isn’t it?
Farther and further are comparative adverbs or adjectives. They are the
B: irregular comparative forms of far. We use them to talk about distance. There is no
Yeah. It’s a long way. difference in meaning between them. Further is more common:
Not: It’s far. We can’t go any further; the road’s blocked.
A: After this, I felt a little refreshed but as I came over the hill, my legs rebelled. I could
walk no further.
How much farther are we going? Further to my email of 22nd January, I’m now writing to ask if you have considered
our offer and whether you wish to proceed with the contract.
Farther, and, much less commonly, further can be used as adjectives to refer to distance
away from the speaker:
He could see a small boat on the farther shore.
At the further end of the village stood an old ruined house.
Fast, quick or quickly?
We often repeat farther or further to emphasise the distance:
‘I am just a little ship,’ Aunt Emily said, ‘drifting farther and farther out to sea.’ Fast and quick mean moving with great speed. Fast is both an adjective and an
adverb. Quick is an adjective and the adverb form is quickly.
We often use along with farther and further:
Compare
Ben Gunn had told me his boat was hidden near the white rock, and I found that
rock farther along the beach.
It was a fast train.
We often use a little, a bit or a lot before further and farther: Fast and quick are adjectives.
We need to have a quick chat before the meeting.
[in an aerobics exercise class]
Now push and stretch that arm just a little further and count to ten.
You walk very fast!
Superlative forms
Not: … very fastly. Fast and quickly are adverbs.
Farthest and furthest are superlative adjectives or adverbs. They are the We should do it as quickly as possible.
irregular superlative forms of far. We use them to talk about distance. There is no
difference in meaning between them. Furthest is more common than farthest:
We usually use quick to refer to something happening in a short time, or a shorter than
The furthest galaxies are about three thousand million light years away. expected time:
Go on, boys! Let’s see who can run furthest. We stopped for a quick snack.
Viv took a corner seat farthest away from the door. Not: … a fast snack.
Further (but not farther) I just need a quick answer.
Not: … a fast answer.
There are some occasions when we can use further but not farther.
Fast refers to things that happen or go at high speed, e.g. a train, a person running:
We use further before a noun to mean ‘extra’, ‘additional’ or ‘a higher level’:
She loves fast cars.
For further information, please ring 095-6710090.
Not: She loves quick cars.
A further door led off to the right, with a tiled passage taking her to the bathroom, and
another large square room at the end, which was probably the dining-room. Note the common expression fast food to refer to food such as hamburgers, which are
cooked and served in a very short time in restaurants:
She’s gone to a college of further education. (a place to study practical subjects from
age 17) You shouldn’t eat so much fast food. It’s not good for you.
We also use further to mean ‘more’:
I do not propose to discuss it any further.
Before you look at your programme, let me explain a little further. Fell or felt?
The expression further to is often used in formal letters and emails when someone Fell is the past simple of the verb fall:
writes as a follow-up to a previous letter or email:
The snow fell all day in big white flakes.
He slipped and fell, hurting his leg quite badly. At last I’ve discovered how to print envelopes on my printer!
She fell in love with him as soon as they met. She has at last given me the book she promised me.
Not: She felt in love … They’re here at last!! We’ve been waiting half an hour.
Felt is the past simple of the verb feel: Lastly
I felt really sad that they had lost all their money.
We use lastly to refer to something that comes at the end of a long list:
They felt his forehead and it was very, very hot.
We need eggs, milk, sugar, bread and, lastly, we mustn’t forget yoghurt for Dad.
I’ve thanked my parents but lastly I must thank all my friends for their help.
In the end
Female or feminine; male or masculine?
We use in the end to refer to a conclusion after a long process, after a lot of changes or
after a lot of discussion:
We use female and male to refer to the sex of humans and animals:
We were going to ski in Austria, then the South of France and in the end we decided to
Female lions hunt for food more than male lions. go to Italy.
In some industries such as the clothing industry, only females are employed. And then, in the end, after months of discussion they offered to buy our house.
We use feminine and masculine when we refer to the qualities that we consider to be
typical of women or men:
The bedroom was furnished in a very feminine style.
She had a very masculine voice. First, firstly or at first?
We also use masculine and feminine to talk about features of languages: First and firstly
‘He’ is the masculine form of the third person singular; ‘she’ is the feminine form.
First can be an adjective or an adverb and refers to the person or thing that
comes before all others in order, time, amount, quality or importance:
What’s the name of the first person who walked on the moon? (adjective)
Finally, at last, lastly or in the end? Beth always arrives first at meetings. (adverb)
Finally, at last, lastly and in the end all have a meaning of ‘after a period of time’. We often use first, especially in writing, to show the order of the points we want to
However, we use them in different ways. make. When we are making lists, we can use first or firstly. Firstly is more formal
than first:
Finally Dear Mr Yates
We use finally to refer to something that happened after a long time and usually after First(ly) I would like to thank you for your kind offer of a job …
some difficulties. In this meaning, finally most commonly occurs in the normal mid
Not: At first I would like to thank you …
position for adverbs, between the subject and the main verb, after the modal verb or the
first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb: First(ly) the sodium chloride is dissolved in the water and heated gently. Second(ly) a
dye is added to the solution.
There were no taxis and we finally got home at 2 pm.
Not: At first, the sodium chloride …
She’s had over twenty interviews but Jasmine has finally got a job as a journalist.
At first
At last
At first means ‘at the beginning’ or ‘in the beginning’ and we use it when we make
We use at last when we have been impatient as a result of long delays. Like finally, at
contrasts:
last occurs in the normal mid position for adverbs as well as in front and end position:
At first when I went to England to study English, I was homesick, but in the end I cried We went out on the boat. The sea was really rough and the following hour was the
when it was time to leave. worst in my short life.
He called for help. No one heard him at first, but eventually two young girls came to We also use the following without another noun to introduce things or people which we
help him. then list:
I’m afraid I can’t eat any of the following: tomatoes, cucumber, onions and cabbage.
The following have helped me with this book of photographs: David Jones, Gill
Farmer, Martin Weekes and Anthony Gray.
Fit or suit?
If something fits you or fits into a place, it is the right size or shape for you or for that
place:
For or since?
[trying on shoes in a shoe shop]
We use for with a period of time in the past, present or future.
These fit perfectly. And I like the colour. I think I’ll buy them.
We use since with a point in time in the past.
I’ve put on weight and my trousers don’t fit me anymore!
Compare
Will this table fit into the space between the bookshelf and the wall?
If something suits someone or something, it is right for that person or thing or situation,
He lived in Oxford for 3 years and then he
or it makes that person or thing look more attractive.
moved. (completed past)
Wednesday at ten o’clock for the meeting suits me perfectly.
They’ve lived in Oxford for a couple of
For refers to periods of time, e.g. 3
That sofa suits the room really well – the colours match the walls. months. (began in the past and continues into
years, 4 hours, ages, a long time,
the present)
Black doesn’t suit me; I look better in lighter colours. months, years.
We’re going to stay in Oxford for three days
Warning:
and then we’re going to London for a
We don’t use fit when we mean that something is right for a person or thing or day. (future plans)
situation:
This restaurant suits people who like simple food.
Since refers to a previous point in
They’ve lived in Oxford since 2004.
Not: This restaurant fits people … time.
Warning:
We don’t use since with periods of time:

