Bioinspiration & Biomimetics

PAPER You may also like

- Biomimicking interfacial fracture behavior
Bioinspired design and optimization for thin film of lizard tail autotomy with soft
microinterlocking structures
wearable and building cooling systems Navajit S Baban, Ajymurat Orozaliev,
Christopher J Stubbs et al.

- A minimally designed soft crawling robot

To cite this article: Jonathan Grinham et al 2022 Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 015003 for robust locomotion in unstructured pipes
Wenkai Yu, Xin Li, Dunyu Chen et al.

- DIII-D research advancing the physics

basis for optimizing the tokamak approach
to fusion energy
View the article online for updates and enhancements. M. E. Fenstermacher, for the DIII-D Team:,
J. Abbate et al.

This content was downloaded from IP address 14.139.187.71 on 12/01/2024 at 09:52

 Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003 https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-3190/ac2f55

PAPER

Bioinspired design and optimization for thin film wearable and

R E C E IVE D
31 January 2021 building cooling systems
R E VISE D
1 October 2021
AC C E PTE D FOR PUBL IC ATION
Jonathan Grinham1 , 2 , 3 , ∗ , Matthew J Hancock4 , Kitty Kumar3 , Martin Bechthold1 , 2 , 3 ,
13 October 2021 Donald E Ingber3 , 5 , 6 and Joanna Aizenberg3 , 6 , 7
1
PUBL ISHE D Harvard Graduate School of Design, United States of America
16 December 2021 2
Harvard Center for Green Buildings and Cities, United States of America
3
Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, United States of America
4
Veryst Engineering, LLC, United States of America
5
Vascular Biology Program and Department of Surgery, Boston Children’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School,
United States of America
6
Harvard John A Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, United States of America
7
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, United States of America
∗
Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
E-mail: jgrinham@gsd.harvard.edu

Keywords: bioinspired, numerical optimization, microfluidic, heat exchange, buildings, wearable

Abstract
In this work, we report a paradigmatic shift in bioinspired microchannel heat exchanger
design toward its integration into thin film wearable devices, thermally active surfaces in buildings,
photovoltaic devices, and other thermoregulating devices whose typical cooling fluxes are below
1 kW m−2 . The transparent thermoregulation device is fabricated by bonding a thin corrugated
elastomeric film to the surface of a substrate to form a microchannel water-circuit with bioinspired
unit cell geometry. Inspired by the dynamic scaling of flow systems in nature, we introduce
empirically derived sizing rules and a novel numerical optimization method to maximize the
thermoregulation performance of the microchannel network by enhancing the uniformity of flow
distribution. The optimized network design results in a 25% to 37% increase in the heat flux
compared to non-optimized designs. The study demonstrates the versatility of the presented
design and architecture by fabricating and testing a scaled-up numerically optimized heat
exchanger device for building-scale and wearable applications.

1. Introduction the environment. In many of these examples, the rate

In nature, organisms use fluid flows for thermal and
chemical exchange, transport of nutrients and waste,
and parts of the immune system. The fluid mechan-
ics of vascular networks in warm-blooded organ-
isms are well studied for thermal regulation [1]. Bulk
blood flows are carried through large arteries that
then branch into successively smaller structures, ulti-
mately arriving at capillary beds within tissues. These
hierarchical structures minimize the hydraulic resis-
tance of bulk flows while maximizing the surface area
available for heat and mass transport at the capillary-
scale. In some animals, capillary beds near the surface
of appendages or other external structures, such as
ears of elephants [2] or beaks of toucans [3], provide
a high surface area exchange element capable of reg-
ulating core body temperatures by shedding heat to
of heat exchange is controlled dynamically through
the dilation or contraction of vascular smooth mus-
cle cells, which increase or decrease available surface
area and blood flow [4].
Nature’s ability to regulate heat using multifunc-
tional, hierarchical, and dynamic flow structures has
generated numerous biologically-inspired fluid flow
architectures in microfluidic devices. To maintain a
constant shear stress in blood vessels, Murray’s Law
provides widely recognized bio-mimetic design rules
for the hierarchical scaling relationship of daugh-
ter and parent branches in vascular flow systems
[5, 6]. These scaling principles have been confirmed
through extensive studies of fluid transport in ani-
mals [7] and have been translated to microfluidics
[8, 9]. Scaling rules have also been applied to opti-
mize bulk flow and diffusion in volumetric branching

