Presentation On Homeostasis

HOMEOSTASIS
FAYARA ARETHA KUNAEFI

GROUP D
VIGNETTE
A bare-foot person stepped on shattered glass. He
instantly pulled his leg because of pain. The wound
bled then stopped.
EXPLAIN THE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION IN
THE HUMAN BODY
Urone PP, Hinrichs R. College Physics. Houston, Tx: Openstax College; 2012. Chapter 11, Fluid Physics.
Sherwood L. Human physiology : from cells to systems. 9th ed. Australia: Brooks/Cole; 2015.
THE HUMAN BODY
CHEMICAL LEVEL CELLULAR LEVEL
Chemical level: The smallest level of organization in the Groups of similar cells work together for specific functions.
human body. Cells: Basic units of structure and function in living organisms,
Atoms: Basic units of matter, combining to form molecules. varying in size and function.
Molecules: Range from simple (e.g., water - H2O) to Examples of specialized cells:
complex (e.g., proteins, DNA). Neurons transmit electrical signals in the nervous system.
Biological roles: Example: Brain neurons for cognitive functions.
AS AS
Proteins: Essential for cell structure and function.
Muscle Cells contract for bodily movement. Example:
DNA: Carries genetic information.
Skeletal muscle cells for voluntary movement.
Carbohydrates: Provide energy.
Red Blood Cells: Transport oxygen and remove carbon
Lipids: Important for cell membranes and energy storage.
dioxide. Example: Vital component of blood for oxygen
delivery.
White Blood Cells: Part of the immune system, combat
infections. Example: Lymphocytes and phagocytes in
immune response.
THE HUMAN BODY
THE HUMAN BODY
TISSUE LEVEL ORGAN LEVEL
Tissue level: Groups of similar cells with shared functions, one level above Organs comprise various tissue types working together for
cellular organization. Four primary types of tissues: specific functions.
Epithelial Tissue: Composed of closely packed cells. Covers Each tissue type contributes its specialized capabilities to
surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands. Examples: Skin, digestive tract
the organ's overall function.
lining, sweat glands.
This collaboration ensures the organ has necessary structure,
Connective Tissue: Cells dispersed in an extracellular matrix.
Functions: Provides support, connects tissues/organs, stores energy. support, movement, communication, and protection.
AS
Examples: Loose connective tissue, tendons, bone tissue. AS
Examples: Liver combines epithelial tissue (lining and
Muscle Tissue: Consists of contractile cells (muscle fibers). Functions: metabolic functions), connective tissue (structural
Generates force for movement, maintains posture, produces heat. support), muscle tissue (regulates blood flow), and
Types: Skeletal (voluntary), Smooth (involuntary), Cardiac nervous tissue (communication and coordination).
(involuntary). This integrated effort among different tissues is vital for organ
Nervous Tissue: Comprises neurons and glial cells. Functions:
health and effective function.
Transmits and processes nerve impulses, coordinates bodily functions.
Examples: Neurons (signal transmission), Glial cells (support and
protection).
Tissues collaborate to form organs.
THE HUMAN BODY
Urone PP, Hinrichs R. College Physics. Houston, Tx: Openstax College; 2012. Chapter 11, Fluid Physics.
THE HUMAN BODY
SYSTEM LEVEL ORGANISM LEVEL
System level: Higher complexity than organs, involving multiple Organism level: Highest biological hierarchy, representing the
organs working together. complete individual entity.
Organs within a system collaborate to achieve a common goal. All systems, organs, and tissues work together for life-sustaining
Each system specializes in specific functions crucial for overall functions. Various bodily systems collaborate to maintain
well-being. homeostasis and respond to environmental changes.
Systems interact to carry out complex physiological Ability to adapt to the environment and maintain stable internal
AS AS
processes. Systems collectively maintain stable internal conditions is crucial for survival.
conditions and respond to changes. Integration of All Levels: Encompasses lower levels of
Digestive System Example: organization, including organs, tissues, cells, and molecules.
Organs: Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Energy and Metabolism: Acquire, process, and utilize energy
Intestine, Rectum, Anus. through metabolic processes, including nutrient consumption
Interactions: Coordination between organs for sequential and waste elimination.
digestion and absorption. Communication with nervous Life Cycle: Involves stages of birth, growth, reproduction, and
system for regulation of processes like peristalsis and eventual death, ensuring species continuity. Each organism
enzyme secretion. possesses a unique genetic composition, contributing to
individual characteristics and traits.
BASIC CELL FUNCTIONS
Overview
All living organisms, even unicellular ones (smallest organisms capable of independent
life), are capable of carrying out these basic functions:
Metabolism: Refers to vital chemical reactions within living organisms. Involves
breaking down nutrients for energy and building molecules.
Example: Cellular respiration converts glucose into ATP for energy.
Reproduction: Process of generating offspring, can occur through sexual or asexual
means. Sexual reproduction involves gamete fusion; asexual reproduction produces
genetically identical offspring.
Example: Bacteria reproduce asexually via binary fission.
Sensitivity: Ability to respond to both internal and external stimuli. Enables cells to
detect changes in their environment and adapt behavior.
Example: Neurons transmit signals in response to stimuli.
Homeostasis: Maintaining stable internal conditions despite external changes.
Regulates factors like temperature, pH, and ion concentrations.
Example: Skin cells regulate temperature through sweat and vasoconstriction.
Overview
All living organisms, even unicellular ones (smallest organisms capable of