Following or the following? She’s been on the phone for hours.
Not: She’s been on the phone since hours.
We use following without the + noun phrase to mean ‘after’, ‘in response to’ or ‘as a
result of’:
Following the bad election results of May 8th, the Prime Minister has appointed three
new ministers. Forget or leave?
Following a general strike in 1933, he fled the country and went to South America.
We use the following with a noun. It means ‘the next’: We sometimes use forget when we don’t remember to bring something with us:
They only stayed at the hotel one night and left early the following morning. I’ll have to go back; I’ve forgotten my car keys.
We use leave with this same meaning, but only if we mention the place where we left We did a lot of fun activities in groups and individually to learn, have a fun time, and
something: to get to know each other better.
Mia, you’re always leaving your car keys on your desk. Funny
Not: … forgetting your car keys on your desk. or … you’re always leaving your car
keys. Funny is an adjective and it means ‘amusing’ or ‘causing laughter’:
I left my homework at home. [an author is being interviewed about the main character in her book]
A:
Not: I forgot my homework at home.
We use leave when the action is deliberate: How would you describe Lorna?
We decided to leave the dog at home. B:
Well. I think she’s very self-confident and assertive. I think she’s genuinely funny.
I think Jerry Springer is so funny. I just laugh so much when I watch his show.
Funny can also mean ‘strange’, ‘surprising’, ‘unexpected’ or ‘difficult to explain or
Full or filled? understand’:
A funny thing happened to me the other day. I was parking my car and a man came and
Full is an adjective, and means ‘containing a lot’: knocked on my window … (A strange/surprising/unexpected thing happened …)
The theatre is completely full this evening. Wasn’t it funny the way Don just got up and left without saying goodbye to
The room was full of books. anyone? (Wasn’t it strange …)
Fill is a verb, and means ‘make or become full’. The -ed form is filled: Typical error
Can you fill this bottle with water for me?  We don’t use funny to mean ‘enjoyable’:
She has filled my life with happiness. The week I stayed in your country was really fun and I found the city where you live
We use the -ed form + with as an adjective especially in metaphorical contexts to refer very interesting and beautiful.
to strong emotions: Not: … in your country was really funny …
She looked at him, filled with horror.
Not: She looked at him, full of horror.
Get or go?
Fun or funny?
Get and go have similar meanings, when talking about travel or motion. When we
Fun use get, we emphasise arrival:
Fun is an uncountable noun meaning ‘pleasure and enjoyment’: We’ll phone you as soon as we get to Rome.
We had such fun together. Not: We’ll phone you as soon as we go to Rome.
It was fun to go to the beach with Rita’s family. The thing is, he missed the bus and got to school late and missed part of the match.
I hope you have fun! Not: … and went to school late and …
Spoken English: We use get on and get off not go on and go off for buses, trains, planes:
In informal speaking, we also use fun as an adjective: When I got on the plane, there was someone sitting in my seat.
Not: When I went on the plane … We usually use thankful when we are relieved that something unpleasant or dangerous
didn’t happen:
Liam will be waiting for me when I get off the train.
A:
Not: … when I go off the train.
Warning: I heard you were in an accident. Are you okay?
B:
Get up means ‘leave your bed in the morning’; go up means ‘go to a higher place or
position’: I’m fine. There was some damage to the car. I’m just thankful that no one was injured.
What time do we have to get up tomorrow?
Not: What time do we have to go up tomorrow?
Get and go are both used to mean ‘become’, but they combine with different adjectives. Hear or listen (to)?
We often use get with words like dark, light and late; we use go with colours and words
with negative associations such as mad, bald, bad: ‘Hearing’ is an event; it is something which happens to us as a natural process.
‘Listening’ is an action; it is something we do consciously.
It’s getting dark now so be careful.
Compare
Not: … going dark …
He’s only 30 and he’s going bald.
hearing is an event. listening is an action.
Not: … and he’s getting bald.
We left the milk in the sun too long and it’s gone bad.
Suddenly I heard a noise. Someone I listened very carefully to what she said
Not: … and it’s got bad. was in the garden. and wrote it all down.
However, with some adjectives such as old, sick, tired and ill, we use get: Did you hear the thunder last night? Do you listen to the radio in bed?
He got very tired walking to the match in such a large crowd. [on the phone] George! Listen to me! I have something
Not: He went very tired walking … The line is very bad. I can’t hear you. important to tell you.
Sometimes we can use either hear or listen to, depending on whether we want to
emphasise the event or the action:
Grateful or thankful? Did you hear that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday? (emphasis on
the event)
We use grateful to talk about how we feel when someone is kind to us or does us a Did you listen to that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday? (emphasis
favour: on the action)
[a message on a thank-you card] I love hearing/listening to the sound of falling rain.
Thank you so much for helping us move house. We are so grateful. We don’t normally use hear in the continuous form. We often use hear with can:
Love [on an internet phone call]
Mark and Rose I can hear you really clearly.
[at the end of a formal letter] Not: I’m hearing you really clearly.
I would be very grateful if you could send me more information about your company for Warning:
my school project.
We use to after listen before an object:
Not: I would be thankful …
Every morning I listen to my Mozart CD while I’m having breakfast. It prepares me Archaeologists found a large number of historical objects when they excavated the
mentally for the day. field.
Not: Every morning I listen my Mozart CD …
We use listen without to if we do not mention the object, or if it is a discourse marker:
Meena, listen! I don’t want you staying out late! House or home?
Listen, I was wondering if you could help me. (discourse marker beginning a new topic
or phase of a conversation)
We use the noun house to refer to a building:
The music was beautiful. We just sat there and listened.
They’re building six new houses at the end of our road.
When we refer to being at someone’s house, we can leave out the word house and
use at + possessive or at + the definite article + possessive:
High or tall? We stayed overnight at Mike’s. (at Mike’s house)
We’re going to be at the Jacksons’ this evening. Want to come with us? (at the
Jacksons’ house)
We use high for mountains and for things which are a long way above the ground:
We use home in a more personal and emotional way to refer to where someone lives.
There are some high mountains in the north of the country.
The noun home does not usually refer to the building. We often use home with the
The light switch is too high for a child to use. preposition at:
Warning: It’s not very big but it’s my home.
We don’t use high when we talk about people. We use tall: Why don’t you phone her now? I think she’s at home.
Sally is very tall and slim – she could get a job as a model! When we talk about the building we live in, we use house not home:
Not: Sally is very high and slim … Our dog stays in the house with us.
Tall people often get backache. Not: Our dog stays in the home with us.
We use tall to describe things which are high and thin in their shape (e.g. buildings, Warning:
trees):
We usually don’t use an article or other determiner with home unless we are talking
The tall trees by the river give welcome shade on hot days. about homes in general:
You know that very tall, white building just where the motorway begins – that’s where I A lot of energy can be saved in the home by making small changes such as turning off
work. lights. (energy can be saved in all homes)
We use home as an adverb with verbs of movement such as get, go, come, arrive, travel,
drive. We don’t use to:
I’m going home now. I’m really tired.
Historic or historical?
Not: I’m going to home now.
Would you like me to drive you home?
Historic means ‘important or likely to be important in history’:
Not: Would you like me to drive you to home?
I feel that this is a historic moment for our country.
Home can be used as a countable noun to refer to the place where people or animals
When the Berlin wall came down, it was a historic occasion. live and are cared for by people who are not their relatives or owners:
Historical means ‘related to the study of things from the past’: There’s a home for the elderly at the end of our street.
I love reading historical novels. We got our dog, Scotty, from the local dogs’ home.
How is …? or What is … like? Have you ever had Korean kimchi?
B:
How is …? No. What’s it like?

A:
We use How is …? to ask about someone’s general health or about the condition or
state of something, or how people experience something: Well, it’s sort of spicy fermented vegetables, cabbage and things.
A: Not: How is it like?
How’s your mother these days? (How is her general health?)
B:
Oh, she’s fine, thanks. If or when?

[talking about an old house]
We use if to introduce a possible or unreal situation or condition. We use when to refer
A:
to the time of a future situation or condition that we are certain of:
How are the walls in the kitchen? (What is the condition/state of the walls?) You can only go in if you’ve got your ticket.
B: When I’m older, I’d love to be a dancer.
Well, they need redecorating really. Compare
A:
How’s your new car? If Giles comes back to the office, The speaker does not know whether Giles is
can you tell him I’ve gone home. coming back to the office. It is possible, but not
B: definite.
Wonderful. It’s so much easier to drive than the old one.
What is … like? When Giles comes back to the

The speaker is certain that Giles is coming
office, can you tell him I’ve gone
We use What is … like? to ask for a description of someone or something (e.g. their back to the office.
home.
appearance, their character, their behaviour):
A: To talk about situations and conditions that are repeated or predictable, we can use
What’s her new house like? either if or when + present verb form:
B: You can drive if you’re 17.
It’s a modern one, quite big, with a nice garden. If you don’t add enough wood, the fire goes out.
A: When we go camping, we usually take two tents.

