Test Bank for How Children Develop Canadian 5th edition Siegler

Saffran Graham Eisenberg DeLoache Gershoff 1319059082

9781319059088
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1.
2.
3. Describe the four major developmental processes underlying the development of a fetus:cell
division, cell migration, cell differentiation, and apoptosis. For each process, provide an
explanation of what occurs during the process as well as an example of the process. Be sure to
specify when during the development of the fetus each process comes into play.

4. Describe a day in the life of an 8-month-old fetus. Include a description of types of

sensations seen, heard, tasted, smelled, and felt by the fetus.

5. A couple with a newborn cannot agree on how much their new baby knows about his new
world. The baby's mother insists that he does not recognize anything and that he would not
know the difference if he were suddenly transported to a different planet, complete with
different sights, sounds, smells, and so forth. The baby's father, however, argues that the baby
learned a lot while in the uterus and thus recognizes many features of his new world. Identify
which parent is more accurate, and discuss at least four piecesof evidence to support that
parent's view.

6. Describe the DeCasper and Spence Cat in the Hat study. What did they ask pregnant women
to do, and why? What did they examine in the newborns of these women? Whatwere their
results, and what can be learned from these results?

7. Describe the differences and similarities of the effects of teratogens in the embryonicperiod
and in the fetal period. Explain why these differences and similarities exist.

8. Provide examples of maternal and environmental factors that affect prenatal

development.

9. Describe how birth is likely to be experienced by the fetus/newborn and explain the
functions served by squeezing the fetus/newborn as it passes through the birth canal.

10.Describe the newborn's states of arousal.

11.Describe the multiple-risk model and how it applies to the association between povertyand
birth outcomes. Be sure to give specific examples to support the description.

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Answer Key
1. There are four major developmental processes that underlie the transformation of a
zygote into an embryo and then to a fetus. The first is cell division. This is also known
as mitosis. Through continuous cell division during the course of pregnancy, the zygote
transforms into a newborn. The second process, called cell migration, occurs during the
embryonic period. This is where cells move away from their original location. Neurons
that originate inside the embryonic brain travel to the outer regions of the developing
brain. The third process is called cell differentiation. Initially, all embryonic cells are
interchangeable and equivalent and are referred to as stem cells. The cells then start to
specialize in terms of function and structure. One key determinant is when cells are
turned on or expressed. Another is the cells location. The fourth developmental process
is cell death. The selective death of certain cells is genetically programmed and is called
apoptosis. This is needed for certain features to fully develop, such as fingers. The
webbing between the fingers needs to die off, so to speak, for the fingers to actually
form.
2. While it is not completely dark inside the womb, what the 8-month-old fetus can see is
limited. The fetus does experience touch or tactile stimulation as a result of its own
activity. The fetus can also bump and push into the wall of the uterus. By 8 months, the
fetus can also respond to maternal movements. This suggests that the fetus's vestibular
systems are functioning prior to birth. The fetus can also taste the flavours that are
contained in amniotic fluid and shows a preference for sweet flavours. The amniotic
fluid also has an odour and often reflects the diet of the mother. The fetus is able to
experience these smells. The fetus also hears sound and noise while in the womb. The
prenatal environment includes maternal sounds related to the mother's digestive system,
heartbeat, and so on. The fetus can also hear the mother speaking. By 8 months the
fetus can also detect noises outside the mother's body, and more external sounds.
3. Research has demonstrated that the fetus is able to learn from its prenatal experiences
during the last trimester of pregnancy, after the central nervous system has developed in
order to support learning. Evidence of fetal learning comes from studies of habituation,
which involves a decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation. Fetuses as
young as 30 weeks of gestation have shown habituation to visual and auditory stimuli.
With this learning ability, fetuses learn the sound of their mothers' voice. They also
remember the smell of the amniotic fluid that they were in. They also remember other
sounds they heard prenatally.
4. DeCasper and Spence (1986) asked pregnant women to read aloud twice a day from
The Cat in the Hat during the last six weeks of their pregnancy. The researchers wanted
to know if the infant would recognize the story after birth. After birth, the researchers
then tested the newborns. The infants were fitted with miniature headphones and given
a special pacifier to suck on. When the infants sucked in one particular pattern, they
heard the familiar story through the headphones, but when they sucked in a different
pattern, they heard an unfamiliar story. The babies quickly increased their sucking in
the pattern that enabled them to hear the story. Based on these results, it is obvious that
fetuses are listening to their environment and learning from their experiences.
5. A teratogen is an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal
development. The effects of teratogen exposure during prenatal development can vary