independent life), are capable of carrying out these basic functions:
Excretion: Removal of waste products and metabolic byproducts to prevent
harmful buildup. Ensures cellular cleanliness and proper functioning.
Example: Kidney cells excrete urea and excess salts to maintain electrolyte
balance.
Nutrition: Involves intake and exchange of materials and gases with the
environment. Provides essential nutrients for energy and cellular processes.
Example: Plant cells perform photosynthesis to produce glucose and oxygen.
Growth: Increase in size, shape, or number of cells, crucial for development and
tissue repair. Allows organisms to adapt and thrive in their environment.
Example: Osteocytes deposit new bone tissue for bone growth and strength.
Example of a Unicellular Organism
Organelles Carry Out These Functions
FOUR PRIMARY TISSUE TYPES
Gastrulation transforms single-layered

embryo into three primary germ
layers.
Ectoderm gives rise to:
Epithelial Tissue (skin, oral/nasal
linings)
Nervous Tissue (brain, spinal cord)
Mesoderm forms:
Connective Tissue (bones, blood
vessels)
Muscle Tissue (skeletal, smooth,
cardiac muscles)
Additional Epithelial Tissue (lining
of certain organs)
Endoderm develops into:
Epithelial Tissue (digestive,
respiratory tract linings)
Glandular Tissue (thyroid, liver,
pancreas)
Mesenchyme, an embryonic
connective tissue, contributes to
various cell types, including
fibroblasts for connective tissue
formation.
Epithelial Tissue
Specialized tissue lining inner and outer body surfaces.
Avascular: Lacks its own blood supply; receives nutrients from
underlying connective tissue.
Regenerative Capacity: Can replace damaged cells due to presence of
unipotent stem cells.
Basement Membrane: Thin layer between epithelium and connective
tissue.
Basal Lamina, Lamina Lucida, Lamina Densa, Lamina Reticularis.
Nutrition and Nerve Supply: Relies on connective tissue for nutrients;
nerve fibers may extend into epithelium.
Functions:
Protection: Shields against physical, chemical, and microbial threats
(e.g., skin).
Absorption: Specialized cells absorb nutrients (e.g., digestive tract).
Secretion: Produces and releases substances like enzymes and mucus
(e.g., stomach).
Sensation: Contains sensory cells for detecting stimuli (e.g., taste
buds).
Filtration and Excretion: Participates in waste removal (e.g., kidney
tubules).
Diffusion: Facilitates movement of small molecules (e.g., alveoli in
lungs).
Types of Epithelial Cells - Squamous
Types of Epithelial Cells - Cubodial
Types of Epithelial Cells - Columnar
Types of Epithelial Cells - Transitional
Epithelial Tissue - Glands (epithelium extending into connective tissue)
Exocrine Gland:
Connected to surface with excretory duct.
Comprises excretory duct and terminal portion.
Terminal portion shapes: Acinus (berry-shaped), Alveolus (sack-like).
Categorized by secretion consistency:
Serous (dark, round nuclei, fluid-like secretion, e.g., parotid gland).
Mucous (pale, flattened nuclei, e.g., Brunner gland).
Mixed (both mucous and serous, e.g., submandibular gland).
Modes of Secretion:
Holocrine (A):
Cell produces product, undergoes apoptosis, entire cell and product are
secreted (e.g., sebaceous gland).
Merocrine (B):
Secretions stored in vesicles, released via exocytosis, only secretion is
released (e.g., small sweat glands).
Apocrine (C):
Portion of cytoplasm secreted, enters lumen (e.g., apocrine glands in axilla).
Endocrine Gland:
No connection to surface, lacks excretory duct.
Compound Gland:
Contains both endocrine and exocrine components.
Example: Liver (has both types of cells) and pancreas (distinct regions for each
type).
Connective Tissue
Specialized Connective Tissues
Hard Tissues
Cartilage:
Flexible, avascular tissue found in areas subject to mechanical stress.
Composed of chondrocytes (cartilage cells) embedded in a firm, gel-like
matrix.
Types include hyaline cartilage (found in the nose and trachea), elastic
cartilage (found in the ears), and fibrocartilage (found in intervertebral
discs).
Bone:
Rigid, highly vascularized tissue forming the skeleton.
Consists of osteocytes (bone cells) within a matrix of collagen fibers and
minerals like calcium phosphate.
Classified into compact bone (dense outer layer) and spongy bone (porous
inner layer with trabeculae).
Fluid Tissue
Blood:
Liquid connective tissue composed of plasma (fluid component), red blood
cells (carry oxygen), white blood cells (immune function), and platelets
(clotting).
Circulates in arteries, veins, and capillaries, transporting nutrients, gases,
and waste products.
Loose Connective Tissue:
Areolar Connective Tissue:
Contains fibroblasts (cells producing fibers) in a
gel-like ground substance.
Widely distributed beneath epithelial tissues,
surrounding organs, and between muscles.
Provides support, elasticity, and cushions
organs.
Adipose Connective Tissue:
Predominantly adipocytes storing triglycerides
for energy.
Found in subcutaneous tissue, around kidneys
and heart, in bone marrow, and around nerves.
Functions in insulation, energy storage, and
protection of organs.
Reticular Connective Tissue:
Composed of reticular fibers forming a mesh-
like stroma.
Located in lymph nodes, spleen, liver, and bone
marrow.
Provides structural support for lymphoid organs.
Dense Connective Tissue:
Regular Connective Tissue:
Composed primarily of collagen fibers running parallel to each other.
Found in tendons (attach muscle to bone) and ligaments (connect bone to bone).
Provides high tensile strength in one direction.
Irregular Connective Tissue:
Collagen fibers arranged in various directions, providing strength in multiple planes.
Found in the dermis of the skin, capsules around organs, and in areas subject to stress and tension.
Muscle Tissues
Cell Types:
Cells with contractile abilities for movement and function.
Myoepithelial cells found in specific glands, capable of
contracting to expel fluids.
Myofibroblasts, expressing actin and myosin, play a
crucial role in wound healing / tissue repair.
Muscle Tissues Types
Smooth Muscle (Involuntary):
Fusiform, elongated cells with a central oval nucleus.
Surrounded by sarcolemma and external lamina.
Appears red, acidophilic, with dense bodies and
longitudinal lines.
Exhibits striation due to myofibrils.
Cardiac Muscle (Involuntary):
Striated, branching fibers, 15-80 micrometers in length.
Typically one nucleus, occasionally two, with a
perinuclear space.
Intercalated discs form a staircase-like structure.
Skeletal Muscle (Voluntary):
Striated cells arranged in parallel bundles with multiple
nuclei.
Tubular, long-shaped cells, with satellite cells for
regeneration.
Surrounded by connective tissues: Epimysium,