She gets out of breath easily when she’s jogging.
What’s your new teacher like?
B:
Typical error
He’s nice. He’s very good-looking! But he’s quite strict.
 We don’t use when to introduce possible or unreal situations:
Warning:
Unfortunately, if you arrive too late, you are not allowed to take the exam because they
We don’t use How is … like? to ask for a description of something: don’t accept late enrolment.
A: Not: … when you arrive too late …
Later I argued with the doctor about whether I had hit my head, since I couldn’t
remember feeling it.
Not: Later I argued with the doctor about if I had hit my head …
If or whether? The police seemed mainly interested in whether there were any locks on the windows.
Not: The police seemed mainly interested in if there were any locks …
If and whether: indirect questions

I doubt if, I don’t know whether
We can use if or whether to report indirect yes-no questions and questions with or. If is
more common than whether: We use if or whether to introduce clauses after verbs of doubting:
Call the bakeries around town and find out if any of them sell raspberry pies. I don’t know if I can drive. My foot really hurts.
I rang Peter from the station and asked if I could drop in to see him before going back I didn’t prune the rose bush this year so I doubt if we’re going to have many
or if he’d meet me. flowers. (‘prune’ means cut back)
We often prefer whether in more formal contexts: We’ll have plenty of photographs to show you but I’m not sure whether we’ll be able to
learn very much from them.
The teachers will be asked whether they would recommend the book to their classes.
[from a business meeting]
If, whether: typical errors
John read a letter that he’d written and the board discussed whether it should be
mailed.  We use whether, not if, before to-infinitives:
We prefer whether with or when there is more than one alternative in the indirect I don’t know whether to buy the blue one or the red one.
question:
Not: I don’t know if to buy the blue one …
After the election, we asked whether the parties should change their leaders, their
 We use whether, not if, directly before or not:
policies, or both.
To express an alternative, we can use or not with if and whether. With whether we can Can you tell me whether or not you’re interested in the job.
use or not immediately after whether or in end position. With if we use or not in end Not: Can you tell me if or not you’re interested …
position only:
 We use whether, not if, after prepositions:
I called Bill to find out whether or not he really did go to Afghanistan.
[talking about a trip to Australia for a year]
I called Bill to find out whether he really did go to Afghanistan or not.
We’re not interested in whether we get great jobs and that kind of thing, we just want to
I called Bill to find out if he really did go to Afghanistan or not. have a good time.
We use whether and not if before a to-infinitive, often when we’re referring to future Not: We’re not interested in if we get great jobs and that kind of thing …
plans or decisions:
I was wondering whether to go for a swim.
Some financial decisions, such as planning a pension, need to be taken as early as
possible. Others, such as whether to move house, can probably only be made much Ill or sick?
later.
Ill and sick are both adjectives that mean ‘not in good health’. We use
Whether not if both ill and sick after a verb such as be, become, feel, look or seem:
We use whether and not if after prepositions: I was ill for a time last year, but I’m fine now.
Nancy looks ill. I wonder what’s wrong with her.
I felt sick and had to go home at lunchtime. We could leave early and have breakfast on the way. (during our journey to
somewhere)
We can use sick before a noun but we don’t normally use ill before a noun:
I was on my way to Peter’s house when I met him in the street. (I was going to Peter’s
She’s been looking after a sick child this week, so she’s not at work.
house when I met him)
Not: … an ill child …
We can use on the way to (plus a noun or an -ing form of a verb) to mean ‘close to’
Note that to be sick means ‘to vomit’ in British English. In American English it means doing or completing something:
more generally ‘to be unwell’.
Brazil is on the way to becoming one of the world’s strongest economies.
Imply or infer?
It’s or its?
We imply something by what we say. We infer something from what somebody else says.
The main difference between these two words is that a speaker can imply, but a listener It’s is the contracted form of it is or it has:
can only infer.
Can you hear that noise? Where do you think it’s (it is) coming from?
When someone implies something, they put the suggestion into the message:
It’s (it is) nearly the end of the month. It’s (it has) gone really quickly.
Are you implying that the team cheated?
Its is a possessive determiner (like my, your, his) which we use when referring to things
When someone infers something, they take the suggestion out of the message. In order or animals:
to underline this difference, infer is used with the preposition from:
Every house in the street has got its own garage.
Then I think we must infer from what they said that they believe we should reapply for
the job. [talking about a famous American journalist]
Typical error He joined the New York Tribune (1868), becoming its editor-in-chief and
eventually its principal owner (1872–1905).
 We don’t use infer to refer to what someone has said: We don’t use its as a possessive pronoun.
Are you implying that I cheated? Compare
Not: Are you inferring that I cheated?
A:
Whose is this
In the way or on the way? ball? Possessive pronoun mine used alone.
B:
In the way
Mine.
If something or someone is in the way or in my/his/our way, it is in the space which
someone needs for a particular movement or action:
A:
She can’t do her dance because the table is in the way. Can you help me move it?
Whose is this Possessive determiner its is not used alone. We repeat the noun
On the way ball? which is being referred to.
B:
We use on the way or on my/his/our way (to) when we talk about the route, direction or
path to somewhere:
Warning:
The dog’s.
We don’t use lately as an adjective:
Not: Its.
We usually have a late lunch.
Not: … a lately lunch.
Late or lately?
Late is both an adverb and an adjective; it means the opposite of early. Lately is also an Lay or lie?
adverb; it means ‘recently’.
The verb lay means ‘to put something down carefully in a flat position’. It must have an
Late meaning ‘not on time’ object. It is a regular verb, but note the spelling of the past simple and -
ed form: laid not layed:
Late as an adverb means ‘not on time’:
Shall I lay the tray on the bed?
Well, I couldn’t find my classroom, so I got to the classroom a bit late and then I had to
sing a song in front of the other students! A wonderful wooden floor has been laid in the dining room.
Not: I got to the classroom a bit lately … Not: … floor has been layed …
The programme started late. Lie is a verb which means ‘to be in or put yourself into a flat position’. It is an irregular
verb and it doesn’t take an object. The -ing form is lying and the past simple is lay.
Not: The programme started lately. The -ed form, lain, is very formal and is rarely used:
Late as an adjective means ‘after the usual time’: I love to lie on a beach and read.
We had a late breakfast. She lay on the bed and gazed at the ceiling, daydreaming.
Compare The dog was lying by the gate waiting for me to come home.
Lie can also mean ‘say something which is not true’. In this case, it is a regular verb:
We got the train home late. describes when the activity happened I lied to my teacher about my homework.
Compare
I got the late train home. describes the train

lay (put something lie (be lie (say something that is
base form
down) horizontal) not true)
Lately meaning ‘recently’

past
laid lay lied
We use lately for states or for repeated events, mostly with the present perfect: simple
She says she’s been feeling tired lately. I think she’s working too much.
He’s been studying hard lately. He’s got exams at the end of the month. -ed form laid lain lied
Warning:
We don’t use lately for single events that happened recently: Typical errors
I had a strange experience recently.  We don’t use lay to talk about being in a flat position. Lay must have an object:
Not: I had a strange experience lately. My mother hates when the cat lies on our beds.
Not: … when the cat lays on our beds … You will often hear less used with plural countable nouns in informal spoken situations,
but traditionally it is not considered to be correct:
 The past form of lie is lay:
We’ve got less pizzas than we need. There’s ten people and only eight
I lay on the grass and watched a plane fly overhead.
pizzas. (traditionally correct usage: fewer pizzas)
Not: I lied on the grass …
Less and fewer with of
When we use fewer or less before articles (a/an, the), demonstratives (this, that),
Lend or borrow? possessives (my, your) or pronouns (him, them), we need to use of. We use less of with
singular nouns and fewer of with plural nouns:
It was funny to begin with, but as time went on, it became less of a joke.
Lend means ‘give something to someone for a short time, expecting that you will get it
back’. The past simple and the -ed form are lent: In ten years’ time, more and more people will be demanding information twenty-four
hours a day, from all parts of the world. Fewer of them will be getting that information
I never lend my CDs to anyone.
from newspapers which arrive hours after the news has occurred.
I lent Gary £30. (I expect that Gary will return this to me)
Borrow is a regular verb meaning ‘get something from someone, intending to give it Less and fewer without a noun
back after a short time’:
Could I borrow your pen for a minute, please? We can leave out the noun when it is obvious:
Laura used to borrow money from me all the time. Every year in Britain about 5,000 people die on the roads. Fewer are killed at
work. (fewer people)
Typical error
 When you give something, you lend it; when you get or receive something,
you borrow it:
Can I borrow your dictionary?
Look at, see or watch?
Not: Can I lend your dictionary?
Look at
When we look at something, we direct our eyes in its direction and pay attention to it:
Less or fewer? [the speaker is sitting at her computer]