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 based on the timing of exposure. For instance, exposure during the embryonic period
may result in major structural abnormalities while exposure during the fetal period may
result in physiological defects and minor structure abnormalities. Also, many teratogens
cause damage only if they are present during a sensitive period in prenatal development.
The major organ systems are most vulnerable to damage at the time when their basic
structures are being formed.
6. Environmental factors that can be detrimental to prenatal development include exposure
to lead, which can lead to reduced intelligence and the development of attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms. It is also related to miscarriage, preterm birth,
and low birth rate. Maternal factors that can impede prenatal development include age,
nutrition, health, and stress. For instance, infants born to mothers younger than 15 years
of age are more likely to die before their first birthday, while infants born to mothers
who are in their late thirties or forties have an increased risk of developing fetal
chromosomal abnormalities and birth complications.
7. It is unlikely that the birth experience is painful to the fetus/newborn. The baby
experiences squeezing as it moves through the birth canal, which is not likely to be
painful. Additionally, this squeezing serves important functions. It temporarily reduces the
overall size of the fetus's large head, allowing it to pass safely through the mother's pelvic
bones. This is possible because the skull is composed of separate plates that can overlap
one another slightly during birth. The squeezing also stimulates the production of
hormones that help the fetus withstand mild oxygen deprivation during birth and to
regulate breathing after birth. The squeezing of the fetus's body also forces amniotic fluid
out of the lungs, in preparation for the newborn's first, crucial gasp of air.
8. State refers to a continuum of arousal, ranging from deep sleep to intense activity.
During a 24-hour period newborns experience a total of six states, ranging from quiet
sleep to crying. Within this general pattern, however, there is a great deal of
individual variation. Some infants cry relatively rarely, whereas others cry for hours
every day; some babies sleep much more, and others much less, than the 16-hour
average. Some infants spend more than the average of 2 1/2 hours in the awake-alert
state, in which they are fairly inactive but attentive to the environment.
9. The multiple-risk model highlights that risk factors tend to occur together. For example,
a woman who is so addicted to alcohol, cocaine, or heroin that she continues to abuse
the substance even though she is pregnant is likely to be under a great deal of stress and
unlikely to eat well, take vitamins, earn a good income, seek prenatal care, have a strong
social support network, or take good care of herself in other ways. Furthermore,
whatever the cumulative effects of these prenatal risk factors, they will likely be
compounded after birth by the mother's continuation of her unhealthy lifestyle and by
her resulting inability to provide good care for her child. A negative developmental
outcome is more likely when there are multiple risk factors.

Page 3
1. The Beng people of West Africa believe that life begins:
A) at conception, as an angel is believed to enter the fertilized egg.
B) during the third trimester, as this is the time at which independent thoughts
are believed to begin.
C) at birth, as the newborn is introduced to the sun at this time.
D) when the umbilical stump drops off, as this is when the newborn is believed to
emerge from the spirit village and become a person.

2. Which activity is consistent with the beliefs of the Beng people of West Africa about
when life begins?
A) elabourately painting newborns' faces
B) protecting the umbilical stump from drying out and falling off
C) allowing newborns to cry for several minutes before tending to them
D) All of these activities are consistent with those beliefs.

3. Aristotle supported the idea of epigenesis, the notion that:

A) prenatal development begins with a new miniature individual already preformed.
B) new structures and functions emerge throughout prenatal development.
C) prenatal development begins in the centre of the body of the new individual.
D) woman was created out of the rib of a man.

4. Which concept is consistent with Aristotle's beliefs about prenatal development?

A) The effects of thalidomide on prenatal development vary depending on when
during the pregnancy the mother took the drug.
B) Infants born prematurely already have all the correct structures but in miniature.
C) Female eggs contain minuscule preformed human beings.
D) None of these concepts is consistent with Aristotle's beliefs.

5. If sexual intercourse takes place near the time the egg is released, is possible.
A) conception
B) implantation
C) fertilization
D) meiosis

6. How many sperm are ejaculated during sexual intercourse?

A) 200 million
B) 500 million
C) 200
D) 500

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 7. Sperm and eggs are referred to as:
A) gametes.
B) embryos.
C) zygotes.
D) genetic cells.

8. Germ cells contain chromosome pairs.

A) 13
B) 23
C) 49
D) 92

9. Gametes form through the process of:

A) mitosis.
B) conception.
C) meiosis.
D) germinalization.

10. Conception is:

A) the union of egg and sperm.
B) sexual intercourse.
C) meiosis.
D) the embedding of the fertilized egg into the uterine wall.

11. Once sperm have entered the vagina, how many typically get close to the egg?
A) one or two
B) approximately 200
C) hundreds of thousands
D) millions

12. Which statement about the “survival of the fittest” principle and conception is TRUE?
A) This principle applies only to the process of egg release from the fallopian tube, not
to the other processes involved in conception.
B) The eggs that manage to reach the sperm are likely to be healthy, as eggs with
serious defects tend to be unable to reach the sperm.
C) The sperm that manage to reach the egg are likely to be healthy, as sperm
with serious defects tend to be unable to reach the egg.
D) This principle does not come into play until a child is born.

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13. Which statement(s) about the number of males and females is/are TRUE?
Statement A: Sperm containing a Y chromosome swim faster than those containing an
X chromosome.
Statement B: Male fetuses are more vulnerable to miscarriage than are female fetuses.
Statement C: Cultural values and governmental policy contribute to the differences in
the number of male and female babies born and raised in some societies.
A) Statements A and C only
B) Statement C only
C) Statements A and B only
D) Statements B and C only

14. Which item would likely be MOST interesting to a scientist interested in embryos?
A) an X-ray of the internal organs of a 2-year-old child
B) the ultrasound images of an unborn fetus at 4 weeks following conception
C) a blood test of a pregnant woman
D) a picture of all of the members of a family

15. A fertilized egg is termed a(n):

A) embryo.
B) zygote.
C) fetus.
D) gamete.