© 2021 IOP Publishing Ltd

Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003
Figure 1. Mapping of heat flux (y) relative to scale of working area (x) for single phase microchannel heat exchangers including
commercial and defense electronic cooling (X) [21–28], laser diodes () [24, 29, 30], mobile air conditioning () [31–33],
concentrated photovoltaics (+) [35–39], wearable devices and medical devices (◦) [41–45], photovoltaic panels () [36, 52],
and thermally active building devices () [56–60]. The numeric subscripts are provided for each data citation.
structures [10, 11]. For example, modeling construc-
tal structures provides an optimal method for cool-
ing a volume from a single flow source [12, 13]. The
constructal method is shown to be optimal for plate
configurations [14]. Experimentally, branching, or
bifurcated, designs show improved fluid flow distri-
bution compared to channel arrays with a single dis-
tributor [15]. Computational fluid dynamics research
confirms that bifurcated designs improve thermal dis-
tribution and reduce required pumping power com-
pared to conventional channel designs [16].
Other research that may not be considered bioin-
spired uses the electric circuit analog, which provides
a simplified method of modeling fluid flow in chan-
nels and distributors [17, 18]. Similar methods are
used to optimize flow distribution using network and
lattice geometry designs [19]. Moreover, multi-scale,
numbering up methods show improved flow unifor-
mity in microchannel chemical reactors [20]. Across
these and other examples, researchers show that to
achieve high heat flux and cooling efficiency, heat
exchanger designs should address both uniform tem-
perature distribution and flow distribution along with
low thermal resistivity and low hydraulic resistivity
[21].
Using these and similar design methods,
microchannel heat exchangers have been widely
applied for cooling of commercial and defense
electronics [21–28], laser diodes [24, 29, 30], mobile
air conditioners [31–34], and compact photovoltaics
2
J Grinham et al
[35–39], to name a few examples. For these tradi-
tional applications, the microchannels are built into
or onto the surface of a rigid device with a cooling
area on the order of 1 to 10 cm2 to cool with a heat
flux greater than 1000 kW m−2 (100 W cm−2 ), sum-
marized in figure 1. Early studies reported cooling
with heat fluxes up to 790 W cm−2 , or 7900 kW m−2
[24] and future devices are projected to cool with
heat fluxes up to 3 kW cm−2 , or 30 000 kW m−2
[23]. To accommodate such high heat fluxes, these
traditional microchannel devices are constructed
from materials that exhibit high thermal conductivity
(k  20 W (m K)−1 ), are good electrical insulators
(ρe  1018 μΩ cm), and operate at high temperatures
(Tmax ∼ 120◦ C) [40].
In contrast, thin, transparent, and possibly flexi-
ble, heat exchangers required for modern technolo-
gies, such as wearable devices and medical devices
[41–51], photovoltaic panels [36, 52–55], thermally
active building devices [56–62], and sky cooling pan-
els [63], only have heat fluxes below 1 kW m−2
over a larger area, on the order of 1 m2 (figure 1).
For such cooling devices, the material requirements
are completely different from traditional devices. For
example, these devices may require high flexibility
(E  1 GPa) and high transmissivity in the visible
spectrum (T > 95%), typically resulting in a low ther-
mal conductivity material (k  1 W (m K )−1 ) [40].
Because the system requirements for these devices
address low heat fluxes over large surface areas (see
far lower right in figure 1), this distinct cluster of
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003
Figure 2. Examples of distribution and exchange architectures in nature: (A) rete mirabile structure in vertebrates; (B) vein
structure in leaves. (C) Schematic of a bioinspired design with a network of channels (width w) arrayed in a diamond-shaped unit
cell geometry (side length δ). (D) Schematic of a synthetic device with component and material call-outs. (E) Schematic section
through network channels (width w and height h).
applications demands novel design strategies. To date,
such strategies have not been proposed due to a lim-
ited understanding of fluid flow and heat transfer
behavior for small-scale flows in the related new mate-
rial palette [64].
In this work, we report the design of transparent
microchannel heat exchange devices fabricated from
a highly transparent (T ∼ 95% [65, 66]), stretch-
able polymer (E = 0.57–3.7 MPa) with a bioin-
spired diamond-shaped unit cell design that applies
to a broad set of applications with surface areas on
the order of 1 m2 . To achieve this, we first opti-
mize the unit cell geometry of the microchannel net-
work architecture for low heat fluxes on a 125 mm ×
125 mm device by experimentally studying the corre-
lation between heat flux and channel dimensions, i.e.
width and length. Second, we optimize fluid flow uni-
formity over larger surface areas using a novel com-
putational method inspired by dynamic vasodilation
and vasoconstriction used to increase and decrease
flow in blood vessels [4]. Said computational method
comprises an automated algorithm implemented in
MATLAB® that iteratively runs finite element sim-
ulations in COMSOL Multiphysics® and applies to
3
J Grinham et al
arbitrary channel network designs. Here we demon-
strate the method on the diamond-shaped unit cell
design explored in phase one as well as on square
lattice structures. The results suggest that uniform
flow may be achieved by successively sizing each
channel’s width in the network and that flow uni-
formity can accordingly improve temperature unifor-
mity and cooling performance.
2. Channel sizing study
In the first phase of the study, we establish siz-
ing relationships and characteristic values for key
design parameters by employing measures of heat
flux, heat exchange effectiveness, and thermal resis-
tance to benchmark the cooling performance of heat
exchangers with microchannel networks composed of
diamond-shaped unit cells.
2.1. Heat exchanger architecture
To design the heat exchanger we adopt an architec-
ture similar to the network designs used in natural
and mammalian systems for material distribution and
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003
Table 1. Parameter values tested. Parameters include: channel height h, channel width
w, unit cell spacing δ, channel area ratio φ, and channel spacing to width ratio δ/w.
h (μm) w (mm) δ (mm)
70 0.5 2, 5, 10, 20, 80
70 1.0 10, 20, 40, 80
70 2.0 8, 20, 80
exchange. Examples include the rete mirabile’s net-
like arterial and venous structures which function
as high surface area counter-current exchangers in
many vertebrate cardiovascular systems (figure 2(A)
[1]) and the complex venation used for fluid trans-
port in plant leaves (figure 2(B) [67]). Compared
with single, parallel, and serpentine channel designs,
the diamond-shaped unit cell design mitigates device
failure due to blockage. Each channel in the dia-
mond network carries the same or similar flow, unlike
in other designs where low flow rate channels are
present merely to mitigate blockage (e.g. the square
network design considered later). Note that some net-
work designs that appear square have inlet and out-
let ports at opposing corners; such designs are effec-
tively diamond networks [19]. The heat exchanger
design considered in this first phase of the study com-
prises a network of channels (width w) forming a
unit cell (side length δ) with a diamond-shaped layout
(figure 2(C)). Each device is fabricated by bonding
a thin PDMS layer containing molded channel voids
(channel height h) to a glass sub-layer forming the
microchannel network (figures 2(D) and (E)).
To design an optimal diamond-shaped
microchannel network with uniform flow dis-
tribution and heat transfer behavior, we study the
effects of the channel area ratio (φ) on heat flux and
thermal resistance. φ is defined as the ratio of the
plan area of a microchannel segment to the portion
of the plan area of the device cooled by said segment
(figure 2(C)) and is given by
√ above in equation (2) to the heat applied to the
2 2wδ − 2w2
φ= × 100%. (1)
δ2
By design of the diamond pattern, the value of φ for
each unit cell is the same as that for the global channel
network. Unless otherwise specified, the panel designs
herein have a plan area of 80 mm × 80 mm (device
area 125 mm × 125 mm) and h = 70 μm. Table 1 lists
the parameter values tested.
2.2. Results
We employ multiple measures to characterize the
cooling performance of our prototypical microchan-
nel heat exchangers: the steady state heat flux, the heat
exchange effectiveness, and thermal resistance. The
heat flux removed by the flow (qflow ), i.e. cooling flux,
of a microchannel heat exchanger has been previously
described using the energy balance between the flow
4
J Grinham et al
φ (%) δ/w (-)
58, 26, 14, 7, 2 4, 10, 20, 40, 160
26, 14, 7, 4 10, 20, 40, 80
58, 26, 7 4, 10, 40
inlet and outlet [68, 69],
ṁcp (Toutlet − Tinlet )
qflow = , (2)
A
where ṁ is the mass flow rate of liquid through the
device, cp is the heat capacity of the liquid, A is the
plan area of the device (0.0156 m2 ), and Tinlet and
Toutlet are the temperatures at the inlet and outlet,
respectively. Tests are conducted by first heating the
suspended heat exchanger device (with a heat lamp
placed directly above the device) without flow to
bring the surface temperature to a steady state (T∞ ),
measured between 38 and 40 ◦ C in our experiment.
Then, room temperature water (Tinlet = 20 ◦ C) is
pumped through the microchannel network at flow
rates of 2, 6, and 10 ml min−1 . The typical Reynolds
numbers are in the range 1  Re  300 where
Re = υDν h and υ is the average flow velocity in one
channel, Dh is the hydraulic diameter, and ν is
the kinematic viscosity of water. The outlet water
temperature (Toutlet ) was measured to provide a mea-
surement of qflow from equation (2). In our exper-
iment, water traverses an open circuit and empties
into a waste reservoir to maintain a constant inlet
water temperature Tinlet throughout the experiment.
In the preferred system, we envision the outflowing
liquid would flow through another heat exchanger
to reduce its temperature to a desired level prior to
reintroduction into the array.
The heat exchange effectiveness (E) is the ratio of
the heat removed by the fluid flow (qflow ) described
device by the lamp (qlamp ) described below in
equations (7)–(10). Effectiveness ranges from 0 to 1,
where E = 1 indicates that all heat is removed by the
fluid flow. Effectiveness is defined by
qflow
E= . (3)
qlamp
Figure 3(A) shows the heat flux removed by the flow
(qflow ) calculated in equation (2) from measured inlet
and outlet water temperatures for diamond chan-
nel network designs with different w and φ values
(tested values listed in table 1). Figure 3(A) also shows
the corresponding heat exchange effectiveness for the
same tested values. Because the heat flux of the lamp is
constant, the inter-sample heat flux and effectiveness
trends are the same. Therefore, a higher qflow indicates
a higher rate of heat removal and a more effective heat
exchanger design.
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003 J Grinham et al

Figure 3. (A) Heat flux removed by the flow (qflow ) calculated in equation (2) (left y-axis) and heat exchange effectiveness (E,
right y-axis) vs channel area ratio φ. (B) Total thermal resistance Rtherm , calculated in equation (4), vs channel area ratio φ. (C)
Sample thermal image showing area used for surface temperature average, as well as typical reference locations for measuring
Tinlet and Tinlet (measurements taken when inlet/outlet tubes were covered in insulation, which was removed to generate the image
shown here). (D) Measured average steady state surface temperature T̄ s for devices with channel width w = 0.5 mm and room
temperature water (20 ◦ C) flowing at 6 ml min−1 . In (A) and (B), dashed lines show power-law fit for w = 0.5 mm, while error
bars indicate the standard deviation for at least three independent measurements.