Perimysium, Endomysium.
Developed from myoblasts, resulting in multinucleated
fibers.
Endomysium contains continuous capillaries.
Nervous Tissue
Nervous System:
Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves extending from
the spinal cord to the body.
Neurons:
Cell Body (Soma/Perikaryon):
Contains nucleus with prominent nucleolus.
Multiple dendrites extend from the cell body.
Nissl bodies at dendrite ends.
Axon:
Single, long process.
Axon hillock lacks organelles.
Axon can be extensive and may branch.
Ends in axon terminals, facilitating synaptic
connections.
Nervous Tissue
Supporting Cells (Glial Cells):
Astrocytes (Fibrous and Protoplasmic):
Functions: Regulate blood flow, transfer mitochondria to
neurons, supply neurotransmitter building blocks.
Predominant in the CNS.
Oligodendrocytes:
Functions: Generate and maintain myelin, enhance axonal
signal conduction.
Specific to the CNS.
Microglial Cells:
Functions: Regulate brain development, maintain
neuronal networks, assist in injury repair.
Present throughout the CNS.
Ependymal Cells:
Functions: Control CSF production and flow, regulate
brain metabolism and waste clearance.
Located at the interface between brain parenchyma and
ventricles.
Schwann Cells:
Functions: Maintain the PNS.
Found in close proximity to axons in peripheral nerves.
SYSTEMS THAT MAKE UP A HUMAN AND
THEIR PRIMARY FUNCTION
Human body:
Unified structure
of cells, tissues,
organs, systems.
Organ: Tissues
organized for
specific function.
Contains
combination of
the different
types of tissues
System: Organs
coordinated for
complex body
functions.
Systems work together to maintain homeostasis and ensure the proper functioning of the human body. These
systems are interconnected, and they often work together to carry out complex physiological processes.
Muscular system:
Made of specialized cells called muscle fibers.
Main function: Contractibility.
Muscles attached to bones or organs facilitate
movement.
Almost all body movement is due to muscle
contractions.
Exceptions: Cilia, sperm flagellum, and amoeboid
movement of certain white blood cells.
Integumentary system
Skin is a complex organ with all four types of
tissue.
It constitutes approximately 16% of an adult's
total body weight.
If flattened, it would cover 1.2 to 2.3 square
meters.
Includes the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis,
associated glands, hair, and nails.
Skeletal System:
Includes bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons, comprising
about 20% of body weight.
Provides a sturdy internal framework with a prominent spine.
Supports and protects soft organs, helping against gravity's
pull.
Protects vital organs like the brain, spinal cord, heart, and
lungs.
Bone tissue types: compact (dense) and spongy (less dense).
Cells: Osteoblasts form bone, osteoclasts break down bone,
osteocytes are mature bone cells.
Nervous System:
Primary control, regulation, and communication
system in the body.
Governs mental activities like thought,
learning, and memory.
Works with the endocrine system for maintaining
homeostasis.
Functions of the nervous system can be
categorized as: Sensory, Integrative, Motor
Endocrine System:
Glands (e.g., pituitary, thyroid, adrenal) secrete hormones.
Works with the nervous system to regulate body activities.
Nervous system uses electrical impulses for short, localized
effects. Endocrine system uses hormones for longer,
generalized effects on growth, development, and metabolism.
Two major gland categories: Exocrine and Endocrine.
Exocrine glands have ducts, releasing secretions to surfaces (e.g.,
sweat, sebaceous, digestive glands).
Endocrine glands are ductless, secreting hormones directly into
the blood for cells with specific receptor sites.
Cardiovascular System:
Heart and blood vessels transport vital
substances in the body.
Composed of the heart, arteries, veins, and
capillaries.
Blood circulates through this closed system,
carrying oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste
products.
Capillaries play a vital role, facilitating the
exchange of nutrients and waste products with
surrounding cells.
Lymphatic System:
Includes nodes, vessels, spleen, and tonsils; maintains fluid
balance, transports immune cells, and filters pathogens.
Functions:
a. Returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood, preventing
swelling.
b. Absorbs fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive
system and transports them to circulation.
c. Defends against microorganisms and disease through lymph
nodes and lymphocytes.
Digestive System:
Involves mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas; processes and absorbs nutrients from food.
Digestive tract and accessory organs work together to break down
food for absorption by body cells.
Accessory structures: tongue, teeth, salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas; secrete fluids for digestion.
Processes in the body: Digestion, Absorption, Elimination.
Six functions of digestive system: Ingestion (intake of food), Mechanical
Digestion (breaking down large pieces), Chemical Digestion
(transforming complex molecules)
Respiratory System:
Lungs and airways facilitate oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange
with the environment.
Provides oxygen for metabolic processes and removes waste
products.
Collaborates with circulatory system to regulate blood pH.
Respiration involves a sequence of events for gas exchange
between atmosphere and body cells.
Ventilation moves air in and out of the lungs; external
respiration occurs between lungs and blood.
Urinary System:
Filters waste, regulates electrolytes and blood pressure.
Maintains body fluid volume and composition within normal
limits.
Functions in waste removal from cellular metabolism (excretory
system). Regulates water excretion, electrolyte concentrations,
and blood pH.
Produces erythropoietin for red blood cell production and
secretes renin for blood pressure regulation.
Components: Kidneys (urine formation), ureters (carry urine),
bladder (temporary reservoir), urethra (urine elimination).
Male Reproductive System: Aims to
Reproductive System: produce new individuals for reproduction.
Ensures species survival, while Components:
other systems maintain individual Pair of testes
Excretory ducts (epididymis, ductus
homeostasis. Four key functions:
deferens, ejaculatory ducts)
Generate egg and sperm cells Seminal vesicles
(gametes). Prostate
Transport and support gametes. Bulbourethral glands
Nourish developing offspring. Penis
Produce hormones.
Primary reproductive organs
(gonads): Ovaries (female) and
testes (male).