16. Which sequence CORRECTLY lists the periods of prenatal development in the
correct developmental progression?
A) zygotic, embryonic, germinal
B) zygotic, germinal, fetal
C) germinal, embryonic, fetal
D) embryonic, germinal, fetal

17. Which sequence lists the periods of prenatal development in the

CORRECT developmental progression from earliest to latest?
A) embryo, fetus, zygote
B) zygote, fetus, embryo
C) fetus, zygote, embryo
D) zygote, embryo, fetus

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18. Which developmental process occurs EARLIEST?
A) cell migration
B) apoptosis
C) cell division
D) cell differentiation

19. Cell division in the embryonic period is referred to as:

A) meiosis.
B) apoptosis.
C) neurosis.
D) mitosis.

20. Which occurrence is an example of mitosis?

A) splitting of the fertilized egg into two equal parts
B) death of cells in between the ridges on the hand plate
C) movement of new cells into the outer layer of the brain
D) specialization of eye cells

21. Cell migration occurs during which period?

A) apoptosis
B) fetal
C) germinal
D) embryonic

22. Embryonic cells are also known as:

A) stem cells.
B) divided cells.
C) fertilized eggs.
D) zygotic cells.

23. Stem cells:

A) have varying genetic makeups.
B) contain half the genetic material of the individual.
C) do not have a fixed function.
D) have stable genetic makeups.

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24. Cell differentiation refers to the of cells.
A) relocation
B) specialization
C) migration
D) death

25. Researchers working on regenerative medicine are interested in early embryonic stem
cells because of their:
A) developmental flexibility.
B) genetic makeup.
C) size.
D) specialized function.

26. Which process is an example of cell differentiation?

A) splitting of the fertilized egg into two equal parts
B) death of cells in between the ridges on the hand plate
C) movement of new cells into the outer layer of the brain
D) specialization of eye cells

27. Regarding the flexibility of a cell's function during the embryonic and fetal periods,
cells are:
A) initially flexible and then become inflexible.
B) initially inflexible and then become more flexible.
C) flexible throughout the embryonic and fetal periods.
D) inflexible throughout the embryonic and fetal periods.

28. The study in which cells located in the eye region of a frog embryo were moved to its
belly demonstrated which property of cell functions?
A) The location of a given cell before migration determines its function.
B) The location of a given cell after migration determines its function.
C) The genetic makeup of a given cell before migration determines its function.
D) The genetic makeup of a given cell after migration determines its function.

29. A mad scientist wishes to create a nonhuman animal with a tongue on its back.
Presuming that the scientist believes in phylogenetic continuity, when would
the scientist be MOST likely to perform the cell transplant?
A) early in the fetal period
B) late in the germinal period
C) early in the embryonic period
D) early in the germinal period

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 30. The idea that humans share some developmental processes with other animals because
of their shared evolutionary history is referred to as:
A) FASD.
B) developmental resilience.
C) fetal programming.
D) phylogenetic continuity.

31. A belief in phylogenic continuity is necessary for developmentalists to:

A) understand that prenatal experiences can affect adult development.
B) predict rates of infant mortality.
C) test hypotheses about human development on chimpanzees.
D) comprehend how stem cells function.

32. Phylogenetic continuity refers to the:

A) expectation that some cells have a programmed suicide and thus selectively
disappear.
B) notion that stem cells may be the key to curing diseases such as Parkinson's and
Alzheimer's.
C) idea that humans share some characteristics and developmental processes with
other animals.
D) relation between a cell's function before and after migration.

33. The fact that researchers interested in human developmental processes often
examine rats is an indication that they believe in:
A) stem cell flexibility.
B) the ethical treatment of animals.
C) apoptosis.
D) phylogenetic continuity.

34. Research demonstrating that it is the scent of amniotic fluid that guides a newborn rat to
its mother's nipple is evidence of:
A) the similarity of rats and humans in their taste preferences.
B) fetal learning.
C) phylogenetic continuity.
D) rats' poor maternal instincts.

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35. Apoptosis refers to:
A) programmed cell death.
B) cell reproduction.
C) cell migration.
D) cell division.

36. Which statement about apoptosis is TRUE?

A) Apoptosis is a necessary part of development.
B) Apoptosis signals there might be a problem with prenatal development.
C) Apoptosis explains why stem cells are sought after by researchers.
D) Apoptosis is also called cell migration.

37. Which event is thought to be apoptosis?

A) splitting of the fertilized egg into two equal parts
B) loss of cells in between the ridges on the hand plate
C) movement of new cells into the outer layer of the brain
D) specialization of eye cells

38. The presence of determines whether a fetus develops female or male sex organs.
A) testosterone produced by the mother
B) progesterone produced by the mother
C) androgens produced by the fetus
D) progesterone produced by the fetus

39. Which statement about the development of sex organs is TRUE?

A) If the mother produces testosterone, then the fetus will develop male organs; if
the mother produces estrogen, then the fetus will develop female sex organs.
B) If the fetus produces testosterone, then it will develop male organs; if the fetus
produces estrogen, then it will develop female sex organs.
C) If the fetus produces high levels of testosterone, then it will develop male organs; if
the fetus produces moderate levels of testosterone, then it will develop female sex
organs.
D) If the fetus produces androgens, then it will develop male organs; if the fetus
produces no androgens, then it will develop female sex organs.