Consistent cooling performance trends are
observed for each of the flow rates tested. For
each channel width w, as the channel area ratio φ
increases, so too does the heat flux removed by the
flow, qflow , and the effectiveness, E; however, the rate
of increase decreases with increasing φ. In particular,
for each flow rate, qflow and E increase two-fold as φ
increases from 4% to 14%; however, qflow and E only
increase by 5% as φ increases from 14% to 58% and
as channel spacing to width ratio (δ/w) decreases
from 20 to 4, respectively. This suggests that, for the
applications outlined in the introduction, suitable
heat exchange designs are those that have δ/w of
order 20, so that the corresponding φ is of order
15%. The law of diminishing returns applies beyond
those limits, i.e. it is not necessary to have densely
packed channels. This limit may also have fabrication
benefits. Smaller channels may be more difficult to
fabricate and a larger area between channels allows
for more area to bond the elastomer containing the
channel array to the substrate, likely increasing yield
during fabrication.
To extend the cooling performance characteriza-
tion further, figure 3(B) shows the approximate mea-
sured total thermal resistance (Rtherm ) for the devices
tested (figure 3(A), table 1). Rtherm includes the mea-
sured thermal resistance of the device (Rtherm,device ),
which accounts for the fluid convection and material
conductance and the measured thermal resistance to
the environment (Rtherm,env ), which accounts for the
air convection at the surfaces and radiant transfer to
and from the environment. The measured values are
defined by
Rtherm = Rtherm,device + Rtherm,env (4)
T̄ s − Tinlet
Rtherm,device = (5)
Aqlamp
T̄ s − Tlab
Rtherm,env = , (6)
Aqlamp
where T̄ s is the average steady-state surface tempera-
ture with water flowing, Tinlet is the inlet water tem-
perature, Tlab is the laboratory’s air temperature, A is
the plan surface area of the device, and qlamp is the heat
flux on the device generated by the lamp. Figure 3(C)
shows T̄ s measurements collected using infrared (IR)
imaging and averaged spatially across the channel
array. Figure 3(D) shows the measured average sur-
face temperature reached at steady state for select

5
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003
samples. The value of qlamp in equations (2), (4)–(5)
was not measured. However, since the steady state sur-
face temperature (T∞ ) without flow was measured
for each test, we can approximate heat energy input
of the lamp by approximating the heat transfer rate
to the environment from the device (conservation of
energy) as follows:
qlamp = htotal (T∞ − Tlab )
htotal = hconv,top + hconv,bot + hrad,top + hrad,bot
hrad = σ(T2∞ + T2lab )(T∞ + Tlab )
NuL kair
hconv = . (10)
L our study, which establishes metrics (heat flux, effec-
Here A is the plan surface area of the device, h total is the
total heat transfer coefficient, and Tlab is the ambient
air temperature. An approximation of htotal is found
by calculating the radiant heat transfer coefficients on
each side of the device (hrad,top , hrad,bot ) in equation (9)
using the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (σ) and the
emissivity of the device surface (). An approximation
of the convective heat transfer coefficients on each
side of the device (hconv,top , hconv,bot) is found from
equation (10) using a previously described calcula-
tion for the convective heat transfer coefficient of a
heated or cooled surface at an arbitrary angle [70, 71].
The result is htotal ∼ 20 W m−2 K−1 , which is appro-
priate based on a survey of radiant heating and cool-
ing systems that have similar constraints [72]. From
this approximation, we estimate qlamp = 445W m−2 , a
reasonable approximation given the qflow values mea-
sured in figure 3(A). Note that the approximation of
Rtherm characterizes the cooling performance of device
geometries within our sample data, and is not meant
for comparison with other devices.
Returning to figure 3(B), the diminishing returns
trends for Rtherm are similar to those observed for
qflow and E: reductions in thermal resistances begin
to wane beyond a channel area ratio of φ = 15%.
Rtherm decreases by 75% as φ increases from 4% to
14%; however, Rtherm decreases less than 15% as φ
increases from 14% to 58%. Again, the law of dimin-
ishing returns applies at channel spacing-to-width
ratios δ/w beyond order 20 and φ beyond order 15%.
Finally, Rtherm introduces a common optimization
trade-off in nature and engineering between ther-
mal resistance and hydraulic resistance. Flow systems
with small channel cross-sections tend to have lower
thermal resistance but larger hydraulic resistance and
associated pumping power. Hydraulic resistance is an
important design constraint for microfluidic devices
[73, 74]. However, earlier studies showed that since
hydraulic resistance is sensitive to channel cross-
sectional dimensions, the latter may be increased by
small amounts to reduce the hydraulic resistance and
pumping power below desired levels without signif-
icantly affecting the thermal resistance [62, 68]. For
example, since the hydraulic resistance of wide chan-
6
J Grinham et al
nels scales as 1/h3 , where h is the channel height, dou-
bling the channel height reduces the hydraulic resis-
tance eight-fold, which was previously shown for a
similar device design [62]. This strategy was also pre-
viously discussed for similar devices with low gravity-
driven flow rates appropriate for building applica-
tions [68]. We too use larger channel heights in the
larger devices reported in section 3.4. Also, similar to
(7)
natural flow structures, like the rete mirabile, a plural-
ity of small channels distributed over an area improve
(8)
thermal resistance while reducing the flow rate per
(9) channel, reducing the pressure drop and the required
pumping power.
This concludes the results from the first phase of
tiveness, and thermal resistance) to benchmark cool-
ing performance and suitable characteristic values for
design parameters (width-to-spacing ratio w/δ and
area ratio φ) of heat exchangers with diamond-shaped
microchannel networks.
3. Numerical optimization of heat
exchanger
In this section, we report results from the second
phase of our study on microchannel heat exchang-
ers. As outlined in the introduction, good tempera-
ture and flow distribution are important factors for
improved heat exchange performance. Figure 3(C)
shows the temperature non-uniformity across a typi-
cal diamond-shaped microchannel network, resulting
in a ‘V’-shaped isotherm oriented laterally across the
array with observable hot spots at the downstream
corners. To address this temperature non-uniformity