Gonads produce gametes and Female Reproductive System: Produce,
hormones, influencing transport, and sustain female sex cells (ova),
reproductive system maturation support fetal development, and produce sex
hormones.
and sexual characteristics.
Components:
Other organs, ducts, and glands Ovaries
are involved in gamete Fallopian tubes
transport, sustenance, and Uterus
offspring development. Vagina
Accessory glands
External genital organs
INTERNAL & EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
"The stability of the internal environment is the condition for the free and independent life."
- Claude Bernard
Internal Environment
Conditions and factors within an organism's body crucial for
cellular and tissue function.
Maintains homeostasis for optimal physiological processes.
Components include:
Body Fluids (blood, interstitial fluid) for nutrient transport.
Body Temperature regulation for biochemical reactions.
Blood pH (around 7.4) for enzyme efficiency.
Electrolyte Balance (sodium, potassium, calcium) for nerve
and muscle function.
Nutrient Levels (carbs, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals).
Oxygen Levels for cellular respiration.
Waste Removal (carbon dioxide, nitrogenous compounds) to
prevent toxicity.
Intracellular Fluid (ICF): Fluid within cells, contains a
substantial portion of the body's water and electrolytes.
Extracellular Fluid (ECF): Fluid outside cells, includes
interstitial fluid (between cells) and plasma (in blood vessels).
INTERNAL & EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
External Environment
Surroundings outside an organism's body, influencing well-being
(affects internal environment).
Encompasses physical, chemical, biological, and socio-cultural
factors:
Physical Factors:
Temperature, climate, topography, land features.
Chemical Factors:
Atmospheric composition (oxygen, nitrogen, etc.), soil
composition.
Biological Factors:
Flora, fauna, microorganisms, their interactions.
Social and Cultural Factors:
Human activities (agriculture, industry), cultural practices.
Geographical Features:
Bodies of Water (oceans, rivers), Landforms (mountains,
valleys).
Both environments are interdependent and influence an
organism's health and functioning.
Management of these interactions is vital for the health of
organisms and ecosystems.
HOMEOSTASIS: DEFINITION & CONCEPT
Body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions despite
external changes.
Dynamic Equilibrium: Constant adjustment of internal
conditions within a narrow range.
Regulation and Feedback Mechanisms: Utilizes receptors,
control centers, and effectors to restore balance.
Key Variables: Maintains critical factors like body temperature,
blood pH, glucose levels, electrolytes, and oxygen.
Negative Feedback Loops: Corrective actions initiated when a
variable deviates from its set point.
Set Point: Ideal target value for a specific variable, mechanisms
work to keep it close.
Self-Regulatory Control:
Autonomous Adjustments: Internal mechanisms automatically
respond to changes without external intervention.
Constant Monitoring: Continual assessment and adjustment of
variables to maintain stability.
Inherent Mechanisms: Organisms possess built-in regulatory
systems that operate independently.
Homeostasis Threshold:
Threshold Level: Specific range within which a variable must remain for optimal functioning.
Limits of Tolerance: Beyond the threshold, conditions become suboptimal, potentially leading to
dysfunction or harm.
Examples of Homeostasis:
Temperature Regulation: Adjusts blood flow and sweating in response to temperature changes.
Blood Glucose Regulation: Insulin and glucagon regulate glucose levels in response to meals and
fasting.
pH Balance: Respiratory and renal systems work together to maintain blood pH.
Osmoregulation: Ensures balance of water and electrolytes in the body.
Homeostasis Pathways
Feedback Loops:
Negative Feedback: Corrects variables to set points
(e.g., temperature regulation).
Positive Feedback: Amplifies responses (less
common in homeostasis).
Endocrine System: Hormones regulate various
homeostatic processes.
Nervous System: Facilitates rapid adjustments through
nerve impulses.
Renal Regulation: Kidneys balance water, electrolytes,
and pH levels.
Respiratory Regulation: Controls blood pH through
carbon dioxide levels.
Digestive System: Absorbs nutrients and water for
osmotic balance.
Integumentary System: Regulates thermal balance
through sweating, vasoconstriction, etc.
Muscular System: Generates heat during contractions for
thermal balance.
Skeletal System: Stores essential minerals for ionic
balance.
MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS
Regulation of Blood Glucose - Negative Feedback
Glucose is essential for ATP production through cellular
respiration.
Elevated blood glucose levels can be detrimental,
necessitating regulation.
Insulin and glucagon, released from the pancreas' islets
of Langerhans, play opposing roles.
After feeding (high blood glucose):
Insulin (from β cells) is released, decreasing blood
glucose by:
Promoting glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) in the
liver.
Enhancing glucose uptake by the liver and adipose
tissue.
Increasing glucose breakdown (cellular respiration).
After exercise (low blood glucose):
Glucagon (from α cells) is released, increasing blood
glucose by:
Stimulating glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis) in
the liver.
Facilitating glucose release by the liver and adipose
tissue.
Reducing glucose breakdown (cellular respiration).
Thermoregulation - Negative Feedback
Process of maintaining a stable internal body
temperature despite external temperature variations.
Negative Feedback Loop:
Thermoregulation exemplifies negative feedback, where
a deviation from the normal body temperature prompts
corrective measures to restore it.
Response to Temperature Changes:
When body temperature shifts due to environmental or
metabolic factors, compensatory mechanisms are
activated.
Body operates within a specific temperature range
called the set point. Deviations trigger physiological
responses.
Heat Gain and Loss:
Cold Environment:
Body temperature drops.
Responses:
Shivering to increase heat production.
Vasoconstriction to conserve heat.
Hot Environment:
Body temperature rises.
Responses:
Sweating for evaporative cooling.
Vasodilation to enhance heat dissipation.
Childbirth - Positive Feedback
Positive feedback amplifies the initial change in a process.
Fetal growth leads to uterine wall stretching, activating stretch
receptors.
This triggers the release of oxytocin, which induces uterine
contractions, further reducing womb space.