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40. Which item is an example of the active participation of the fetus in its own
development?
A) fetal alcohol syndrome
B) hormonal influence on development of sex organs
C) placental defense against toxins and infections
D) cephalocaudal development

41. John and James are fraternal twins. Which statement explains how fraternal twins form?
A) Fraternal twins develop from one fertilized egg that divides into three different cell
masses at the moment of conception.
B) Fraternal twins result when two different eggs are released from the ovary into the
fallopian tube and both are fertilized.
C) Fraternal twins are formed when two different sperm enter the same egg.
D) Fraternal and maternal twins are formed exactly the same way.

42. Stacey and Macey are identical twins. What does this mean in terms of their genetic
makeup?
A) The DNA from their mother is the same, but their DNA differs in terms of
what they received from their father.
B) The DNA from their father is the same, but their DNA differs in terms of what they
received from their mother.
C) They have inherited different DNA from both of their parents.
D) They have exactly the same DNA.

43. A transparent, fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus is called the:
A) neural tube.
B) amniotic fluid.
C) amniotic sac.
D) placenta.

44. This hormone increases the flow of maternal blood to the uterus.
A) estrogen
B) progesterone
C) testosterone
D) apoptosis

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45. Identical twins most often originate when:
A) two eggs are fertilized by two sperm.
B) an egg splits and is fertilized by two sperm.
C) an inner cell mass splits in half.
D) an embryo splits in half.

46. Which statement about the levels of genetic similarity of identical twins, same-sex
fraternal twins, and other same-sex sibling pairs is TRUE?
A) Same-sex fraternal twins and other same-sex sibling pairs have an equal level
of genetic similarity, and they are both less genetically similar than are identical
twins.
B) Same-sex fraternal and identical twins have an equal level of genetic similarity,
and they are both more genetically similar than are other same-sex sibling pairs.
C) Same-sex fraternal twins are less genetically similar than are identical twins and
more genetically similar than are other same-sex sibling pairs.
D) Identical twins, same-sex fraternal twins, and other same-sex sibling pairs all have
equal levels of genetic similarity.

47. After the implantation of the zygote, as the ball of cells begins to differentiate, the inner
cell mass becomes the:
A) fetus.
B) gamete.
C) embryo.
D) support system.

48. The three layers of the inner cell mass develop into:
A) different parts of the body of the fetus.
B) the fetus, the zygote, and the embryo.
C) the embryo, the placenta, and the umbilical cord.
D) different parts of the neural tube.

49. The neural tube develops into the:

A) internal organs.
B) brain and spinal cord.
C) digestive system.
D) inner layers of skin.

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50. Which organ contains the blood vessels running between the embryo and the placenta?
A) the umbilical cord
B) the amniotic sac
C) the neural tube
D) the amniotic fluid

51. Which organ acts as a defensive barrier against toxins and infections?
A) the umbilical cord
B) the amniotic sac
C) the placenta
D) the amniotic fluid

52. Which activity is NOT a function of the placenta?

A) allowing for the transport of nutrients to the fetus
B) allowing for the removal waste products from the fetus
C) cushioning the fetus
D) providing a barrier to infection

53. Which adjective describes a characteristic of the placenta?

A) transparent
B) watery
C) watertight
D) semipermeable

54. The placental membrane allows to pass through it.

A) oxygen, carbon dioxide, blood, and some antibodies
B) blood, urea, minerals, and nutrients
C) all antibodies, nutrients, urea, and oxygen
D) carbon dioxide, nutrients, minerals, and some antibodies

55. The protects the fetus from bumps and jolts.

A) umbilical cord
B) amniotic fluid
C) neural tube
D) placenta

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56. The nose and the mouth are almost fully formed during the week of
prenatal development.
A) 4th
B) 6th
C) 8th
D) 10th

57. The heart has achieved its basic adult structure by the week of prenatal
development.
A) 4th
B) 6th
C) 8th
D) 11th

58. By the week of prenatal development, the external genitalia are developed.
A) 4th
B) 6th
C) 8th
D) 16th

59. Which statement about the rate of prenatal development is TRUE?

A) Earlier development takes place at a more rapid pace than later development.
B) Later development takes place at a more rapid pace than earlier development.
C) The pace of development remains relatively continuous.
D) Development begins slowly, speeds up, and then slows down again.

60. Cephalocaudal development refers to the tendency for development to take place from
to .
A) head; body
B) body; head
C) inside; outside
D) outside; inside

61. In general, prenatal development occurs in such a manner that areas close to the
develop earlier than do areas farther away from it.
A) spinal cord
B) heart
C) head
D) large intestine

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62. Which statement about prenatal development of the heart is TRUE?
A) By 6 weeks, the heart has developed into its basic adult structure.
B) At 12 weeks, the heart begins to beat and circulate blood.
C) By 4 weeks, the heart is beating and circulating blood.
D) At 16 weeks, the heart develops into its basic adult structure.