and study potential thermal performance improve-
ments generated by a more uniform flow distribution,
we introduce a novel numerical optimization strat-
egy inspired by the dynamic vasodilation and vaso-
constriction used to increase and decrease the flow
in skin blood vessels [4]. The numerical optimization
routine narrows or widens channel segments to max-
imize the flow uniformity across the array. As a result,
the outer channels corresponding to longer flow paths
are widened, while the central channels correspond-
ing to shorter flow paths are narrowed, increasing
the uniformity of the total flow resistance along any
path through the array. We also present the results
of a complementary experimental study to confirm
the improved cooling performance of the numerically
optimized designs.
As described in the introduction, multiple exam-
ples in nature use hierarchical flow structures that
successively size vessels within branching structures
from large vessels for bulk fluid flow to smaller ves-
sels for diffusion. The distributors and collectors
of the devices presented are simple versions of this
hierarchical channel sizing. When optimizing larger
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003
channel arrays (see section 3.4), we use bifurcated dis-
tributor and collector manifolds to maintain a tighter
distribution of optimized channel widths in the array.
3.1. Numerical optimization of channel network
design
This section introduces a novel numerical approach
to optimize the uniformity of flow distribution across
the diamond cell and square lattice channel net-
works of interest, each of which is characterized
by a Nx × Ny array of channel segments (figure 4).
During optimization, the width of each channel
segment in a given network is iteratively adjusted
(thereby adjusting the segment’s flow resistance)
to minimize the difference between the flow rate
through said segment and the global average flow
rate Qtarget = Qtotal /Ny , where Qtotal is the total flow
rate through the device. The iterative optimization
routine is implemented in MATLAB® and COM-
SOL Multiphysics® ; salient MATLAB® code and
COMSOL® files are provided in the SI (https://
stacks.iop.org/BB/17/015003/mmedia) so that oth-
ers may apply the optimization to a wider range
of channel flow and heat exchange applications7 .
Laminar flow simulations are performed in COM-
SOL Multiphysics® . The flow is governed by the
Navier–Stokes equations, which incorporate flow
continuity and conservation of momentum. To
save memory and expedite the simulations, the
two-dimensional shallow-channel approximation is
employed, which is valid for wide channels. We
assume the fluid (water at 20◦ C) is incompressible
and solve for the steady-state flow. No-slip bound-
ary conditions are applied on all channel walls. The
flow rate Qtotal is specified at the device inlet and zero
dynamic pressure is specified at the outlet. The chan-
nel height is uniform across the device, to facilitate
manufacturing, and is set between 100 μm (for reg-
ular sized devices) and 500 μm (for large arrays, see
section 3.4). The channel spacing is also constant,
δ = 10 mm. The distributor and collector widths of
the simulated diamond and square channel networks
are 5 mm.
The iterative numerical optimization algorithm is
as follows:
(a) The widths of the channel segments in the
array are initialized by the non-optimized value,
w = 1 mm. This is a suitable choice given the
discussion in section 2 since the corresponding
channel area ratio is φ  15%. The objective is
to minimize the deviation of flow rate across each
7 Note that the code provided in the SI is an updated version of
that used for this manuscript which improves the convergence to
an optimized design, especially involving the medium and fine
mesh resolutions. The new code produces similar optimized dia-
mond networks, but the optimized square networks have narrower
channel segment width ranges.
7
J Grinham et al
channel segment in the array from the target, in
this case the global average, Qtarget = Qtotal /Ny .
(b) Given a set of channel segment widths, a
two-dimensional geometry is generated by a
MATLAB® script using COMSOL® ’s Livelink
for MATLAB® . Some geometry cleanup is nec-
essary to remove small faces or edges where the
channel segments meet. The geometry is then
meshed, followed by a laminar flow simulation
in COMSOL® . Flow rates at each channel seg-
ment (Qchannel ) are evaluated and reported to the
MATLAB® script.
(c) The width (w) of each segment is updated as
w new = wold × Qtarget /Qchannel , where Qtarget is
the target average flow rate across a channel seg-
ment. Therefore, if the flow rate in a segment is
greater than target Qtarget , its width is reduced to
increase its flow resistance and reduce the flow
rate, and vice versa. If needed, channel width
restrictions may be imposed here, which may
limit the achievable flow uniformity.
(d) Steps 2 and 3 are repeated until the maximum
relative difference between channel segment flow
rates and the target, max(|Qchannel /Qtarget | − 1)
(which by definition equals the maximum change
in channel segment width when scaled by the
new width, max(|w new − w old |/w new )) is below
a certain threshold. In cases reported herein,
said threshold depends on the mesh resolution
(details below).
To shorten run time, the optimization routine
begins with a coarse mesh and progresses to medium
and then fine meshes. Precise meshing details may be
found in the code provided in the SI. The numer-
ical optimization of the 16 × 16 diamond cell net-
work began with the initial non-optimized design in
figure 4(A) which has a maximum relative flow devi-
ation max(|Qchannel /Qtarget − 1|) of 80%. After 5, 2,
and 4 iterations with the coarse, medium, and fine
resolution meshes, respectively, said relative flow rate
deviation was less than 0.68%, 0.34% and 0.06%. The
numerically optimized design is shown in figure 4(B).
Using the stated minimum number of iterations for
each mesh resolution required 1.5 h in total run time
on six Intel® Xeon® 3.50 GHz cores. Optimizing
the 12 × 12 square lattice network in figure 4(C)
proceeded in a similar manner, though convergence
was slower. The maximum relative flow deviation of
the non-optimized design is 63%. Similar maximum
relative flow deviations, 0.73%, 0.48%, 0.07% were
achieved for coarse, medium, and fine mesh resolu-
tions with 25, 16, and 29 iterations, respectively. Said
iterations required a total of 9 h and produced the
optimized design shown in figure 4(D).
Figure 4 shows the predicted velocity magnitude
and relative deviation from the average flow rate
(Qchannel /Qtarget − 1) for the initial and numerically
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003 J Grinham et al