Contractions cause more stretching and more contractions until
the baby is born.
Hormones involved in childbirth:
Oxytocin: Stimulates contractions, inhibits progesterone.
Estriol (Estrogen): Increases uterine sensitivity to oxytocin,
inhibits progesterone, prepares uterus for childbirth.
Progesterone: Initially inhibits contractions.
Prostaglandin: Released by the fetus in response to contractions,
intensifying them.
Sequence of events:
Baby's growth leads to uterine stretching and estriol release.
Estriol sensitizes uterine muscles and inhibits progesterone,
allowing contractions.
Brain releases oxytocin, starting contractions.
Fetus releases prostaglandins, intensifying contractions.
Labor concludes when the baby is fully born, and uterine wall
stretching stops.
Feedforward Control
Enables the body to anticipate and prepare for impending environmental changes.
It allows the body to predict and initiate the salivation reflex before actual exposure to stimuli like food.
Homeostasis involves maintaining stable internal conditions despite external fluctuations in factors like temperature
or blood sugar levels.
Reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to specific stimuli, aiding rapid adjustments to environmental changes.
The salivation reflex is a specific response involving saliva production triggered by cues associated with food consumption.
Feedforward control is proactive, preparing the body for anticipated events before they occur, optimizing the body's
response to changing conditions.
Benefits the body by ensuring prompt and efficient physiological responses.
REFLEX ARC
Homeostasis involves reflexes and feedback mechanisms.
Reflex Components:
A reflex arc involves several components:
Stimulus: A change in the environment that triggers a response.
Sensory Receptor: Detects the stimulus.
Receptors are specialized structures detecting environmental changes (stimuli),
found in various body parts like skin, muscles, and organs.
Afferent Pathway: Transmits the signal to the integration center.
Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons): Transmit sensory information from
receptors to the central nervous system (CNS).
Integration Center: Processes the information and makes a decision.
Interneurons: Located in the CNS, they process and integrate sensory
information, forming connections between sensory and motor neurons.
Efferent Pathway: Transmits the response signal to the effector.
Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons): Transmit signals from the CNS to effectors
(muscles or glands).
Effector: Carries out the response.
Effectors (Muscles): Carry out the response instructed by motor neurons,
contracting or relaxing accordingly.
Response: The action taken to restore balance.
REFLEX ARC
REFLEX ARC
REFLEX ARC Reflex Process Example:
When a stimulus disrupts equilibrium,
the receptor detects it and sends a
signal via the afferent pathway to the
integration center. The integration
center makes a decision and
transmits the response through the
efferent pathway to the effector,
which executes the action. This
process maintains physiological
balance.
Control Systems:
There are two main control systems
involved:
Neural System: Responsible for
rapid, direct responses. It can be
further categorized into simple
endocrine, simple neural, and
complex neural endocrine
reflexes.
Hormonal System: Induces slower,
widespread responses through the
release of hormones.
REFLEX ARC
Types of Neural Reflexes:
There are two categories:
Skeletal Reflexes: Control skeletal muscle
contractions.
Autonomic Reflexes: Regulate involuntary
bodily functions.
Synaptic Arrangements:
Reflexes can be categorized based on the
number of synapses involved:
Mono-synaptic: Involves a single synapse.
Poly-synaptic: Involves more than one
synapse.
Polysynaptic Withdrawal Reflex Example:
This reflex involves multiple synapses and is a
withdrawal response. It follows this pathway:
stimulus →
receptor →
afferent pathway →
central control →
polysynaptic decision-
making stimuli→ →
bicep contraction, tricep
relaxation →
pain sensation to the brain.
CONTROL PATHWAY
Components work together to regulate physiological processes and maintain
internal stability, illustrating the principle of homeostasis.
Sensor Mechanism (Receptor):
Acts as the sensory component of the control pathway.
Integrator (Control Center):
Region within the central nervous system (CNS) receiving and processing
sensor information.
Determines appropriate response for homeostasis.
Comparative Mechanism (Set Point):
Reference value or range representing ideal state for a physiological
parameter.
Used as a standard for assessing sensor input.
Example: Normal body temperature set point at 37°C (98.6°F).
Error Signal:
Indicates the difference between actual sensor value and set point.
Signifies need for corrective action.
Effector Mechanism:
Structure (muscle or gland) executing response directed by control center.
Counteracts deviation from set point to restore stability.
Example: Muscles (shivering) and sweat glands (sweating) in temperature
regulation.
CONTROL PATHWAY
Components work together to regulate physiological processes and maintain
internal stability, illustrating the principle of homeostasis.
Response:
Specific action taken by effector to restore physiological parameter to set
point.
Dictated by control center's assessment of error signal.
Example: Sweating to cool down when body temperature is too high.
Feedback Loop:
Communication pathway continuously monitoring sensor input and response.
Ensures system remains balanced.
Example: Continuous monitoring of body temperature and adjustment of
responses.
Adaptation Mechanism (Adaptation):
Allows body to adjust to prolonged environmental changes.
Supports homeostasis in the face of long-term challenges.
Example: Physiological adaptations for high-altitude acclimatization.
Feedback Signal (Output):
Represents actual response generated by effector mechanism.
Indicates effectiveness of response in achieving desired outcome.
Example: Decrease in body temperature as feedback signal indicating cooling
effect of sweating.
CONTROL PATHWAY
Neural Control
CONTROL PATHWAY
Neural Control
CONTROL PATHWAY
Hormonal Control
CONTROL PATHWAY
Hormonal Control
CONTROL PATHWAY
Hormonal Control
Steroid hormones are lipophilic and can
freely enter cells.
Bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or
nucleus of target cells.
Forms an active receptor-hormone
complex.
The complex directly binds to DNA.
Acts as a transcription factor.
Examples include estrogen, progesterone,
and testosterone produced by the gonads.
Peptide hormones are lipophobic = cannot pass