63. The brain and lungs are well enough developed by the week that the fetus has a
chance of surviving on its own without medical intervention.
A) 14th
B) 28th
C) 34th
D) 37th

64. By the week of prenatal development, most of the movements that will be present
at birth have appeared.
A) 4th
B) 6th
C) 12th
D) 16th

65. Approximately how long after conception does the fetus begin to make movements?
A) 3 hours
B) 5 weeks
C) 12 weeks
D) 5 months

66. For which fetal behaviour is there no clear explanation?

A) breathing movements
B) hiccups
C) swallowing
D) moving arms and legs

Page 12
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
strange piece, Et la lune descend sur le temple qui fut, is a further
experiment in the kind of music of which La soirée is an example.
Here as there the music is fragmentary. Here as there there is but an
occasional touch of vividness against a background of misty night. In
both pieces pictures, words, almost sounds are only suggested to
the ear, not completely represented.

On the other hand, the Cloches à travers les feuilles, and the
Poissons d’or, respectively the first and last pieces in this second set
of Images, are what we might call consistently motivated throughout,
in the manner of the Reflets dans l’eau. There is always the rustling
of leaves and the faint jangle of bells in the former, always a quiver
of water and a darting, irregular movement in the latter; whereas in
neither La soirée nor in Et la lune is there the persistence of an idea
that is thus predominant and more or less clearly presented.

The last two series of Préludes show us his art yet more finely
polished and concentrated. In general these twenty-four pieces are
shorter and more concise than the Estampes and the Images,
certainly than the representative pieces in them—Pagodes, Les
jardins, and Reflets dans l’eau. Most of them, moreover, are in his
suggestive rather than his explicit manner. He accomplishes his end
with a few strokes, and usually in a short space. The placing of the
titles at the end rather than at the beginning of the pieces is an
interesting point, too; for one cannot believe that such a finished
artist as Debussy shows himself in these pieces to be would have
sent his work before the public without a consciousness of the
significance of such an arrangement. He does not, as it were,
announce to his auditors his purpose, saying, imagine now this
sound which you are about to hear as representing in music a
picture of gardens through a steadily falling rain. He rather draws a
line here upon his canvas and adds a point of color there, all in a
moment, and then, having shown you first this strange beauty of
combinations, says at the end you may now imagine a meaning in
the west wind, a church sunk beneath the surface of the sea, a
tribute to Mr. Pickwick, dead leaves, or what not in the way of
exquisite and incomplete ideas.
Many of these postscripts are significantly vague: Voiles, Les sons et
les parfums tournent dans l’air du soir, Des pas sur la neige (Alkan
called a piece of his Neige et lave), La terrasse des audiences du
clair de lune, etc.

Yet, however vague the subject or the suggestion, there is a sort of

epigrammatic clearness in the music. The rhythms are especially
lithe and endlessly varied, the phrase-building concise yet never
commonplace. There is a glitter of wit in nearly all, an unfailing sense
of light and proportion. This, not the strange harmonies nor the
imagery, seems to us the quality of his music that is typically French.
There is infinite grace and subtlety; sensuousness in color, too,
though it is spiritualized; but there is little that is sentimental.

The delicacy and yet the sharpness with which he has reproduced
qualities in outlandish music must be noticed. In earlier music he
gave proof of his insight into the essentials of other systems of music
than the French, or the German which has been considered the
international. The Suite Bergamasque has a local color. There is
Oriental stuff in Pagodes, Spanish and Moorish in La soirée dans
Grenade, Egyptian in Et la lune. Traces of Greek or of ecclesiastical
modes are abundant. Here, in the Préludes all this and more too has
he caught. Greece in Danseuses de Delphes, Italy in Les collines
d’Anacapri, the old church in La cathédrale, Spain in La puerta del
Vino, cake-walks in General Lavine, England in Pickwick, and Egypt
in Canope. There seems a touch of the North, too, in the exquisite
little pieces, La fille aux cheveux de lin. In this way alone Debussy
has rejuvenated music, doing more than others had done.

Finally, it would be hard to find more essence of comedy and wit in

music than one finds in Debussy’s Doctor Gradus ad Parnassum in
the ‘Children’s Corner,’ with its ludicrous play on the erstwhile sacred
formulas of technical study. This alone should place him among the
wits of a century. The Sérénade interrompue and ‘Puck’s Dance’ are
both full of mockery. Then there is the eccentric General Lavine, and,
perhaps most laughable of all, the merry homage to Pickwick, made
up of ‘God Save the King’ and a jig in the English style.
No one can say what the future of his music will be, nor how it will be
related to the general development in music by students a hundred
years hence. Yet it is certain that it recommends itself to pianists at
present because it has expanded the technique of the instrument. It
is made up in part of effects which, as we have said, if they are not
new in principle, are newly applied and expanded. He has developed
resources in the instrument which had not before been more than
suggested. His pieces bring into striking prominence the qualities of
after-sound and sympathetic vibrations or overtones in the piano,
which are as much its possession and as uniquely so as the bell-like
qualities it had before been chiefly called upon to produce. Therefore
though his accomplishments in harmony and form, in the possibilities
of music in general, may be regarded with a changed eye in the
years to come, and though he may even some day appear in many
ways reactionary, because he has once more associated music with
ideas and weakened the independence of its life; yet as far as the
pianoforte is concerned he is the greatest innovator since Chopin
and Liszt.