Figure 4. (Left) Initial and optimized channel network designs and resulting velocity magnitudes predicted by two-dimensional
shallow-channel flow simulations at a total flow rate of 5 ml min−1 (Right) Relative deviation between flow rate through a
particular channel segment and the global average for (A) initial 16 × 16 diamond cell channel network with 1 mm width for all
channel segments in the array, (B) optimized 16 × 16 diamond cell channel network with widths of channel segments in the array
optimized to maximize flow uniformity, (C) initial 12 × 12 square lattice network with 1 mm width for all channel segments in
the array, (D) optimized 12 × 12 square lattice network with widths of channel segments in the array optimized to maximize flow
uniformity. Relative deviations (right, z-axis) for (A) and (C) are three-orders of magnitude larger than those for (B) and (D).
Channel heights are 100 μm.

8
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003
optimized channel network designs. The first col-
umn also shows the channel segment width changes.
In the initial (non-optimized) designs with constant
channel segment width, the inlet-to-outlet flow paths
via the central region are shorter than those through
the outer regions. Therefore, the flow resistance is
less (more) and the channel segment flow rates are
more (less) for flow paths through the central (outer)
regions. The numerical optimization widens chan-
nels in the outer regions, especially near the corners,
and narrows the central channel segments, especially
near the ports, to decrease (increase) the flow resis-
tance and direct more (less) flow to outer (central)
channels. The second column shows the relative flow
deviation Qchannel /Qtarget − 1 for each channel seg-
ment in the array. The flow uniformity increases dra-
matically between non-optimized and optimized dia-
mond and square channel arrays. The maximum flow
non-uniformity max(|Qchannel /Qtarget − 1|) of the ini-
tial diamond and square network designs are 80%
and 63%, respectively. In the numerically optimized
designs, said non-uniformity is 0.06% and 0.07% for
the diamond and square channel networks, respec-
tively. In the next section, we study experimentally the
effect of said flow uniformity optimization on surface
temperature distribution. Note that the optimization
condition in step 3 could be replaced by one related to
the surface temperature above each channel segment,
if heat transfer were solved in addition to the flow.
All designs simulated herein are symmetric with
respect to the x-axis, the line connecting master inlet
and outlet. The non-optimized designs (which form
the starting point of the numerical optimizations) are
also symmetric with respect to the y-axis, which is
perpendicular to the x-axis halfway between the mas-
ter inlet and outlet. Though the optimized designs
seem qualitatively (visually) symmetric with respect
to the y-axis, they are not precisely so due to inertial
effects (e.g. the streamlines for flow from a narrow
channel segment to a wider segment are not identi-
cal to those for flow moving in the reverse direction).
Moreover, the numerical optimization algorithm was
designed for and validated on the full channel net-
work designs (i.e. without reducing the computa-
tional domains using the x-axis symmetry) in order
that it may also be applied to non-symmetric cases in
the future.
A number of issues may reduce the unifor-
mity of the flow rates across the numerically opti-
mized channel networks. The accuracy of the two-
dimensional flow simulations (which rely on the
shallow channel approximation) depends on the
size of the channel aspect ratios. Following opti-
mization, some channel segments may not have
widths much larger than height, reducing the accu-
racy of the flow simulation and therefore the chan-
nel network design optimization. A similar itera-
tive numerical technique involving three-dimensional
finite element simulations could be pursued in this
9
J Grinham et al
case, though we felt that the two-dimensional opti-
mization was adequate for this study. Secondly, the
channel network geometries are optimized for one
particular Reynolds number (i.e. flow rate, fluid vis-
cosity, and channel height), and may not perform
optimally for other Reynolds numbers. This may
be particularly relevant near the inlet and outlet.
Lastly, the channel width optimization may produce
channels that are too wide or narrow to fabricate or
that intersect, limiting the achievable maximum uni-
formity. In this case, the master inlet and outlet could
be replaced by bifurcating structures (see section 3.4).
3.2. Experimental validation of optimized and
non-optimized channel network designs
We fabricated and tested the non-optimized and
numerically optimized channel network designs to
assess performance improvements. To demonstrate
the scalability of our optimization approach, we also
performed a preliminary study on a heat exchanger
design with a larger surface area. We first tested one
pair of optimized and non-optimized designs from
each main type of channel network considered herein,
diamond and square. The distributor and collector
widths of the non-optimized systems were 2 mm,
while those of the optimized systems were chosen as
5 mm, which, for the designs considered here, yield
reasonable optimized channel segment widths in the
arrays. Note that very wide channels may lack struc-
tural integrity, while very narrow channels may com-
plicate fabrication. We measured and compared the
temperature uniformity of these optimized and non-
optimized designs. For additional comparison, we
fabricated and tested serpentine, parallel, and branch-
ing channel network designs (with 1 mm channel
widths and 10 mm channel spacing), which are com-
monly used in industrial and scientific applications
(see review in section 1). Experiments were run with
a constant static temperature (T∞ ) between 38◦ C and
40◦ C. Room temperature water (Tinlet = 20◦ C) was
pumped through each microchannel network at a
flow rate of 6 ml min−1 (Reynolds number Re 20)
and 30 ml min−1 for the larger designs (Reynolds
number Re 20).
3.3. Results for diamond, square, and common
channel network designs
Channels in each heat exchanger design were visual-
ized by filling the channels with a graphitic carbon
suspension (figures 5(A), 6(A) and 8(A)). The tem-
perature distributions are reported in figures 5(B),
6(B) and 8(B) for each channel network design tested.
To help visualize the lateral (y) variation in surface
temperature distribution, the 22.5◦ C isotherm (i.e.
2.5◦ C warmer than the inlet water temperature 20◦ C)
is plotted as a point above at each channel segment in
the array (figures 5(B), 6(B) and 8(B)). Said isotherm
is also plotted separately for each design in a Cartesian
grid (figures 5(C), 6(C) and 8(C)).
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003 J Grinham et al

Figure 5. Temperature uniformity analysis for optimized and non-optimized diamond and square channel network designs.
(A) Channel geometries are visualized by filling channel arrays with a graphitic carbon suspension solution. (B) Thermal images
of the top of each heat exchanger device show the effect of cooling by the channel arrays. Magenta dots indicate position of 22.5◦ C
isotherm on the top device surface above channels in the array. (C) Axial position of 22.5◦ C isotherm across the channel array vs
lateral (y) position in the array. The x and y grid spacings are 10 mm.

Figure 5 parts (B) and (C) show that the tem-
perature distributions of the optimized diamond and
square network designs are more laterally uniform
across the channel array. In particular, temperature
profiles in the lateral (y) direction have shallow ‘U’
shapes in the optimized designs, compared to sharper
‘V’ shapes in the non-optimized designs. The ‘U’ vs
‘V’-shaped profiles indicate that the numerical opti-
mization of flow uniformity results in more uniform
temperature distributions in the optimized devices.
Moreover, the ‘V’-shape of the temperature profile
of the non-optimized designs likely indicates that the
flow rates are higher in the central channels near the
inlet and lower in the outer channels near the cor-
ners, as predicted by our numerical simulations. The
sharp temperature increases observed in figure 5(B)
near the outer channels (forming the outer edges of
the observed ‘U’-shaped profiles) are the result of heat

10
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003 J Grinham et al

Figure 6. Temperature uniformity analysis for branching, parallel, and serpentine channel networks typical of industrial heat
exchangers. All geometries have constant channel spacing δ = 10 mm and width w = 1 mm. (A) Channel geometries are
visualized by filling channel arrays with a graphitic carbon suspension solution. (B) Thermal images of the top of each heat
exchanger device show the effect of cooling by the channel arrays. Magenta dots indicate position of 22.5◦ C isotherm on the top
device surface above channels in the array. (C) Axial position of 22.5◦ C isotherm across the channel array vs lateral (y) position in
the array. The x and y grid spacings are 10 mm.

diffusing from the non-cooled solid-phase perimeter
of device.
Figure 6 shows the temperature distributions
for serpentine, parallel, and branching channel net-
work designs, which are commonly used in industry.
The serpentine design has the most uniform surface
temperature distribution (flat isotherm) while the
parallel and branching designs have ‘V’-shaped
isotherms.
To further quantify and compare the uniformity
of the temperature distributions across channel net-
work designs, we calculate the deviation of surface
temperatures (figures 5(C), 6(C) and 8(C)) from their
maximums above intersection points where channel
segments cross the axial centerline (x) of the array.
The deviations for channel segments that are the
same distance from the axial centerline of the net-
work are then averaged. We then scale the averaged
temperature deviations (T) and define temperature
uniformity [75] by
Temperature Uniformity
 
Max(T) − Min(T)
= 1− × 100%.
Mean(T)
(11)
The maximum, mean, and minimum temperatures
in equation (11) are taken over all channel segments
except those on the outer boundaries adjacent to non-
cooled regions.
The temperature uniformity for different designs
are reported in figure 7. The non-optimized diamond
and square channel network designs have tempera-
ture uniformities of 52 ±6% and 46 ±7%, respec-
tively. The optimized diamond and square channel
network designs have temperature uniformities of

