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Intermediate Accounting Vol 1 Canadian 3Rd Edition Lo Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF
Intermediate Accounting Vol 1 Canadian 3Rd Edition Lo Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF
9780134145051
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3rd-edition-lo-fisher-0134145054-9780134145051/
Chapter 3
Accrual Accounting
N. Problems
Not a
Significant significant
Factor contributor contributor
a. Improved technological capability (computers, Internet)
b. A diffuse investor base comprising many people
c. Increased pace of business transactions
d. Invention of the printing press
e. Establishment of regulators such as the Ontario Securities
Commission
f. Creation of indefinite-life entities such as corporations
g. Establishment of professional accounting organizations
Not a
Significant significant
Factor contributor contributor
The easy answer is that regulations (accounting standards, stock exchange requirements, etc.)
require companies to do so. However, this answer does not address the question of why
regulations have this requirement. Both business and regulations respond to market demands.
Investors and creditors of publicly accountable enterprises are numerous and have needs for
information at different times for their investing and lending decisions. It would be impractical
for enterprises to provide financial statements according to when each of these
investors/creditors requires the information. Therefore, companies provide the information on
fixed schedules annually or quarterly.
Accrual accounting numbers can be a better predictor of future cash flows because they smooth
out and reallocate cash flows to periods that better reflect the long-term average cash flow of the
enterprise. For example, an equipment purchase results in a large cash outflow but benefits the
company over many years, so allocating the cost of purchase over those years makes each year
more representative of the cash flow expected in a typical year.
* While it is true that the calculation of net present value (NPV) involves discounting cash
flows, this does not imply that accrual accounting numbers are not useful.
* It is important to recognize that capital budgeting and other applications of NPV always
involve the future, and the future is always uncertain.
* The difficult part of an NPV exercise is not the computation of discounted values, but
forecasting future cash flows accurately.
* Accounting numbers can help forecast those future cash flows because accrual
accounting reflects the results of both complete and incomplete transactions.
* Accrual accounting numbers also smooth out irregularities in cash flows such as large
purchases of property, plant, and equipment that produce benefits over many years.
* Thus, while accruals are not cash flows, they provide information that is useful for the
prediction of future cash flows.
a. When PPE are acquired, the business and finance assumption is that these assets will be
used for a number of years to directly or indirectly generate earnings. PPE will create
productive capacity that will allow the firm to operate in the future and produce revenues
or reduce costs, with the overall consequence of increasing net income and net cash
flows. As PPE are held for use, not for resale, they can be recorded on the balance sheet
at their depreciated net book value. The goal of recording PPE in this manner is to match
the recognition of the cost of the asset to expense with the period when the benefit of the
asset is realized. As PPE are expected to last for several years for the future service
potential of the asset to be realized, it is essential that the firm continue to exist into the
foreseeable future (i.e., continue to be a going concern) for this allocation process to
resolve itself. Restated, if a piece of PPE is to be depreciated over a 10-year useful life,
we are assuming that the firm will continue to operate for those 10 years for the
depreciation allocation process to fully expense the cost of the asset.
b. If the going-concern assumption is no longer valid (and the firm is going into
bankruptcy), then assets should be valued at their exit value. This usually will be their net
realizable value, which will likely result in a major reduction in the carrying value of the
asset on the balance sheet and a large loss recorded on the income statement.
c. Depreciation expense for 2013 and 2014 = $900,000 per year ($10,000,000 –
1,000,000)/10).
The depreciation for 2014 should not be the same because the firm will not
continue to operate, so the asset should be valued at its net realizable value. The value of
the machine on the balance sheet on December 31, 2014: $5,500,000.
The downward adjustment to the carrying value of the machine in 2014:
$2,700,000 (= 10,000,000 – 2 × 900,000 – 5,500,000). Technically, as will be seen in
Chapter 10, this amount would be separated into two components. The first is the normal
amount of depreciation that would have been recorded were the going concern
assumption were valid (i.e., $900,000). The remaining $1,800,000 is an additional
expense or loss due to the need to write down the machine’s value to net realizable value.
d. Prepaid rent should be reported at the unexpired value of the rent of $100,000.
If the company were not a going concern, it should value this amount at its net
realizable value—the amount it could recover if it were to ask for a refund from the
landlord—which is likely to be $0. If the premises could be sub-leased to another tenant,
then the prepaid rent could be reported at the value obtainable from the sub-lease.
e. When a company goes into bankruptcy, inventories should be valued at net realizable
value, such as the amount that would be received if it were sold in an auction. Such
forced liquidation would likely be less than the FIFO or average-cost values.
a. Quality of earnings refers to how closely reported earnings correspond to earnings that
would be reported in the absence of management bias.
b. The practice of assessing earnings quality by comparing earnings and cash flows has
some merit but is imperfect.
The difference between earnings and cash flows generally can be referred to as
accruals. These accruals reflect economic circumstances, accounting standards,
professional judgment, ethics (the unbiased portion), as well as management bias
resulting from contractual incentives and managerial opportunism. To the extent accruals
reflect management bias, comparing earnings and cash flows helps to uncover that bias.
On the other hand, management bias comprises only one component of the
accruals; the other component is an unbiased reflection of economic circumstances. The
fundamental idea/assumption underlying accrual accounting is that accrual numbers are
more useful/meaningful compared to cash basis accounting. Using the difference between
accrual numbers and cash flows to assess the quality of earnings in effect says that cash
flows are more useful, and accruals made by accountants/management confuse the
picture rather than make the numbers more meaningful. If this were true, only the cash
flow statement is meaningful, while the balance sheet and income statement would be
useless. However, this is inconsistent with the observed demand for information in the
balance sheet and income statement.