VI
The pianoforte music of Maurice Ravel is in many ways similar to
that of his great contemporary. His conception of harmony is, like
Debussy’s, expanded. Sevenths and ninths are used as
consonances in his music as well; and consequently one finds there
the free use of the sustaining pedal, the playing with after-sounds
and overtones.

His works are not so numerous. The most representative are the
Miroirs, containing five pieces: Noctuelles, Oiseaux tristes, Une
barque sur l’océan, Alborado del gracioso and La vallée des cloches;
and a recent set, Gaspard de la nuit, containing Ondine, Scarbo, and
Le Gibet, three poems for the piano after Aloysius Bertrand. A set of
Valses nobles et sentimentales are only moderately interesting on
account of the harmonies. The rhythms are not unusually varied, and
the treatment of the pianoforte is relatively simple. There is a well-
known Pavane pour une infante défunte of great charm, and a
concert piece of great brilliance called Jeux d’eau.

Though Ravel, like Debussy, makes use of a misty background, his

music is on the whole more brilliant and more clear-cut. One is
likelier to find in it passages that are sensational as well as effective.
His effects, too, are more broadly planned, more salient and less
suggestive. The Jeux d’eau is a very good example, with its regular
progressions and unvaried style, its sustained use of high registers
rather than an occasional flash into them, its repetitions of rather
conventional figures.
Famous Pianists. From top left to bottom right:
Ferruccio Busoni, Ignace Paderewski, Ossip
Gabrilowitch, Eugen d’Albert.
Yet it is not in technical treatment of the piano that Ravel is most
clearly to be differentiated from Debussy, but rather in the matter of
structure. Most of his pieces are relatively long, and few of them are
written in the fragmentary, suggestive way characteristic of Debussy,
but are consistently sustained and developed. This in general. In
particular one will notice not only a regularity in the structure of
phrases but a frequent repetition of phrases in the well-balanced
manner we associate with his predecessors, sequences that except
in harmony are quite classical. The Jeux d’eau will offer numerous
examples; and the same regularity is noticeable in the Ondine and
Le Gibet. The phrases are long and smooth. They have not the
epigrammatic terseness of Debussy, who, even in passages of
melodious character, always avoids an obvious symmetry. Nor is
Ravel’s music so parti-colored as Debussy’s. It does not touch upon
such exotic or such foreign scales and harmonies. Ravel shows
himself a lover of the Oriental in his string quartet, especially of the
Oriental mannerism of repetition; but one does not find in his
pianoforte music, as in Debussy’s, hints of ancient Greece, of Italy, of
North America, of England. Even the Alborada del gracioso, for all its
length and brilliance, is not Spanish as Debussy’s Soirée dans
Grenade or Puerta del Vino. The impressions one receives from
hearing works of the two men performed one after the other are
really not similar. Debussy’s music is subtle and instantaneous, so to
speak; Ravel’s is rather deliberate and prolonged.

Other French composers have hardly made themselves felt with

such distinctness as these two men. The most prominent of them is
Florent Schmitt whose Pièces romantiques, Humoresques, and Nuits
romaines are worthy of study. Within the last year or two several sets
of pieces by Eric Satie have appeared which must give one pause.
These are almost as simple as Mozart; indeed many of them are
written in but two parts. They are not lacking in charm, whether or
not one may take them seriously. Satie shows himself in many of
them a parodist. He plays strains from the Funeral March in Chopin’s
sonata, twisting them out of shape, and writes slyly over the music
that they are from a well-known mazurka of Schubert’s. He parodies
Chabrier’s España and Puccini’s operas.

Finally he writes directions and indications over measures in the

score which cannot but be a malicious though delightful mockery of
modern music in general. Remembering Scriabin’s Avec une céleste
volupté, or une volupté radieuse, extatique or douloureuse, one is
not surprised to find Satie telling one to play sur du velours jaunie,
sec comme un coucou, léger comme un œuf, though at this last one
may well suspect a tongue in the cheek. But Satie goes much further
than this. There is among the Descriptions automatiques one on a
lantern, in which we are here told to withhold from lighting it, there to
light, there to blow it out, next to put our hands in our pockets. And
throughout the absurd, unless they be wholly ironical, pieces inspired
by Embryons désechés, there is almost a running text which cannot
but stir to hearty laughter. Think of being directed to play a certain
passage like a nightingale with the toothache—comme un rossignol
qui aurait mal aux dents; or of being reminded as you play that the
sun has gone out in the rain and may not come back again, or that
you have no tobacco but happily you do not smoke. Such are the
remarks which Satie intends shall illumine your comprehension of his
music; and his humor is the more delightful because as a matter of
fact Mozart’s first minuet is hardly more simple than this music to
dried-up sea-urchins. Such naughty playfulness may well offend the
conservatories; but even if it is only nonsense, surely it is a felicitous
sign in these days, when high foreheads and bald pates ponderously
try to further the gestation of a new art of music.