11
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003
Figure 7. Experimentally measured heat flux and temperature uniformity for each heat exchanger design tested.
77 ±5% and 74 ±5%, respectively. This shows that
the optimized diamond and square channel network
designs have temperature uniformities that are 25%
and 28% higher, respectively, than non-optimized
designs. The optimized diamond and square network
designs have higher temperature uniformity com-
pared to the parallel and branching designs; how-
ever, they have a lower uniformity compared to
the serpentine design, which has a single channel
and a near-uniform temperature profile (figure 7).
The latter result is expected based on intuition and
previous literature. Though the serpentine design has
optimal uniformity, it suffers from a pressure drop on
the order of 40-times that for branching designs [33],
has a longer flow path and thus requires higher flow
rates to avoid thermally overworking the fluid, and
would also be more severely affected by a clog.
To compare the cooling performance between
channel network designs, we calculate the heat flux
removed by the flow (qflow ) defined in equation (2)
from the flow rate and water inlet (Tinlet ) and
outlet (Toutlet ) temperatures (figure 7). The non-
optimized diamond and square channel network
designs have heat fluxes qflow of 129 ± 4 W m−2 and
137 ± 3 W m−2 , respectively. The optimized diamond
and square channel network designs have heat fluxes
of 178 ± 10 W m−2 and 171 ± 5 W m−2 , respec-
tively. Thus, the flows in the optimized diamond and
square channel networks remove 37% and 25% more
heat per unit time than their non-optimized counter-
parts. Consistent with these findings, the optimized
12
J Grinham et al
diamond and square network designs also have aver-
age surface temperatures (T̄ s ) that are 2◦ C and 1◦ C
lower, respectively, than their non-optimized coun-
terparts. The total thermal resistances (Rtherm ) of
the optimized diamond and square channel network
designs, defined in equation (4), are also lower than
those for the non-optimized designs. These findings
may be rationalized by noting that the regions near
the collectors of the optimized diamond and square
designs are cooler than those of the corresponding
non-optimized designs (i.e. the temperatures at the
downstream corners are cooler). This suggests that in
the optimized designs, more heat is being removed by
the higher flow rates in the channels near the periph-
ery. Lastly, the optimized diamond and square chan-
nel network designs have heat fluxes around 10% to
46% higher than those of the serpentine, parallel, and
branching designs (figure 7).
3.4. Larger heat exchangers
Figure 8 demonstrates the efficacy of the numerical
design optimization method on larger surface area
heat exchangers (300 mm × 300 mm) by apply-
ing the method to a 40 × 40 diamond-shaped unit
cell design (we considered 16 × 16 arrays in earlier
sections). The non-optimized geometries have typi-
cal parameters from section 2.1 with δ = 10 mm and
w = 1 mm. Unlike the smaller devices considered
in earlier sections, the laminated fabrication method
employed for the larger devices produces a channel
height of h = 500 μm. More critically, we used a hier-
archical sizing approach and designed the device with
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003 J Grinham et al

Figure 8. Temperature uniformity analysis for large surface area optimized and non-optimized diamond-shaped unit cell
designs. The non-optimized geometries have typical parameters from section 2.1 with δ = 10 mm and w = 1 mm. (A) Channel
geometries are visualized by filling channel arrays with a graphitic carbon suspension solution. (B) Thermal images of the top of
each heat exchanger device show the effect of cooling by the channel arrays. Magenta dots indicate position of 22.5◦ C isotherm on
the top device surface above channels in the array. (C) Axial position of 22.5◦ C isotherm across the channel array vs lateral (y)
position in the array. The x and y grid spacings are 15 mm.

bifurcated distributor and collector channels with
5 mm widths (figure 8(A)). Had we instead used sin-
gle large channels for the distributor and collector, as
in the devices considered in section 3.3, the numeri-
cal optimization routine would have produced chan-
nels of widths well outside our large array fabrication
limits (0.5 mm to 4 mm). Even with said bifur-
cated distributor and collector, we still had to impose
said limits on the optimized channel widths, which
reduced the flow uniformity in the few columns of
channel segments nearest the distributor and collec-
tor. Channel segments that were more than three
columns away from the distributor and collector had
relative flow rate deviations of less than 0.15%.
As in section 3.3, we ran a temperature uniformity
analysis on the non-optimized and optimized designs
(figures 8(B) and (C)). Similar to the optimized
diamond and square designs in section 3.3, the tem-
perature distribution of the 40 × 40 optimized dia-
mond channel network is more laterally uniform
across the channel array resulting in a shallow ‘U’-
shaped temperature profile compared with a ‘W’-
shaped temperature profile in the non-optimized
design. The optimized diamond channel network
design has a 3.5-fold higher temperature unifor-
mity (equation (11)) compared to the non-optimized
design (figure 7).
For the larger devices, numerical optimization
leads to a smaller increase in heat flux (qflow ), around
3%, compared to the smaller devices considered
in section 3.3. While the material composition dif-
fers between the large and small devices considered
herein, this finding suggests multiple points of con-
sideration for future research. As discussed above, the
smaller devices have larger perimeter-to-area ratios
compared to the larger devices. Since the flow rate
optimization directs more flow to the periphery in
the devices considered herein, the smaller devices are
able to remove a larger proportion of heat from the
periphery compared to the larger devices. Also, recall
that even with bifurcated distributor/collector, we still
had to impose channel segment width restrictions on
the large devices, which limited the level of flow rate
uniformity. We could have added additional bifur-
cations, but wanted to minimize the space taken up
by the distributor/collector. Such restrictions were
not needed on the smaller devices, due to size and
fabrication method, and hence the smaller devices
were able to achieve higher flow uniformity. More-
over, the bifurcated distributor/collector improved
the flow rate uniformity and thermal performance
of the non-optimized large device, resulting in a less
pronounced improvement by optimizing the array of
the large device. That said, the 3.5-fold higher tem-
perature uniformity shown in the optimized device
suggests that the optimization to the array still pro-
vides a meaningful improvement in flow uniformity.