Come and look at this photo Carina sent me.
We use the quantifiers less and fewer to talk about quantities, amounts and
degree. Less and fewer are comparative words. Look at the rabbit!
Less is the comparative form of little. Fewer is the comparative form of few. Warning:
When look has an object, it is followed by at:

Less and fewer with a noun Look at the rain. It’s so heavy.
We usually use less with uncountable nouns. We use fewer with plural nouns: Not: Look the rain.
I do less work at weekends than I used to. See

Better cycle routes would mean fewer cars and fewer accidents.
See means noticing something using our eyes. The past simple form is saw and the -
Warning: ed form is seen:
I saw Trevor at the shopping centre yesterday.  We don’t use watch to talk about things that we see without trying:
Has anyone seen my glasses? If you go to the forest, you might see some deer.
Not: … you might watch some deer.
Watch as a verb
 We don’t use watch when referring to a film in the cinema:
Watch is similar to look at, but it usually means that we look at something for a period
of time, especially something that is changing or moving: A:
We watch television every evening. We’re going to the cinema tonight.
I like to sit at the window to watch what’s happening in the garden. B:
Warning: What are you going to see? (Not: What are you going to watch?)
We use see, not watch, when we talk about being at sports matches or public A:
performances, such as films, theatre and dramas. However, we watch the television: I’m not sure. I really want to see the new Rocky movie but Nancy said she’s not
We saw a wonderful new film last night. You’ll have to go and see it while it’s in the interested in that.
cinema. Not: I really want to watch the new Rocky movie …
Not: We watched… You’ll have to go and watch …  We use watch, not see, when we refer to something on the television:
Compare
At night, I like to watch the television.
Not: …I like to see the television.
I watched ‘Phantom of the Opera’ last night on DVD. I was at home.
I saw ‘Phantom of the Opera’ last night. I was at a theatre or cinema. Low or short?
When we look at something for a long time, we use watch, not see. We use low for things which are not high, or which are close to the ground or to the
Compare bottom of something:
We have a sofa, two armchairs and a low table.
We watched whales jumping Watch focuses on the process of seeing: we spent The wall is too low; we need to make it higher so the dog can’t get out.
out of the water. time looking at the whales. Warning:
We use short, not low, to describe people’s height:
See focuses more on the finished event. It doesn’t Joseph is quite short but his brothers are both really tall.
We saw whales jumping out of
suggest that we spent much time looking at the Not: Joseph is quite low …
the water.
whales.
Look at, see or watch: typical errors
 When there is an object, we use at after look:

If you go for a walk by the river, you can look at the beautiful scenery.
Not: … you can look the beautiful scenery.
Man, mankind or people? Maybe as an adverb
Man and mankind Maybe /ˈmeɪbi/ is an adverb and it means the same as perhaps. It is written as one
word:
Traditionally, we use man to refer to all human beings, male and female, usually in Maybe no one will come to the party.
contrast with other animals. However, many people consider this to be sexist, so it is
better to use a different expression, such as human beings: Not: May be no one will come to the party.
Human beings first emerged in Africa, some two million years ago. (preferred to Man Spoken English:
first emerged …)
In speaking, we sometimes use maybe at the end of what we say when we are making a
Mankind can also refer to all human beings, male and female, usually in the sense of suggestion which we are not very certain about:
social or conscious beings. Although people generally consider it less sexist than man,
A:
it is usually better to use a different expression, such as human beings (with a plural
verb) or humankind (with a singular verb): There’s something wrong with my PC. I can’t load my photos.
Human beings have always dreamt of happiness and of a perfect B:
world. or Humankind has always dreamt of happiness … (preferred to Mankind has
always dreamt …) It could be a virus, maybe.
Spoken English:
In speaking, we can use maybe as a response when we agree that something is possible:
People
A:
People can refer to all human beings, or to a group of persons in a particular situation.
It is a plural noun and it takes a plural verb: Ronnie and Linda are going to leave New Zealand in January.
B:
People will always need food, so the food industry will never disappear. (all human
beings) Why? I thought they were very happy there.
It’s difficult to sell an old computer. People don’t want second-hand ones. (those typical A:
persons interested in buying computers)
I’m not sure. Perhaps they feel a bit lonely.
People started coming into the hall at five-thirty, almost an hour before the start of the
meeting. (those persons who were attending the meeting) B:
Warning: Maybe.
We don’t use the with man, mankind, humankind or people when they are used with a We can also use maybe to express uncertainty in response to a suggestion:
general meaning to refer to all human beings: A:
People / Human beings will always defend their territory against an attack from
Would you like to have chicken curry for dinner?
outside.
B:
Not: The people/The human beings …
Maybe.
A:
You don’t sound very enthusiastic.

Maybe or may be?
B:
We use maybe and may be to talk about possibility. They are often confused because we
use them both when we think that something is possible but we are not certain. I just can’t think about dinner right now. I’ve just had breakfast.
May be
In the phrase may be /meɪ bi:/ may is a modal verb and be is a main or auxiliary verb. Nearest or next?
Here may and be are two separate words, whereas maybe is one word:
There may be a train at 10.00am. Nearest is the superlative form of near. It means ‘the closest in distance or time’:
Not: There maybe a train at 10.00am. We need to buy some food. Where’s the nearest supermarket? (There may be several
He may be waiting for us. supermarkets: which one is the shortest distance from here?)
Not: Where’s the next supermarket?
Typical error Feeling very sick, she took a taxi to the nearest hospital.
 We usemay as a modal verb in the phrase may be. They are two separate words. Next means ‘the first person or thing after the present one or after the one just
We use maybe as an adverb: mentioned’:
This may be the last match that he plays for Barcelona. We had the addresses of three restaurants. The first one we went to was closed.
The next one was open but full. Luckily, the last one had a table free.
Not: This maybe the last match that he plays for Barcelona.
A:
When is your yoga lesson?