If we leave our study of pianoforte music with a laugh it is only

because we may be supremely happy in the possession of so much
music that need not be hidden before the raillery of any wit, no
matter how sacrilegious. Into the hands of Claude Debussy we give
the art of writing for the pianoforte. His is the wisest and most
sensitive touch to mold it since the day of Chopin. Whatever the
music he writes may be, it has conferred upon the instrument once
more the infinite blessing of a proper speech. He has once more
saved it from a confusion of thumps and roars.

Bach, Chopin, Debussy: it is a strange trio, set apart from other

composers because to them the pianoforte made audible its secret
voice, a voice of fading after-sounds. Let us not take Bach from
among them. It was after all the same voice that spoke to him from
his clavichord, more faint perhaps yet even more sensitive. Music
whispered to Mozart that she would sing sweetly for him through his
light pianoforte. The powers of destiny made themselves music at
the call of Beethoven, and they swept up the piano in their force.
Through Schubert the hand of a spirit touched the keys. For Weber
the keys danced together and made strange pantomimes of sound.
Schumann, as it were, spoke to his pianoforte apart, and it opened a
door for him into a fanciful world. To Brahms the keys were
colleagues, not friends, and Liszt drove them in a chariot race,
worthy of Rome and the emperors, or converted them like a
magician into a thousand shapes with a thousand spells. But to
Bach, Chopin and Debussy this instrument revealed itself and
showed a secret beauty that is all its own.
 CHAPTER XI
EARLY VIOLIN MUSIC AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF VIOLIN
TECHNIQUE
The origin of stringed instruments; ancestors of the violin—
Perfection of the violin and advance in violin technique; use of the
violin in the sixteenth century; early violin compositions in the
vocal style; Florentino Maschera and Monteverdi—Beginnings of
violin music: Biagio Marini; Quagliati; Farina; Fontana and Mont’
Albano; Merula; Ucellino and Neri; Legrenzi; Walther and his
advance in technique, experiments in tone painting—Giov.
Battista Vitali; Tommaso Vitali and Torelli; Bassani; Veracini and
others—Biber and other Germans; English and French
composers for the violin; early publications of text-books and
collections.

I
The origin of string instruments of the violin family is involved in
much obscurity and it would be impossible to discuss here the
various theories concerning it which have been stated with more or
less plausibility by musical historians.[42] A preponderance of
authoritative opinion seems to favor the theory that the direct
ancestor of the violin was the Welsh crwth, a sort of harp, which
seems to have been played with a bow. Venantius Fortunatus (570
A.D.) mentions this instrument in the much quoted lines:
Romanusque lyra plaudit tibi, barbara harpa, Græcus Achillaica,
chrotta Britana canat. (‘The Roman praises thee with the lyre, the
barbarian sings to thee with the harp, the Greek with the cither, the
Briton with the crwth.’) The fact that the old English name for the
fiddle was crowd furnishes an etymological argument in favor of the
crwth. It is, of course, possible that the idea of using a bow with the
small harp was first suggested by some instrument already in
existence. The Arabs and other peoples had instruments roughly
approximating the violin type. One is inclined, however, to the
assumption that the violin was not developed directly from any
particular instrument, but came into being rather through the
evolution of an idea with which various races experimented
independently and simultaneously.
 Ignace Paderewski.

After a photo from life (1915).

The immediate forerunner of the violin seems to have been the
rebec, of which there is a drawing in an extant manuscript of the
ninth century. The Benedictine monk Ofried, in his Liber
Evangeliorum of about the same period, mentions the fidula as one
of the two bowed instruments then in use, though to what extent the
fidula differed from the rebec we are unable to ascertain. In the
psalm-book of Notker (d. 1022) there is also a figure of a rebec and
a bow. Drawings, written references and bas-reliefs enable us to
follow the development of the violin clearly enough from this time on.
In the abbey of St. Georges de Boscherville, Normandy, there is
preserved a bas-relief which shows a girl dancing on her head to the
accompaniment of a band which includes two instruments of the
violin type, played with the bow. The Nibelungen Lied speaks of a
fiddler who ‘wielded a fiddle-bow, broad and long like a sword,’ and
although this epic was completed in the twelfth century it is probably
safe to antedate the reference considerably. There is in the cathedral
of Notre Dame in Paris a crowned figure with a four-stringed violin,
and in the Abbey of St. Germain des Près there is a similar relic
showing a man with a five-stringed violin and a bow. Both date from
the eleventh century. From these and similar evidences it is plain
that a violin of a rudimentary type was used extensively in the
eleventh century. Its musical possibilities must have been very slight,
and probably it was used chiefly to accompany the song or the
dance.