13
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003
This suggests that, for flow and temperature unifor-
mity, optimizing the interior channels of a device may
reduce the need for multiple bifurcations, in turn
reducing the device area used for bifurcated distrib-
utor and collector channels. Additionally, the 3.5-fold
higher temperature uniformity and limited cooling
improvement may indicate that the mass flow rate
across the larger devices may be too low, resulting in a
thermally overworked fluid. Finally, the larger chan-
nel height changes the aspect ratio and reduces the
corresponding Nusselt numbers, which may reduce
the convective heat transfer rate.
4. Conclusion
In this work we presented an experimentally derived
sizing rule for microchannel networks with bioin-
spired diamond-shaped unit cell designs. This
design strategy is intended for new, non-traditional
microchannel devices that cool large surface areas at
relatively low heat fluxes in wearable, medical, and
building industry applications. Our experimental
characterization of these channel networks shows
that the channel segment width to spacing ratio
(w/δ) may be taken on the order of 20 or greater,
or equivalently, a channel area ratio (φ) greater than
approximately 15%. In other words, more closely
packed channels do not appreciably improve heat
exchanger performance. Fabrication strategies related
to the w/δ scale factor should also be considered in
future design work. For example, since the minimal
suitable value for w/δ is approximately 20, larger
channel widths and lengths may be used, within fab-
rication limitations. Likewise, as the area of elastomer
between channels increases, the total surface area
for bonding increases, increasing the yield during
fabrication and reducing the risk of delamination at
higher flow rates.
We also reported a novel, bioinspired numerical
method for optimizing channel flow rate uniformity
and therefore heat exchanger cooling performance.
The numerical method was applied to two geome-
tries (diamond and square channel networks) in the
present work, and we demonstrated that the method
is sufficiently flexible to be generalized to larger heat
exchangers. We fabricated and tested optimized and
non-optimized diamond and square channel network
designs and compared their temperature uniformity
and cooling performance. The increased tempera-
ture uniformity of the optimized designs increases
the heat flux by 25% to 37% compared to non-
optimized designs. We also showed experimentally
that the optimized designs have better cooling per-
formance relative to conventional industry channel
network designs fabricated from the same elastomer
composite.
14
J Grinham et al
5. Materials and methods
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS, Sylgard 184, Dow
Corning) layers (2 mm thick) were molded on an
original master template, fabricated with mirror-
finish vinyl (Sign Warehouse, 70 μm thick) by scribe-
cutting (Graphtec cutting plotter CE5000-60), and
layered on a flat plastic surface. The PDMS layers were
bonded to 3 mm glass and 2 mm polydimethylsilox-
ane layers by first treating with a corona arc discharge
system (ETP, BD-20), then holding at 70◦ C overnight.
Large devices (figure 8) are laminated using 3 mm
glass plates bonded to a laser cut 500 μm adhesive
foamed acrylic (3M VHB) interior layer.
A peristaltic pump (Stenner SVP1) was calibrated
and used to control the water flow rate through the
device channels. In study phase one, a 150 W incan-
descent lamp was placed approximately 50 cm above
the sample heat exchange device, to heat its top sur-
face. The heat exchange device was suspended 75 mm
above the work surface. Prior to cooling, the top sur-
face of the device was heated up to a static (i.e. flow
off) temperature between 38◦ C to 40◦ C. In study two,
the device was placed on a silicone heat pad (Omega
SRFRA-3/10). Prior to cooling, the top surface of
the device heated up to 38◦ C. Thermal IR measure-
ments were made using an FLIR SC 5600 camera,
and 5 K-type thermocouples (Omega 5TC-TT-K-20-
36 ±0.75%) were attached to the PDMS and glass
surfaces to verify and calibrate IR temperature mea-
surements. Inlet and outlet water temperatures were
measured using 2 K-type thermocouples (Omega
5TC-TT-K-20-36 ±0.75%) and collected using a data
logger (GL Data Logger ±0.01%). Image processing
software (WebPlotDigitizer) was used to generate the
isotherm on the top device surface above the chan-
nel array with a temperature of 2.5◦ C above the inlet
water temperature. To visualize the channel network
geometry, a graphitic carbon suspension (Speedball
Super Black Free Flowing India Ink) was pumped by
a syringe pump (Harvard Apparatus, PhD Ultra).
Author credit
Jonathan Grinham: conceptualization, methodology,
formal analysis, investigation, writing-original draft,
visualization. Matthew Hancock: conceptualization,
methodology, simulation development in COMSOL
Multiphysics® with MATLAB® , Formal analysis,
investigation, writing-original draft, visualization.
Kitty Kummar: conceptualization, methodology,
writing-review and editing. Martin Bechthold:
writing-review and editing, supervision. Donald
E Ingber: writing-review and editing, supervision.
Joanna Aizenberg: writing-review and editing,
supervision.
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003
Acknowledgments
This research received funding from the Wyss Insti-
tute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard
University.
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are
available upon reasonable request from the authors.
ORCID iDs
Jonathan Grinham https://orcid.org/0000-0001-
6374-2800
Matthew J Hancock https://orcid.org/0000-0001-
9820-3620
Donald E Ingber https://orcid.org/0000-0002-
4319-6520
Joanna Aizenberg https://orcid.org/0000-0002-
2343-8705
References
[1] Frost P G H, Siegfried W R and Greenwood P J 1975
Arterio-venous heat exchange systems in the Jackass
penguin Spheniscus demersus J. Zool. 175 231–41
[2] Phillips P K and Heath J E 1992 Heat exchange by the pinna
of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) Comp.
Biochem. Physiol., A 101 693–9
[3] Tattersall G J, Andrade D V and Abe A S 2009 Heat
exchange from the toucan bill reveals a controllable vascular
thermal radiator Science 325 468–70
[4] Tansey E A and Johnson C D 2015 Recent advances in
thermoregulation Adv. Physiol. Educ. 39 139–48
[5] Murray C D 1926 The physiological principle of minimum
work: I. The vascular system and the cost of blood volume
Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 12 207–14
[6] Murray C D 1926 The physiological principle of minimum
work: II. Oxygen exchange in capillaries Proc. Natl Acad. Sci.
12 299–304
[7] LaBarbera M 1990 Principles of design of fluid transport
systems in zoology Science 249 992–1000
[8] Barber R W and Emerson D R 2008 Optimal design of
microfluidic networks using biologically inspired principles
Microfluid. Nanofluid. 4 179–91
[9] Emerson D R, Cieślicki K, Gu X and Barber R W 2006
Biomimetic design of microfluidic manifolds based on a
generalised Murray’s law Lab Chip 6 447–54
[10] Cohn D L 1954 Optimal systems: I. The vascular system
Bull. Math. Biophys. 16 59–74
[11] Cohn D L 1955 Optimal systems: II. The vascular system
Bull. Math. Biophys. 17 219–27
[12] Bejan A 1997 Constructal-theory network of conducting
paths for cooling a heat generating volume Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 40 799–816
[13] da Silva A K, Lorente S and Bejan A 2004 Constructal
multi-scale tree-shaped heat exchangers J. Appl. Phys. 96
1709–18
[14] Cho K-H, Lee J, Ahn H S, Bejan A and Kim M H 2010 Fluid
flow and heat transfer in vascularized cooling plates Int. J.
Heat Mass Transfer 53 3607–14
[15] Liu H, Li P, Van Lew J and Juarez-Robles D 2012
Experimental study of the flow distribution uniformity in
flow distributors having novel flow channel bifurcation
structures Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 37 142–53
15
J Grinham et al
[16] Ramos-Alvarado B, Li P, Liu H and Hernandez-Guerrero A
2011 CFD study of liquid-cooled heat sinks with
microchannel flow field configurations for electronics, fuel
cells, and concentrated solar cells Appl. Therm. Eng. 31
2494–507
[17] Ajdari A 2004 Steady flows in networks of microfluidic
channels: building on the analogy with electrical circuits C.
R. Phys. 5 539–46
[18] Oh K W, Lee K, Ahn B and Furlani E P 2012 Design of
pressure-driven microfluidic networks using electric circuit
analogy Lab Chip 12 515–45
[19] Tondeur D, Fan Y, Commenge J-M and Luo L 2011
Uniform flows in rectangular lattice networks Chem. Eng.
Sci. 66 5301–12
[20] Saber M, Commenge J-M and Falk L 2009 Rapid design of
channel multi-scale networks with minimum flow
maldistribution Chem. Eng. Process. 48 723–33
