Aristotle was an Ancient Greek philosopher, together with his teacher Plato, the most influential

thinker in the history of Western civilization.

-He studied under Plato in his Academy for two decades between the ages of 17 and 37, after
which he left Athens to tutor Alexander the Great. Even though he was Plato’s best student,
after Plato’s death, Aristotle shifted from Plato’s idealistic teachings to empiricism.
-He contributed to numerous different fields – from physics to metaphysics, from logic to
ethics, from biology to zoology, from politics to economics, from poetry to music – and almost
every single thing he has written is still object of academic debate.
- He also founded a Peripatetic school of philosophy at the Lyceum, where he also established a
library of immense importance

BOOK I

So, that is the topic of the Nicomachean Ethics: to discover what’s the thing humans
desire for its own sake and how should they act so as to most easily attain it.

After a lengthy analysis, Aristotle concludes that whatever we like to have – be it money,
cars, women, football or sex (OK, he doesn’t use these examples per se) – we like it
because it makes us happy.

However, as one can easily deduce, some of the things that make us happy, tend to make
us unhappy afterward.

BOOK II

Aristotle says that many things can lead to temporary happiness, but only virtuous actions
lead to a happy life. And since this is something everybody wants, then it’s necessary to
discover what virtue means and how should one reach it.

In the second book, Aristotle points out that, just like a lyre-player, no matter how
talented, must learn and practice to become a virtuoso, a man, no matter how naturally
inclined towards virtuous actions, needs education to attain the proper, virtuous habits.

And then Aristotle lays out the simplest definition for virtue: treading the middle way
between two extremes.

What does that mean?

It means that anything in excess or deficiency is bad; and that everything in just the
proper amount is virtue.

Or to use a famous example:

Anyone can get angry — that is easy — or give or spend money; but to do this to the
right person, to the right extent, at the right time, with the right motive, and in the right
way, that is not for everyone, nor is it easy.

BOOK III

Aristotle lists many character virtues and starting with Book III, he analyzes many of
them in-depth.
But first he explains, foreshadowing Sartre, that you’re responsible for almost everything
you do, because you always have a choice not do it (Sartre would add: even if the latter
leads to death).

If that is the case, then even ignorance – not knowing what is good – is not actually an
excuse, because you always have a choice to learn.

So, more or less, Aristotle says that if you’re not, it’s your fault for not having read his
book.

And then he proceeds to explanations of what he means when he says that we should
tread the middle way.

The two examples he uses in this book are courage and temperance.

Courage, according to Aristotle, is the mean between fear and confidence; in excess, it
leads to fearlessness and overconfidence, both of which are bad; if deficient, it leads to
cowardness, which is also bad.

Temperance is the mean between pleasure and pain; in excess, it leads to wastefulness; in
deficiency, it makes a man insensible.

BOOK IV

Book four deals with a second set of virtues, in four groups of two.

The first group deals with two very similar virtues: generosity and magnificence.

Generosity may, once again, lead to wastefulness if in excess, and to stinginess if lacking;
magnificence leads to vulgarity and tastelessness when excessive, and to paltriness if not
enough.

The second group of virtues are magnanimity and ambition.

Magnanimity is located between vanity (excess) and smallness of soul (deficiency), and
ambition is located between, well, overambitiousness and lack of ambition. Sorry, guys,
nobody has thought of better words for now.

The third group of virtues are gentleness and friendliness.

Too much of a gentleness leads to irritability, and not enough of it to spiritlessness (they
really need to find better words); too much of friendliness leads to either flattery (if for
own advantage) or obsequiousness (if for no purpose).

The final group of two virtues analyzed here are truthfulness and wittiness.

If you are more than truthful, you’re exaggerating and boastful; if you’re deficient in
truthfulness, you suffer from a form of self-deprecation and self-irony. If you are more
than witty, you’re a buffoon; if you’re less of it, you’re boorish.

BOOK V
Aristotle says that justice, the highest of virtues, deserves a whole book; which is why
Book V deals with every single aspect of what it means to be a just person living in a just
society.

Why should Aristotle deal with just societies in a book about ethics?

Because, as he explains, justice is not exactly a virtue for isolated individuals; it’s not
anything in that case; justice can only be made sense of in a community.

BOOK VI

In Book VI, Aristotle enumerates the five types of stable states of the soul (hexis) which
can be considered intellectual virtues:

#1. Art – making things in a way which can be explained;

#2. Knowledge – axiomatically graspable concept: “all knowledge seems to be teachable,
and what is known is learnable.”
#3. Practical Judgment – judgment used in making good decisions upon overall actions
(when specific, it is art)
#4. Wisdom – a combination of common sense (nous) and knowledge; it only belongs to
the wise; however, we don’t need it, since we have:
#5. Common sense – or intellect, it deals with unarticulated truths and is what helps us
perfect our virtues.

BOOK VII

Here Aristotle discusses self-restraint.

If one is virtuous only when treading the middle road, then self-restraint is a very
important value one must learn to acquire.

It is also something that must be furthered by the laws of a country, which means that the
lawgivers should really understand the essence of not only pleasure and pain, but self-
restraint as well.

The good news: self-restraint is not a vice, and can be taught.

In other words, practical guides for self-mastery are as old as time.

BOOK VIII

“Without friends,” writes Aristotle, “no one would want to live, even if he had all other
goods.”

This is the reason why Books VIII and IX are dedicated to the topic of friendship.

There are three types of friendship, according to Aristotle: useful, pleasant, and complete.
The complete friendship is the one everybody should strive for – it is one in which
friends are capable of seeing what is likable in each other.

Unequal friendships, on the other hand – whether between rulers and subjects, or
dominant and submissive people – are no friendships, and unjust societies hinder the
possibility for real friendships.

BOOK IX

Still on friendship.

If you’re in a bad one, then you’re probably expecting from the other person things that
he or she cannot offer, and/or vice versa.

If that is the case, you’ll never be satisfied, and it’s better that you break off the bond as
soon as possible.

Of course, you should, first of all, understand your self because your friend is actually
your second self.

This is why it is all but impossible for a person to be happy without having friends; and
why sad people can be cheered up by, you’ve guessed it, friends.

When you have a good friend, it’s like you’re talking to yourself.

According to Aristotle’s final book of the Nicomachean Ethics, happiness is tightly

linked with pleasure.

All beings – whether rational or irrational – instinctively tend toward pleasure and away
from pain.

The only life worth living is the one in which you enjoy the right things in the right
amounts – because, basically, that is what happiness is.