B:
Maybe or perhaps? Next Wednesday at five.
Maybe and perhaps are adverbs that mean the same thing. We use them when we think
something is possible, but we are not certain. We use maybe mostly in front or
end position whereas perhaps is used in front, mid and end position:
Never or not … ever?
A:
Have you seen my glasses? I can’t find them anywhere. We can use not … ever instead of never, but never is much more common:
B: She has never been a friend of ours. (or, less common, She hasn’t ever been a friend of
Maybe you left them at work. ours.)
A: Never forget where you came from, your family, your childhood friends. (or, less
common, Don’t ever forget where you came from …)
Do you think these shoes are too high?
A:
B:
Why don’t you go to college and get a degree?
They are perhaps. (it’s possible but I’m not certain)
B:
As you perhaps remember, I worked as an interpreter for three years in the European
Parliament. I haven’t really ever thought about it. I’m too old now anyway. (or, more
common, I’ve never really thought about it.)
Not: As you maybe remember …
Warning:
Perhaps is slightly more formal than maybe:
We don’t use not … ever at the beginning of a statement (in front position):
He was, perhaps, a little too smartly dressed for a holidaymaker.
Never had they seen so many strangers in their village all at the same time.
Maybe I’ll finish work early tomorrow and go shopping with you.
Not: Not ever had they seen so many strangers …
Nice or sympathetic? Not: He’s never won a Wimbledon title but no doubt he’s a great tennis player.
Without doubt is even more formal. We use it when we are absolutely certain about our
opinion:
Nice is an adjective meaning ‘pleasant’, ‘enjoyable’ or ‘satisfactory’:
Paul McCartney is without doubt one of the greatest composers of popular music of all
Have a nice trip! time.
We had a really nice meal. Thank you. Not: Paul McCartney is no doubt one of the greatest …
When we use it to talk about someone, it means ‘kind’, ‘friendly’ or ‘polite’:
It was really nice of you to call me.
Tanya’s new boyfriend is so nice.
No or not?
Sympathetic is an adjective used to describe a person who shows that they understand
and care about someone’s suffering or problems, especially by what they say:
No and not are the two most common words we use to indicate negation. We
My colleagues were so sympathetic when I was ill.
use no before a noun phrase:
As a teacher, you have to be sympathetic to the problems of your students.
There’s no address on the envelope.
Warning:
[parent to child]
We don’t use sympathetic to mean ‘nice’: No biscuits before dinner!
Our new teacher is really nice. No decisions have been made.
Not: Our new teacher is really sympathetic. We use not with any other phrase or clause:
His small house was nice and warm. It’s not often that you stop and think about the way you breathe.
Not: His small house was sympathetic and warm. Not suitable for children under 15.
Not surprisingly, it was a tense match but eventually the more experienced Australians
won.
A:
No doubt or without doubt?
Do you go cycling all year round?
We can use no doubt when we think that what we are saying is likely to happen, or when B:
we think it is true. It is similar to ‘I suppose’ or ‘I imagine’:
Not in the winter.
A:
Not: No in the winter.
No doubt you’ll want breakfast before you leave tomorrow. No or not any?
B:
There is very little difference in meaning between There is/are no + noun and There
Yes, if that’s okay. isn’t/aren’t any + noun:
A: There’s no reason to be afraid of her. (or There isn’t any reason to be afraid of her.)
No problem. There are no eggs in the fridge. (or There aren’t any eggs in the fridge.)
We can use there is no doubt that … when we are very certain about our opinion. We No + noun often makes the negative stronger. In speaking, we often stress no.
use it in formal situations: Compare
He’s never won Wimbledon, but there’s no doubt that he is a great tennis player.
B:
He paid no attention to what I was He didn’t pay any attention to what I
Yes sure, no problem.
saying. (stronger) was saying.
She had no idea what time they were arriving.
It’s no good standing around watching. Do something!
I’ve decided that I I’ve decided that I
have no alternative. (stronger) don’t have any alternative. You’ve got no chance of getting a ticket now. They’re all sold out.
It’s not worth taking a taxi. We can walk.
No or Not a/an?
When a noun has an ungradable meaning (it is either something or it is not) we cannot
use no + noun:
A potato is not a fruit. Nowadays, these days or today?
Not: A potato is no fruit.
When a noun has a gradable meaning, no + noun means the same as not a/an + noun:
We can use nowadays, these days or today as adverbs meaning ‘at the present time, in
[a football manager talking about signing a new player] comparison with the past’:
It’s no secret that we are interested. (= It’s not a secret. A secret is gradable. I don’t watch TV very much nowadays. There’s so much rubbish on. It’s not like it used
Something can be more of a secret than something else.) to be.
Young people nowadays don’t respect their teachers any more.
Responding to a question Warning:
We often use no to respond to a yes-no question, or to agree with a negative statement. Take care to spell nowadays correctly: not ‘nowdays’.
We don’t use not on its own in this way:
These days is more informal:
A:
These days you never see a young person give up their seat for an older person on the
Do you need anything from the shops? bus. That’s what I was taught to do when I was a kid.
B: Pop singers these days don’t seem to last more than a couple of months, then you never
hear of them again.
No. I went earlier, thanks.
Today is slightly more formal:
A:
Apartments today are often designed for people with busy lifestyles.
He’s not going to get any better.
We can use today, but not nowadays or these days, with the possessive ’s construction
B: before a noun, or with of after a noun. This use is quite formal:
No. You’re right. Today’s family structures are quite different from those of 100 years ago.
Not: Not. You’re right. The youth of today have never known what life was like without computers.
Warning:
No problem, no good, not worth
We don’t use nowadays, these days or today as adjectives:
We use no and not in some common fixed expressions: Cars nowadays/these days/today are much more efficient and economical.
A:
Not: The nowadays cars / The these days cars / The today’s cars …
When you see Alan, can you give him this letter?
Open or opened? Not: … the possibility to work in the USA …
The possibility that there is life on other planets in the universe has always inspired
scientists.
We use open as an adjective to mean ‘not closed’:
Warning:
I stopped the car when I realised that the door was open.
We don’t say ‘have the possibility’:
Not: … that the door was opened.
I would love to have an opportunity to meet the Prime Minister.
Opened is the past form of the verb open:
Not: I would love to have the possibility to meet …
Can you open the window, please? (present)
She opened her eyes and immediately looked at the clock. (past)
Warning:
We don’t use open to refer to turning on taps and switches:

Please turn on the taps separately. Opposite or in front of?
Not: Please open the taps …
Opposite as a preposition means ‘in a position facing someone or something but on the
Can you switch on the lights, please?
other side’:
Not: Can you open the lights …
Jake sat opposite Claire in the restaurant. (Jake and Claire are facing each other on
different sides of the table.)
Not: Jake sat in front of Claire …
Opportunity or possibility? In front of as a preposition means ‘close to the front of something or someone’:
There was a woman in front of me in the bus queue who was crying. (I was standing
behind the woman.)
We use opportunity to talk about a situation in which we can do something that we want
to do. Opportunity is most commonly followed by a verb in the to-infinitive form, Compare
or of + -ing form:
I had the opportunity to go to university when I was younger but I didn’t. Now I wish I
had gone.
We parked opposite the hotel. We parked in front of the hotel.
Not: I had the possibility …
A:
I’ve been waiting for an opportunity to talk to you privately. Are you free now?
B:
Other, others, the other or another?
Yes. What is it about?
Not: … waiting for a possibility to … Other
This walk provides the opportunity of seeing some beautiful countryside. Other means ‘additional or extra’, or ‘alternative’, or ‘different types of’.
We use possibility to talk about something that may happen or be true. Possibility is
normally followed by of + noun phrase or of + -ing form, or by a that-clause: Other as a determiner
I had never even thought of the possibility of working in the USA until I was offered a We can use other with singular uncountable nouns and with plural nouns:
job there in 1998.
The embassy website has general information about visas. Other travel information can The other with a plural noun means the remaining people or things in a group or set:
be obtained by calling the freephone number. (additional or extra information)
Joel and Karen are here, but where are the other kids? (the remaining people in a
Some music calms people; other music has the opposite effect. (different types of music) group)
What other books by Charles Dickens have you read, apart from ‘Oliver Where are the other two dinner plates? I can only find four. (the remaining things in a
Twist’? (additional or extra books) set – here six plates)
This one’s too big. Do you have it in other sizes? (alternative sizes)
The other as a pronoun
If we use other before a singular countable noun, we must use another determiner
before it:
We can use the other as a pronoun, especially to refer back to something which has
I don’t like the red one. I prefer the other colour. been mentioned already in the sentence:
Not: I prefer other colour. He had his hat in one hand and a bunch of flowers in the other.
Jeremy is at university; our other son is still at school. She has two kittens, one is black and the other is all white.
He got 100% in the final examination. No other student has ever achieved that.
Another
There’s one other thing we need to discuss before we finish.
Warning: When we use the indefinite article an before other, we write it as one
word: another. Another means ‘one more’ or ‘an additional or extra’, or ‘an alternative
Other as a determiner does not have a plural form: or different’.
Mandy and Charlotte stayed behind. The other girls went home.
Not: The others girls … Another as a determiner
We use another with singular nouns:

Other as a pronoun
Would you like another cup of coffee?
We can use other as a pronoun. As a pronoun, other has a plural form, others: You’ve met Linda, but I have another sister who you haven’t met, called Margaret.
We have to solve this problem, more than any other, today. I don’t like this place. Is there another café around here we could go to? (alternative or
I’ll attach two photos to this email and I’ll send others tomorrow. different)
The other Another as a pronoun
The other as a determiner We can use another as a pronoun:

The applications are examined by one committee, then passed on to another.
The other with a singular noun means the second of two things or people, or
the opposite of a set of two:
Other, others, the other or another: typical errors
This computer here is new. The other computer is about five years old.
A:  When other is a determiner, it does not have a plural form:
D’you know the Indian restaurant in Palmer Street? These boxes are for books. The other boxes are for clothes.
B: Not: The others boxes …
Yes.  When other as a pronoun refers to more than one person or thing, it takes the
plural form, others:
A:
Some scientists think we should reduce the number of flights to prevent global
Well, the gift shop is on the other side of the street, directly opposite. (the opposite side) warming; others disagree.
Not: … other disagree. We use out as a verb particle in phrasal verbs:
 Other must have a determiner before it when it comes in front of a singular Look out there’s a car coming.
countable noun. If the noun is indefinite (e.g. a book, a woman, an idea), we
I thought I’d phone and find out how you are.
use another:
I’ve posted the first package. What shall I do with that other package? Out of: all gone
Not: What shall I do with other package? We use out of to say that something is all gone:
After a month in Bolivia, I was ready to move to another country. The printer is out of ink. We need to get some soon.
Not: … to move to other country. [at a restaurant]
 We write another as one word: I’m afraid, we’re out of soup.
There is another car park a little further down the same street. You will find other meanings of out in a good learner’s dictionary.
Not: There is an other car park …
 Another is singular. We don’t use it with plural nouns:
Other interesting places to visit include the old harbour and the castle.
Permit or permission?
Not: Another interesting places to visit …
The countable noun permit (pronounced /ˈpɜ:mɪt/) refers to an official document that
allows you to do something or go somewhere. The uncountable noun permission refers
Out or out of? to when someone is allowed to do something. It does not refer to a document:
We use out and out of to talk about position and direction. You need to have a work permit before you can work.
We use out as an adverb to mean ‘not in a building or an enclosed space’: Not: You need to have a work permission …
[the speaker is outside talking to someone inside] I have a parking permit which allows me to park on the street outside my house.
Don’t come out. It’s too cold. Not: I have a parking permission …
[a phone call] We use the word permission with an infinitive with to:
A: Could I have your permission to leave work early on Friday?
Is Billy there? We applied for permission to build a house here but our application was refused.
B:
No he’s out. (not at home)

Why’s the cake out? Put it back in the fridge or the chocolate will melt. Person, persons or people?
We use out of as a preposition to talk about movement from within somewhere or
something, usually with a verb that expresses movement (e.g. go, come). It shows where
something is or was going: We use person in the singular to refer to any human being:
You go out of the building and turn right. Joel is such a nice person.
He pulled a letter out of his shirt pocket, opened it and handed it to her to read. She’s a person I have a lot of respect for.
When I reached the corner, I jumped out of my car and ran across the road. Persons (plural) is a very formal word. We only use it in rather legalistic contexts:
Out is the opposite of in. Out of is the opposite of into: [notice in a lift]
Any person or persons found in possession of illegal substances will be prosecuted. The students performed a play by Shakespeare and sang some folk songs.
To refer to groups of human beings or humans in general, we use people: Radio plays are always much better than TV plays – you can use your imagination
more.
I saw three people standing on the corner.
Warning:
Not: I saw three persons …
We use play as a verb when we talk about individual roles in a dramatic production, but
Jim and Wendy are such nice people.
we say that someone acts in a play (noun):
People are generally very selfish.
Who played Hamlet?
Three people were interviewed for the job, but only one person had the right
Not: Who acted Hamlet?
qualifications and experience.
McBride acted in over 40 plays.
Not: McBride played over 40 plays.
We use play as a verb to talk about doing sports, music and other leisure activities. We
Pick or pick up? usually don’t use an article (a/an, the) when we talk about sport or leisure activities. We
usually use an article when we talk about musical instruments:
I played rugby as a child; we never played soccer.
Pick means ‘remove small pieces of something from something else, usually with your
Can you play the piano?
hands’:
I’ve never played poker. Have you?
Let’s go into the garden and pick some flowers for the dinner table.
We usually don’t use an article (a/an, the) when we talk about sport or leisure activities.
Not: … pick up some flowers …
We usually use an article when we talk about musical instruments.
She earned money during the summer picking fruit on local farms.
Game
Pick can also mean ‘choose’:
Have a look at these photos of the walking trip. Pick the ones you want and give me Game is a noun. We use it to talk about sports or other entertaining activities:
back the rest. Would you like a game of tennis? (or Would you like to play tennis?)
Pick up means ‘lift something up using your hands’: Not: Would you like a play of tennis?
I’m tired of picking up your clothes from the floor! Can’t you hang them up properly in The children invent some fantastic games to occupy themselves.
the wardrobe?
We can also use pick up to mean ‘go to a place and bring something or someone back’:
Let me know what time your flight arrives. I can pick you up at the airport and take you
to your hotel. Politics, political, politician or policy?
You will find other meanings of pick and pick up in a good learner’s dictionary.
Politics
Politics means the activities of the government or people who try to influence the way a
country is governed. We use a singular verb with it:
Play or game?
A lot of young people just don’t seem interested in politics these days.
Play Not: … interested in policy …
Politics is power in action.
Play as a noun means ‘a piece of dramatic writing for the theatre or radio or
television’: Politics also means the study of the ways in which a country is governed:
He studied Politics at university then got a job with the United Nations in New York. Principal or principle?
Political
Principal as an adjective means ‘most important’:
The adjective form related to the noun politics is political:
The principal reason for the failure to take action was poor communication between
My friends and I are always having political discussions late into the night. government departments. (the most important reason)
Not: … having politic discussions … We can use principal as a noun to mean the head of a school or college (especially in
If I did a degree, I’d like to study Political Science. American English):
The college principal made a speech congratulating all the students who were
Politician graduating in that year.
Principle is a noun. It means ‘a rule or theory which explains how something is or
A person who is involved in politics (e.g. a member of parliament or a member of the works’ or ‘a moral rule or guideline’:
government) is a politician:
The scientific principles behind even the most complicated computer are relatively
Politicians rarely give straight answers to questions from journalists. simple.
Not: Politics rarely give straight answers … He seems to have no principles at all, and is only interested in money. (He has no moral
rules or guidelines.)
Policy
Policy means a plan of action or a set of rules agreed by a business, a political group or
a government, saying what they will do in a particular situation:
Quiet or quite?
It’s not company policy to sell goods to persons under the age of 18.
The economic policy of the government is in ruins because of the global credit crisis.
Warning:
Not: The economic politics of the government …
Quiet /kwaɪət/ and quite /kwaɪt/ are spelt and pronounced differently, and have different
meanings.
Quiet is an adjective meaning ‘making very little noise’ or ‘having little activity or
excitement’:
Price or prize? The children are very quiet. I wonder what they’re doing? Shall I go and see?
It’s a very quiet, peaceful village and we love living there.
Quite is an adverb which usually means ‘a little or a lot, but not completely’:
Price /praɪs/ and prize /praɪz/ are nouns.
I’ve been quite busy this week. I hope things are not so busy next week.
Price means ‘the amount of money you pay to buy something’:
The price of a hotel room includes breakfast in some countries.
Prize means something you win in a competition or game:
The first prize in the competition was a week’s holiday in California. Raise or rise?
Raise must have an object, as it is a transitive verb. It is a regular verb; its three forms
are raise, raised, raised:
Raise your hand if you know the answer.
Our favourite restaurant has raised its prices again. It’s getting very expensive. Not: Jason reminded me my father.
Rise does not take an object, as it is an intransitive verb. It is an irregular verb; its If we remind someone to do something or about something, we make them remember it
three forms are rise, rose, risen: or help them not to forget it:
The sun rose at 5.30 this morning. He’s probably forgotten he was supposed to be here at 6. Shall I ring him
and remind him?
Rents have risen sharply in this part of town.
Remind me to email Tony today; otherwise I’ll probably forget.
Not: Remember me to email Tony today;
Remember or remind?
Remember
Right or rightly?
If we remember someone or something, we keep that person or thing in our mind or we
bring that person or thing back to our mind:
We use both right and rightly as adverbs, but they are used in different ways and with
I will always remember you. You have helped me so much. different meanings.
Not: I will always remind you. Right is an adverb of manner. It means ‘correctly’ or ‘well’:
Suddenly I remembered that I had promised to ring my mother. The calculation was wrong first time, but I did it right the second time.
Remember + to-infinitive means that we don’t forget to do something: Not: … I did it rightly …
Remember to save your work often, just in case your computer crashes. When everything goes right, no one says thank you, but when things go wrong, they
Remember + the -ing form of a verb means ‘have a memory of something we did or of start complaining immediately.
something that happened in the past’: We use rightly to give an opinion or viewpoint on something. It usually comes in the
I remember meeting her once. It must have been about five years ago. normal mid position for adverbs (between the subject and the main verb, or after the
modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb). It means ‘in the opinion
Not: I remember to meet her once … of the speaker, in a morally correct way’, and is more subjective than right:
She said she didn’t remember getting an email from him. He rightly took the money he had found straight to the nearest police station. (In the
We can also use remember + object + to when we ask someone to ‘give regards to’ or speaker’s opinion, this was the morally correct thing to do.)
‘say hello to’ someone: Climate change is rightly seen as the greatest threat to the world at the present time.
A:
Remember me to your parents when you see them.