[21] Ohadi M M, Choo K, Dessiatoun S and Cetegen E 2013
Next Generation Microchannel Heat Exchangers
(SpringerBriefs in Thermal Engineering and Applied Science)
(New York: Springer)
[22] Smakulski P and Pietrowicz S 2016 A review of the
capabilities of high heat flux removal by porous materials,
microchannels and spray cooling techniques Appl. Therm.
Eng. 104 636–46
[23] Ebadian M and Lin C 2011 A review of high-heat-flux heat
removal technologies J. Heat Transfer 133 110801
[24] Mundinger D, Beach R, Benett W, Solarz R, Krupke W,
Staver R and Tuckerman D 1988 Demonstration of
high-performance silicon microchannel heat exchangers for
laser diode array cooling Appl. Phys. Lett. 53
1030–2
[25] Chen N C J, Felde D K and Yoder G L 1996 Thermal analysis
of two-phase microchannel cooling Report No.
CONF-961105-5 Oak Ridge National Laboratory
[26] Jaeseon Lee I and Mudawar I 2009 Low-temperature
two-phase microchannel cooling for high-heat-flux thermal
management of defense electronics IEEE Trans. Compon.
Packag. Technol. 32 453–65
[27] Shao B, Sun Z and Wang L 2007 Optimization design of
microchannel cooling heat sink Int. J. Numer. Methods Heat
Fluid Flow 17 628–37
[28] Liu D and Garimella S V 2007 Flow boiling heat transfer in
microchannels J. Heat Transfer 129 1321–32
[29] Roy S K and Avanic B L 1996 A very high heat flux
microchannel heat exchanger for cooling of semiconductor
laser diode arrays IEEE Trans. Compon., Packag., Manuf.
Technol. 19 444–51
[30] Glukhikh I V, Polikarpov S S, Frolov S V, Volkov A S and
Privezentsev V V 2010 Cooling of silver bullet laser diode
submodules Tech. Phys. 55 855–9
[31] Qi Z, Zhao Y and Chen J 2010 Performance enhancement
study of mobile air conditioning system using microchannel
heat exchangers Int. J. Refrig. 33 301–12
[32] Garimella S 2003 Innovations in energy efficient and
environmentally friendly space-conditioning systems Energy
28 1593–614
[33] Han Y, Liu Y, Li M and Huang J 2012 A review of
development of micro-channel heat exchanger applied in
air-conditioning system Energy Procedia 14
148–53
[34] Peng Q and Du Q 2016 Progress in heat pump air
conditioning systems for electric vehicles-a review Energies
9 240
[35] Escher W, Ghannam R, Khalil A, Paredes S and Michel B
2010 Advanced liquid cooling for concentrated photovoltaic
electro-thermal co-generation 2010 3rd Int. Conf. Thermal
Issues in Emerging Technologies Theory and Applications
(ThETA) pp 9–17
[36] Royne A, Dey C J and Mills D R 2005 Cooling of
photovoltaic cells under concentrated illumination: a
critical review Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 86
451–83
Bioinspir. Biomim. 17 (2022) 015003
[37] Reddy K S, Lokeswaran S, Agarwal P and Mallick T K 2014
Numerical investigation of micro-channel based active
module cooling for solar CPV system Energy Procedia 54
400–16
[38] Bahaidarah H M S, Baloch A A B and Gandhidasan P 2016
Uniform cooling of photovoltaic panels: a review Renewable
Sustainable Energy Rev. 57 1520–44
[39] Wang Y, Ding G-F and Fu S 2007 Highly efficient manifold
microchannel heatsink Electron. Lett. 43 978–80
[40] Ashby M F 2011 Materials Selection in Mechanical Design
4th edn (Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann)
[41] Bartkowiak G, Dabrowska A and Włodarczyk B 2015
Construction of a garment for an integrated liquid cooling
system Text. Res. J. 85 1809–16
[42] Ernst T C and Garimella S 2013 Demonstration of a
wearable cooling system for elevated ambient temperature
duty personnel Appl. Therm. Eng. 60 316–24
[43] Sun Y and Jasper W J 2015 Numerical modeling of heat and
moisture transfer in a wearable convective cooling system
for human comfort Build. Environ. 93 50–62
[44] Yazdi M M and Sheikhzadeh M 2014 Personal cooling
garments: a review J. Text. Inst. 105 1231–50
[45] Song G-S and Seo J T 2009 Relationship between ambient
temperature and heat flux in the scrotal skin Int. J. Androl.
32 288–94
[46] Epstein Y, Shapiro Y and Brill S 1986 Comparison between
different auxiliary cooling devices in a severe hot/dry
climate Ergonomics 29 41–8
[47] Drost M K and Friedrich M 1997 Miniature heat pumps for
portable and distributed space conditioning applications
IECEC-97 Proc. 32nd Intersociety Energy Conversion
Engineering Conf. vol 2 pp 1271–4
[48] Nah P K, Pradhan C K, Nag A, Ashtekar S P and Desai H
1998 Efficacy of a water-cooled garment for auxiliary body
cooling in heat Ergonomics 41 179–87
[49] Gregory R P, Cooke T, Middleton J, Buchanan R B and
Williams C J 1982 Prevention of doxorubicin-induced
alopedia by scalp hypothermia: relation to degree of cooling
Br. Med. J. 284 1674
[50] Bulow J, Friberg L, Gaardsting O and Hansen M 1985
Frontal subcutaneous blood flow, and epi- and
subcutaneous temperatures during scalp cooling in normal
man Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 45 505–8
[51] Ekwall E M, Nygren L M L, Gustafsson A O and Sorbe B G
2013 Determination of the most effective cooling
temperature for the prevention of chemotherapy-induced
alopecia Mol. Clin. Oncol. 1 1065–71
[52] Hasanuzzaman M, Malek A B M A, Islam M M, Pandey A K
and Rahim N A 2016 Global advancement of cooling
technologies for PV systems: a review Sol. Energy 137
25–45
[53] Radziemska E 2003 The effect of temperature on the power
drop in crystalline silicon solar cells Renew. Energy 28 1–12
[54] Zondag H A, de Vries D W, van Helden W G J, van
Zolingen R J C and van Steenhoven A A 2002 The thermal
and electrical yield of a PV-thermal collector Sol. Energy 72
113–28
[55] Coventry J S 2005 Performance of a concentrating
photovoltaic/thermal solar collector Sol. Energy 78
211–22
16
J Grinham et al
[56] Price Industries 2011 Engineer’s HVAC Handbook: A
Comprehensive Guide to HVAC Fundamentals 1st edn
(Winnipeg: Price Industries Limited)
[57] British Standards Institution 2004 BS EN 14240:2004:
Ventilation for Buildings—Chilled Ceilings—Testing and
Rating (International Organisation for Standardization)
[58] Stetiu C 1998 Radiant cooling in US office buildings:
towards eliminating the perception of climate-imposed
barrier PhD Thesis Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
[59] Chow T-T, Li C and Lin Z 2010 Innovative solar windows
for cooling-demand climate Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 94
212–20
[60] Chow T-T, Li C and Lin Z 2011 Thermal characteristics of
water-flow double-pane window Int. J. Therm. Sci. 50 140–8
[61] American Society of Heating Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers 2009 ASHRAE Handbook
Fundamentals (Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers)
[62] Grinham J, Craig S, Ingber D E and Bechthold M 2020
Origami microfluidics for radiant cooling with small
temperature differences in buildings Appl. Energy 277
115610
[63] Zhao D, Aili A, Zhai Y, Lu J, Kidd D, Tan G, Yin X and Yang
R 2019 Subambient cooling of water: toward real-world
applications of daytime radiative cooling Joule 3 111–23
[64] Khan M G and Fartaj A 2011 A review on microchannel
heat exchangers and potential applications Int. J. Energy Res.
35 553–82
[65] Stankova N et al 2015 Optical properties of
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) during nanosecond laser
processing Appl. Surf. Sci. 374 96–103
[66] Tomholt L, Geletina O, Alvarenga J, Shneidman A V, Weaver
J C, Fernandes M C, Mota S A, Bechthold M and Aizenberg
J 2020 Tunable infrared transmission for energy-efficient
pneumatic building façades Energy Build. 226 110377
[67] Carvalho M R, Losada J M and Niklas K J 2018 Phloem
networks in leaves Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 43 29–35
[68] Hatton B D, Wheeldon I, Hancock M J, Kolle M, Aizenberg
J and Ingber D E 2013 An artificial vasculature for adaptive
thermal control of windows Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 117
429–36
[69] Bergman T L, Lavine A S, Incropera F P and Dewitt D P
2011 Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer (New York:
Wiley)
[70] Rohsenow W M, Hartnett J P and Cho Y I 1998 Handbook
of Heat Transfer 3rd edn (New York: McGraw-Hill)
[71] Lienhard J H IV and Lienhard J H V 2016 A Heat Transfer
Textbook Version 2.04 4th edn (Cambridge, MA: Phlogiston
Press)
[72] Shinoda J, Kazanci O B, Tanabe S-I and Olesen B W 2019 A
review of the surface heat transfer coefficients of radiant
heating and cooling systems Build. Environ. 159 106156
[73] Stone H A, Stroock A D and Ajdari A 2004 Engineering
flows in small devices: microfluidics toward a lab-on-a-chip
Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 36 381–411
[74] Squires T M and Quake S R 2005 Microfluidics: fluid
physics at the nanoliter scale Rev. Mod. Phys. 77 977–1026
[75] Commenge J-M, Saber M and Falk L 2011 Methodology for
multi-scale design of isothermal laminar flow networks
Chem. Eng. J. 173 541–51