As we may deduce from many contemporary references, the

troubadours, jongleurs, and minnesingers[43] of the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries played a very important part in the development
of the violin type of instrument. There is extant, for instance, a
manuscript of the period, containing an illustration of a jongleur
playing upon a three-stringed instrument very nearly resembling the
modern violin. Jerome of Moravia, a Dominican monk of Paris in the
thirteenth century, informs us in his Speculum Musices that the two
strings of the violin then in use were tuned as follows: . His
Speculum, which is probably the earliest approach to an instruction
book for the violin, also contains this very definite indication of the
fingering:

Under the influence of the troubadours and minnesingers the

popularity of the violin spread rapidly both among professionals and
amateur musicians. It was especially popular as an accompaniment
to dances. In the Brunswick Chronicle (1203) we read of a
clergyman who had his arm struck by lightning while playing for
dancers. We may infer from this that it was considered quite a
respectable recreation. The Chronicle has the words veddelte
(fiddled) and Veddelbogen (fiddle-bow) without any comment, so that
they must have been quite familiar terms. A stained glass window, a
Parisian manuscript and a miniature painting from a manuscript
called Mater Verborum (1202-12) show that the instrument then in
use resembled in shape the modern violin. In Ulrich von
Lichtenstein’s Frauendienst we read of an orchestra which included
two fiddles and which played a lively walking-tune or march for the
purpose of charming away the fatigues of the journey. We may
gather some idea of the vogue of violin playing during this period
from the character of a decree, issued in the year 1261 and now in
the archives of Bologna, which forbade the playing of the viol at night
in the streets of that city. Despite its great popularity it held a place
beside the harp as an instrument worthy of the dignity of a minstrel,
as we may gather from an allusion of a French poet about the year
1230:

‘When the cloth was ta’en away

Minstrels strait began to play,
And while harps and viols join
Raptured bards in strains divine,
 Loud the trembling arches rung
With the noble deed we sung.’

By this time professional instrumentalists had become a strong class

and in various cities had begun the formation of fraternities which did
not differ much in essence from our modern musical unions. The first
of these, as far as we can discover, was the St. Nicholas
Brüderschaft which existed in Vienna as early as 1288.

The many and varied forms and sizes of viols illustrated in

manuscripts and elsewhere suggest that the instrument was used in
the music of the church. Certainly instruments of some kind (apart
from the organ) must have been taken into the church service, else
Thomas Aquinas would not have argued against their employment.
The church was not very sympathetic toward musicians and its
attitude was reflected to a great extent by the world at large. Synods
and councils frequently issued decrees against wandering minstrels
and in the city of Worms they were even refused the privilege of
lodging in or frequenting public houses.

The fourteenth century brought much greater recognition for

instrumental art, which grew in popularity and in the favor and
patronage of those in high places. When the French jongleurs united
in 1321 into the Confrérie de St. Julien des Ménestriers they
obtained a charter which called their leaders Rois des ménestriers
(later Rois des violins). The same charter alludes to ‘high and low’
instruments, apparently treble and bass rebecs or viols which were
played in octaves to each other or perhaps in a primitive sort of
counterpoint. Technique must have been very inferior, for musicians
in Alsace were required to study only one or two years before taking
up music as a profession. Their incomes, on the other hand, were
probably substantial, as it is recorded that they were obliged to pay
taxes. It is interesting to note at this early period that the city of Basle
employed a violinist to play in a public place for the entertainment of
the citizens.
So far we have endeavored to trace the progress of violin music
through paintings, monuments and fugitive references in
manuscripts, decrees and other documents. These references are
not on the whole very clear and the nomenclature of early
instruments of the violin family is very loose and confused. We know
practically nothing about the music composed for these instruments.
Their imperfect shape does not suggest music of an advanced kind,
nor does it mean that the technique of the time was equal to very
exacting demands. The famous blind organist, Conrad Paumann
(1410-73), who could play on every instrument, including the violin,
has left us in his Orgelbuch several transcriptions of songs which he
may have played on the violin as well as on other instruments, and
the dances and other pieces of free invention composed for other
instruments may also have served as musical material for violinists.
But all this is mere surmise.
Relatives of the Violin. Top: Viola de braccia, Pochette, Viola
bastarda.
Bottom: Viola da gamba, Violone, Viola d’amore.
Regarding the combination of the violin with other instruments we
know that at the end of the fifteenth century there existed in Louvain
an ‘orchestra’ composed of a harp, a flute, a viol, and a trumpet.
There is recorded an account of another ‘orchestra’ belonging to
Duke Hercules in Ferrara, who employed a great number of
musicians. It included flutes, trumpets, lutes, trombones, harps, viols
and rebecs. We should not assume, however, that all of these
instruments were played simultaneously. Each class of instrument
had its own part and if all of them played together they must have
made noise rather than music. We are also informed that previous to
the year 1450 popes and princes employed ‘orchestras’ which
combined ‘the voices, organ, and other instruments into the loveliest
harmony.’ In spite of the almost entire lack of music for the violin we
know that it was a favorite instrument and consequently that the
players must have produced on it pleasing music of some kind.
Indication of its popularity is found in the works of Fra Angelico
(1387-1455), whose famous angel holds a viol in her hands, and in
Boccaccio’s novels, where we learn that violin music formed a
considerable part of the entertainment of all classes.

II
The sixteenth century brought the violin to a perfection that was still
far in advance of the technique of the players. At the same time there
was a distinct advancement in the recognition of instrumental music,
although vocal music continued to maintain its preeminence. This
was due partly to the limited technique of the instrumentalists and
partly to the greater appeal of music wedded to words. Violin players
then knew nothing about changing of positions and therefore could
play only in the first position.[44] Thus the tone register of the violin
was small. Some players, however, attempted to reach higher tones
on the first string through the stretching of the fourth finger. Simple
melodic phrases or figures were lacking in even quality of tone, in
smoothness and in fluency. The art of legato playing was unknown