through cell membranes.
Bind to receptors on the cell surface, often coupled
with internally anchored proteins like G proteins.
Initiates a cascade of intracellular molecules
known as second messengers.
Second messengers, including cAMP, Ca2+, NO,
and protein kinases, trigger cellular responses.
Examples of peptide hormones include insulin,
glucagon, leptin, ADH, and oxytocin.
BODY SYSTEMS WORKING TOGETHER
Maintaining Blood Pressure
Blood pressure regulation involves a coordinated effort of the
cardiovascular, nervous, and endocrine systems.
Baroreceptor Detection: Specialized receptors called
baroreceptors in blood vessel walls sense changes in blood
pressure.
Central Control Center: Information from baroreceptors is
sent to the medulla oblongata in the brainstem for
processing and decision-making.
Cardiovascular System: In case of low blood pressure,
mechanisms like vasoconstriction, increased water
retention, and heart rate elevation are activated.
Nervous System: The autonomic nervous system,
especially the sympathetic branch, plays a crucial role in
adjusting heart rate and blood vessel diameter.
Endocrine System: Hormones like epinephrine and
norepinephrine are released to stimulate the heart and
constrict blood vessels.
Renal System's Role: The kidneys regulate blood volume
by adjusting water and salt retention, impacting blood
pressure.
Arterial baroreceptor reflex = short-term regulation of arterial