B:
Rob or steal?
I will. They always ask about you.
Rob and steal both mean ‘take something from someone without permission’.
Remind
Rob focuses on the place or person from which the thing is taken:
If a person or thing reminds you of someone or something, they make you think of that The gang robbed three banks over a period of six months, but were finally caught.
person or thing, or they resemble that person or thing:
Our local post office was robbed early on Tuesday morning.
That song always reminds me of the time I fell in love with an Italian girl.
A young woman was attacked and robbed as she walked home from work last night.
Not: … always remembers me of the time …
Warning:
Jason reminded me of my father. They had the same eyes and the same way of talking.
When we are talking about a house, we use burgle:
The house was burgled while they were all sleeping. reporting clause reported clause (direct object)
Not: The house was robbed …

Steal focuses on the thing that is taken: I told her why it had happened.
The thieves entered the museum through the roof and stole three paintings worth more
than two million euros. Tell normally takes an indirect object (one or more people = io) and a direct object (the
reported clause = do):
Our car was stolen from outside our house last week.
The boy told [IO]us [DO]he didn’t want any money.
Warning:
However, we use tell without an indirect object with words such as the truth, a lie, a
We usually don’t say rob + object stolen: joke, a story:
He stole my wallet. You should never tell a lie.
Not: He robbed my wallet. Not: … say a lie.
Come on Kevin. You’re good at telling jokes.
Say does not take an indirect object. Instead, we use a phrase with to:
Say or tell? And then she said to me, ‘I’m your cousin. We’ve never met before.’
Not: And then she said me …
Say and tell are irregular verbs. The past simple of say is said, the past simple
of tell is told:
Tell + indirect object + to-infinitive
They asked if I was looking for work and I said yes.
We use tell with an indirect object and a to-infinitive to report a command or an
Then he told me how he had got the job by lying about his age. instruction. We don’t normally use say in this way:
We use say and tell in different ways in reported speech. Say focuses on the words They told us to come back the next day.
someone said and tell focuses more on the content or message of what someone said:
Not: They said us to come …
‘Hello,’ she said.
They told her to wait till the doctor arrived.
Not: ‘Hello,’ she told.
Spoken English:
She told him they were going on holiday. (The focus is on the information.)
But in informal speaking, we sometimes use say + to-infinitive to report a command or
We use say with direct speech. We don’t normally use tell in this way: an instruction:
He said, ‘I’m not paying £50 for that.’ I asked him if he wanted it today but he said to leave it till tomorrow.
Say and tell with objects
Both say and tell take a direct object. The object is most commonly the reported clause Typical errors
(the report of what someone said).
 We don’t use an indirect object with say:
reporting clause reported clause (direct object) ‘I’m in a hurry,’ he said to me.
Not: … he said me.
She said ‘I don’t know what you mean.’  We don’t use tell without an indirect object when we report someone’s words:
Then a loud voice said, ‘Hello.’
Not: … a loud voice told, ‘Hello.’ Sound or noise?
She said she would wait for us outside.
Not: She told she would wait … Sound and noise are nouns. We can use them both as countable or uncountable nouns.
Both refer to something which you can hear, but when a sound is unwanted or
unpleasant, we call it a noise:
There were lots of sounds in the forest. (countable)
So that or in order that? It travels faster than the speed of sound. (uncountable)
She made a lot of noise. (uncountable)
We use so that and in order that to talk about purpose. We often use them with modal There were some funny noises coming from the engine. (countable)
verbs (can, would, will, etc.). So that is far more common than in order that, and in
order that is more formal:
I’ll go by car so that I can take more luggage.
We left a message with his neighbour so that he would know we’d called. Speak or talk?
[on a website] Speak and talk: uses
In order that you can sign the form, please print it out and mail it to this address.
The verbs speak and talk both generally mean ‘say words’, but there are some small
We often leave out that after so in informal situations: differences in how they are used. Speak is more formal than talk.
I’ve made some sandwiches so (that) we can have a snack on the way. Compare
When referring to the future, we can use the present simple or will/’ll after so that. We
usually use the present simple after in order that to talk about the future: Formal. It is possible that:
I’ll post the CD today so that you get it by the weekend. (or … so that you will get it …) 1. – the speaker does not know you very well.
I need
We will send you a reminder in order that you arrive on time for your to speak to you. 2. – this is in a formal setting, such as work.
appointment. (or … so that you arrive on time … or … so that you’ll arrive on time …)
3. – what the person has to say is important/serious.
So that (but not in order that) can also mean ‘with the result that’:
The birds return every year around March, so that April is a good time to see them.
Informal. It is possible that:
I need to talk to 1. – the speaker is your friend.
you.
2. – the speaker is someone you don’t know very well, but
Sometimes or sometime? what they have to say is informal.
Sometimes means ‘not always or not often’: We usually use speak for more formal presentations and lectures, and talk for more
informal ones:
We usually played football at school, but sometimes we played hockey.
Dr Graham Foster will speak about the history of the region.
I sometimes wonder whether I should give up my job and just travel.
Kyle is going to talk us through the benefits of the software and then Liz will talk about
Sometime means ‘at an unknown or undecided time in the future or the past’:
the marketing plan.
Why don’t you come over and have dinner with us sometime? (at an undecided time in
When we refer to languages, we use speak:
the future)
How many languages do you speak?
I knew I had met her sometime, but I couldn’t remember when.
Not: How many languages do you talk? Typical errors
I wish I could speak Italian.  We don’t use talk when referring to foreign languages:
Not: … talk Italian. I can speak German and Spanish.
Speak usually only focuses on the person who is producing the words: Not: I can talk German and Spanish.
He spoke about the importance of taking exercise and having a good diet.  We don’t use speak to focus on conversation:
Talk focuses on a speaker and at least one listener, and can mean ‘have a They can talk and get to know each other over dinner.
conversation’:
Not: They can speak and get to know each other …
I hope I can meet you to talk about my plans for the company.
Not: I hope I can meet you to speak about my plans …
Compare
Such or so?
He always looks down The focus is on his use of his voice to produce
when he is speaking. words. Speak focuses only on the person who
is producing the words.
Such is a determiner; so is an adverb. They often have the same meaning of ‘very’ or ‘to
this degree’:
The focus is on the use of words as part of a Those are such good chocolates.
I was talking to Maria yesterday.
conversation with someone else. Those chocolates are so good.
We use such + noun phrase and so + adjective or adverb phrase:
We use speak on the telephone:
She is such a great cook.
A:
Not: She is so great cook.
Is Rita there?
That was so unpleasant. (so + adjective)
B:
Not: That was such unpleasant.
Who’s speaking?
Why do you drive so fast? (so + adverb)
A:
Not: Why do you drive such fast?
My name’s Anna. I work with her.
Compare
Not: Who’s talking?
Hello, can I speak to Laura, please? so + adjective such + noun phrase
Speak and talk with prepositions

You’re so kind. He’s such a kind person
We usually use to after speak and talk. In more formal situations, people sometimes
use with:
I need to speak to you about this conference next week. It was so hot we couldn’t work. November was such a cold month.
I was talking to Richard Moss the other day about the golf club.
May I speak with you for a moment? (rather formal) So but not such can also be used in front of much, many, little, few to add emphasis:
So much food was wasted every day.
Not: Such much food was wasted … Towards or toward?
In those days there were so few doctors in our area.
Not: … there were such few doctors … Towards and toward are prepositions. We can use both forms, but towards is much
more common than toward.
Typical errors
Toward(s) most often means ‘in the direction of something’:
 We use such, not so, before a noun, even if there is an adjective before the noun:
The oil pollution is now moving towards the shore, and could threaten beaches and wild
They’re such snobs! They won’t speak to anyone else in the village. life.
Not: They’re so snobs … He stood up and moved toward the door.
Those are such cool shoes. Where did you get them? We use toward(s) to mean ‘in relation to someone or something’. We don’t
use against or about when we talk about people’s attitudes, feelings and behaviour in
Not: Those are so cool shoes. relation to one another:
 We use such, not so, before a noun phrase with the indefinite article a/an: She’s always been very friendly towards me.
This is such a wonderful kitchen! He felt very angry towards her when she refused him.
Not: This is a so wonderful kitchen! Not: … angry against her … or … angry about her …
 We use so, not such, before adjectives:
Toward(s): position
Thank you. You’re so kind.
We use toward(s) to mean ‘near to or just before a time or place’:
Not: You’re such kind.
Toward the late afternoon I always get sleepy and can’t work so well.
 We use so, not such, before adverbs:
We sat towards the back of the room but we could still hear the speakers very clearly.
She always dresses so elegantly.
Not: She always dresses such elegantly.
Toward(s): purpose
Toward(s) can mean ‘for the purpose of buying or achieving something’:

Would you like to make a contribution towards our new children’s playground? (Would
There, their or they’re? you like to give some money to help pay for it?)
The essays you do during term count towards your final grade.
There, their and they’re are commonly confused in English, as they sound the same.
There is an adverb which refers to places:
The shop you need is over there.
We also use there to say that something exists: Wait or wait for?
There is a large oak tree outside the hotel.
Their is a possessive determiner which means ‘belonging to them’:
Wait means ‘stay in the same place or not do something until something else happens’.
Their house is very small, isn’t it? We can use it with or without for:
They’re is a shortened form of ‘they are’: Put a tea bag into the cup, then add water and wait (for) a minute or two before taking
it out.
They’re too young to have a holiday so far away from home.
I phoned the head office but I had to wait (for) five minutes before I spoke to anyone.
We waited (for) hours to get the tickets.
Warning: We use wake up! as a command:
When we use a direct object after wait, we have to use wait for: Wake up! It’s time to get going.
Wait for us outside the cinema. We’ll be there at seven o’clock. Not: Wake!
Not: Wait us … The verbs waken, awaken and awake have a similar meaning but are used in more
literary contexts, often to refer to emotions or things as well as people:
I waited for the postman every day last week hoping that your present would arrive.
Cautiously, trying not to waken him, Caroline stepped quietly out of the room.
Not: I waited the postman …
Different images can awaken new emotions within us.
Wait with the to-infinitive I awoke next morning to a brilliant pearly light, but when I went to the window, no sea
was visible.
Wait can be followed by the to-infinitive:
All right, I’ll wait to hear from you, Adam, then I’ll ring Simon.
By 9 pm there were about 20 people still waiting to vote.
Worth or worthwhile?
Can’t wait
Worth and worthwhile are adjectives.
When we are very excited about something that is going to happen, we use the
phrase can’t wait for + noun phrase or can’t wait + to-infinitive: Worth is only used after verbs such as be, seem, look (as a predicative adjective). It
means ‘having a particular value’, especially in money:
I can’t wait for tonight. I’m having a party! (I’m really looking forward to tonight.)
A:
We can’t wait to go to Barcelona in June. (We’re really looking forward to going.)
I wonder how much the house is worth?
B:
About half a million, probably.

To be worth doing something is a common expression. It means that something is useful
Wake, wake up or awaken? or important enough to do:
Wake and wake up are verbs which mean ‘stop sleeping or end someone else’s A:
sleep’. They are used in everyday language.
I haven’t had a reply to my email to Jane. Is it worth phoning her, do you
Compare think? (Would it be useful to phone her?)
B:
I woke (up) suddenly when the I woke (up) the children. (or I woke the You could try, I suppose.
alarm clock went off. children up.) They had to be in school early.
We decided it wasn’t worth going all the way to London to buy books we could get on
the Internet.
The children were asleep; then I stopped them To be worth it means ‘to be of reasonable or good value for the price’:
I stopped sleeping.
sleeping.
A business class ticket cost £2,000, but it was worth it for such a long flight. It was very
comfortable.
Wake up has a similar meaning to wake. It is sometimes used as a stronger form
of wake. It can mean ‘stop sleeping’ and ‘make someone feel more awake’: We use worthwhile before a noun (as an attributive adjective) or after verbs such as be,
seem, look (as a predicative adjective). It means ‘useful’, ‘important’ or ‘good enough
The noise of the traffic wakes me (up) every morning. to be a suitable reward for the money or time spent or the effort made’:
She likes to wake up with a cup of coffee. (It makes her feel more awake.)
Do you think working in a supermarket is a worthwhile career for a highly intelligent
person?
We had thought of buying a bigger car, but we didn’t think it was worthwhile, since
there’s just the two of us.
B2 – First Certificate – Easily Confused Words 105

Easily Confused Words

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Easily confused words Typical errors

All or every? All (of) the

All day, every day

All the with uncountable nouns

All or whole for single entities

Allow, permit or let?

Yes. She’s got one more year to do.

A: Also, as well or too?

No. She’s only 17. She’ll go next year.

As well almost always comes in end position:

B: Not: I don’t think Dave is also/as well/too.

We usually put too in end position:

Although and though meaning ‘but’

Altogether or all together? A quantity of or quantities of?

Quantity is more formal than amount or number. A quantity of or quantities of can be

All together means ‘with each other’, and is similar to together:

Any more as an adverb

Arouse or rouse? He worked for a long time as a teacher in Africa.

Would you like to go to school there?

When Been or gone?

Between or among? Among meaning ‘surrounding, part of or included in’

Possibility Can you call back later? I’m busy now.

Classic means ‘high quality’. In particular, we use it to mean something that

Typical error Typical errors

 We don’t use consist, comprise and compose in a continuous form:

activity damage favour job task

cooking exam(ination) homework painting work

Different from, different to or different than?

bed complaint guess mess plan soup

Economic and economical are adjectives.

Efficient and effective are adjectives.

Especially and specially are adverbs.

She loves flowers, especially roses.

Will he have bought the necklace by now?

Expect, hope or wait?

Not: It’s far. We can’t go any further; the road’s blocked.

We don’t use since with periods of time:

We decided to leave the dog at home. B:

How is …? No. What’s it like?

Oh, she’s fine, thanks. If or when?

What is … like? When Giles comes back to the

B: You can drive if you’re 17.

A: When we go camping, we usually take two tents.

If and whether: indirect questions

I got the late train home. describes the train

Lately meaning ‘recently’

Less and fewer with of

Less or fewer? [the speaker is sitting at her computer]

When look has an object, it is followed by at:

I do less work at weekends than I used to. See

We watch television every evening. We’re going to the cinema tonight.

I like to sit at the window to watch what’s happening in the garden. B:

We use short, not low, to describe people’s height:

Look at, see or watch: typical errors

 When there is an object, we use at after look:

You don’t sound very enthusiastic.

When is your yoga lesson?

We don’t use open to refer to turning on taps and switches:

We use another with singular nouns:

The other Another as a pronoun

The other as a determiner We can use another as a pronoun:

A: Could I have your permission to leave work early on Friday?