pressure.
Includes sensory receptors, afferent pathways, integrating
centers in the central nervous system (CNS), efferent pathways,
and effector organs
Efferent pathways = cardiovascular sympathetic and cardiac
parasympathetic nerves.
Effector organs are the heart and peripheral blood vessels.
Sensory receptors = arterial baroreceptors, found in the walls
of the aorta and carotid arteries. Major concentrations near
the arch of the aorta (the aortic baroreceptors) and at the
bifurcation of the common carotid artery into the internal
and external carotid arteries.
Receptors sense arterial pressure from the degree of stretch of
the elastic arterial walls. Mean arterial pressure and the arterial
pulse pressure affect firing rate.
If pressure is elevated for a long period -> arterial
baroreceptor firing rate will return to normal -> “adapts” to
long term changes in pressure = can not serve as long-term
regulation
pH Balance Regulation
Maintaining pH balance requires the interplay of buffering
systems, respiratory control, renal processes, and digestive
system.
Buffering Systems:
Chemical buffers in the blood and cells stabilize pH by
absorbing or releasing hydrogen ions.
Respiratory System's Contribution:
Lungs control blood pH by managing levels of carbon
dioxide through breathing rate adjustments.
Renal Fine-Tuning:
Kidneys excrete excess hydrogen ions to reduce acidity
or reabsorb bicarbonate to counteract alkalinity.
Endocrine Influence:
Hormones like aldosterone and ADH indirectly affect pH
levels by impacting electrolyte balance and water
retention.
Digestive System Involvement:
Stomach acid production and bicarbonate absorption in
the intestines contribute to pH regulation.
EXPLAINING THE VIGNETTE
Withdrawal Reflex Arc

The scenario involves a withdrawal reflex, an
automatic and rapid response to a
potentially harmful stimulus.
This reflex aims to protect the body from
damage and involves the coordination of
sensory, association, and motor neurons.
The response is quick and involves the
contraction of flexor muscles and relaxation
of extensors in the affected limb.
Derderian C, Tadi P. Physiology, Withdrawal Response [Internet]. PubMed. Treasure Island

(FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 [cited 2023 Nov 1]. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544292/
Explaining the Pathway
Activation of Nociceptors:
Nociceptors are specialized nerve endings sensitive to harmful stimuli.
They generate electrical signals in response to potential threats like sharp
objects or extreme temperatures.
Transmission of Pain Signals:
Nociceptor-generated electrical signals are converted into nerve impulses
(action potentials).
These impulses travel along sensory neurons towards the spinal cord.
Synaptic Transmission in Dorsal Horn:
Sensory neurons enter the spinal cord via the dorsal root.
They synapse with relay neurons (interneurons) located in the dorsal horn.
Synaptic Processing:
In the dorsal horn, synaptic processing occurs through specialized connections
called synapses.
Neurotransmitters facilitate signal transmission from sensory neurons to relay
neurons.

Explaining the Pathway
Integration and Decision-Making:
Relay neurons in the dorsal horn act as an integration center, processing
incoming signals.
They make the decision to initiate a rapid withdrawal response.
Activation of Motor Neurons:
Relay neurons synapse with motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord.
Motor neurons are responsible for controlling muscle movements.
Muscle Contraction:
Motor neurons activate the flexor muscles in the affected limb.
This causes rapid contraction, pulling the limb away from the noxious stimulus.
Antagonistic Muscle Action:
Simultaneously, extensor muscles in the limb undergo relaxation.
This coordinated action ensures an efficient and effective withdrawal response.
Speed of the Reflex:
The withdrawal reflex is exceptionally fast, as it bypasses the brain and
operates at the spinal cord level.
This rapid response is crucial for minimizing potential damage from the harmful
stimulus.
Post-Reflex Actions:
After the limb is withdrawn, the body may continue to respond.
Eg. The person may inspect their foot for injury and address any bleeding.

Characteristics
This reflex is both automatic and
localized, requiring no conscious thought
and primarily involving specific muscles.
It is a polysynaptic reflex, meaning it
involves multiple synapses and
interneurons, adding complexity to the
response.
The reflex is remarkably swift due to its
spinal cord-level initiation, occurring
even before the brain registers the pain.
The body's ability to react so promptly
showcases the efficiency of the nervous
system's protective mechanisms.

THANK YOU

Presentation On Homeostasis

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Presentation On Homeostasis

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

HOMEOSTASIS

FAYARA ARETHA KUNAEFI

All living organisms, even unicellular ones (smallest organisms capable of

Gastrulation transforms single-layered

Peptide hormones are lipophobic = cannot pass

Arterial baroreceptor reflex = short-term regulation of arterial

Withdrawal Reflex Arc

Derderian C, Tadi P. Physiology, Withdrawal Response [Internet]. PubMed. Treasure Island

Derderian C, Tadi P. Physiology, Withdrawal Response [Internet]. PubMed. Treasure Island

Derderian C, Tadi P. Physiology, Withdrawal Response [Internet]. PubMed. Treasure Island

Derderian C, Tadi P. Physiology, Withdrawal Response [Internet]. PubMed. Treasure Island

You might also like