4-year
($ 000’s) Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Total
Cash flow statement
Operations
Inflow from sale of goods $ 5 $ 5 $10 $10 $30
Outflow for operating costs (3) (2) (1) (1) (7)
Cash flow from operations 2 3 9 9 23
Cash flow from investing activities (15) 0 0 7 (8)
Cash flow from financing activities 20 0 0 0 20
Net cash flow for the year 7 3 9 16 35
Cash at beginning of year 0 7 10 19 0
Cash at end of year $ 7 $10 $19 $35 $35
4-year
($ millions) Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Total
Statement of income and retained
earnings
Revenue ($5m/arrival) $5.0 $5.0 $10.0 $10.0 $30
Operating expenses ($1m/arrival) (1.0) (1.0) (2.0) (2.0) (6)
Depreciation ($0.5m/arrival) (0.5) (0.5) (1.0) (1.0) (3)
Loss on ships 0.0 (4.5) 0.0 (0.5) (5)
Write-off of prepaid expenses 0.0 (1.0) 0.0 0.0 (1)
Net income (loss) 3.5 (2.0) 7.0 6.5 15
Retained earnings at beginning of year 0.0 3.5 1.5 8.5 0
Retained earnings at end of year $3.5 $1.5 $ 8.5 $15.0 $15
Balance sheet
Cash $7.0 $10.0 $19.0 $35 $35
Prepaid expenses 2.0 2.0 1.0 0 0
Ships at cost 15.0 10.0 10.0 0 0
Less: accumulated depreciation (0.5) (0.5) (1.5) 0 0
Total assets 23.5 21.5 $28.5 $ 0 $ 0
Contributed capital $20.0 $20.0 $20.0 $20 $20
Retained earnings 3.5 1.5 8.5 15 15
Total equity $23.5 $21.5 $28.5 $35 $35
b. We observe that the total cash flows for operating activities ($23 million) and investing
activities (–$8 million) combine to result in $15 million, which equals the amount of net
income of $15 million over the four years.
In addition, just prior to dissolution of the company, we observe that the amount
of cash equals the balance in owners’ equity, at $35 million. Of this amount, $15 million
is return on capital (i.e., retained earnings), while $20 million is return of capital supplied
by the investors.
d. Sum of income over four years using accounting policy set 1: $1,035,000
Sum of income over four years using accounting policy set 2: $1,035,000
Sum of net cash flows over four years: $1,035,000
These sums show that, from a company’s beginning to its end (cradle to grave), the sum
of net income and cash flows must be equal.
e. The differences in net incomes for the two scenarios is the result of using different
methods of accruing (or allocating, calculating) warranty, bad debt, and depreciation
expense.
f. The net income for 2019 is significantly higher using accounting policy set 2 than set 1
$535,000 versus $55,000). This is due to the fact that the first set of accounting policies
recorded much lower expenses in the earlier years, which means in later years and when
the firm was wound up this understatement of expenses must be reversed such that the
total of all the years for any type of expense is the same. For example, total bad debt
expense must equal the actual accounts written off (of $600,000), total warranty expense
must equal warranties paid (of $1115,000), and the sum of depreciation expense and gain
on disposal together must equal the difference in the cost of the computer and final
proceeds on disposal (of $600,000).
b. Net Income B would likely give you the highest aggregate bonus, as each year’s earnings
are growing and the growth rate is increasing from 14% (3/22) in 2012 to 18% (6/34) in
2015. Clearly, you appear to be doing something right! If bonuses were based on
earnings, the absolute and relative growth in net income would have direct bearing on
your bonus as president.
c. As sole owner and chief executive officer, I am less concerned with what others think
about my company’s performance and more interested in its true economic performance.
Whereas Net Income A is the least interesting sequence, it likely captures the true
condition of the company—it shows that the firm is stable, neither growing nor declining
in profitability for the past five years. I may not like this summary, but it is likely the
most faithful representation of the company’s underlying condition. As owner/manager I
would also be interested in reducing or delaying the income taxes I pay. Net Income B
would likely do that, but it presents a distorted view of the company’s achievement that
may cause lower-level managers to make the wrong decisions.
d. Accounting does not change what actually occurs, but it does change what people may
believe occurred. In particular, accounting does not change cash flows (except income tax
and bonus payments), but different accrual policies will change reported net income. The
way financial accounting derives net income will influence what people think happened
in the past and present and therefore influence what users believe the future will be. This
is because users of financial statements use past and present achievement to predict future
achievements.
b. In accordance with paragraph 8, an entity must adjust the amounts recognized in its financial
statements to reflect adjusting subsequent events.
c. In accordance with paragraph 10, an entity does not adjust the amounts recognized in its
financial statements to reflect non-adjusting subsequent events. Rather, in accordance with
paragraph 21, for material amounts the entity must disclose the nature and the estimated financial
effect of each category of event. If the financial effect cannot be estimated the entity must
disclose this.
The bankruptcy of Kingston Pen Ltd. occurred on February 14, 2018 due to continuing financial
difficulties, suggesting that the company was already in financial difficulty on December 31,
2017, the year-end of Bellevue Company. Therefore, the information about the bankruptcy
collected in the subsequent events period should be used in the measurement of the value of
accounts receivable at the year-end. The $55,000 receivable should be written off.
News about the closing of Trenton Homes became available on February 22, 2018,
during the subsequent events period. However, this information should not be use to measure the
value of accounts receivable as at December 31, 2017 because the cause of the company’s
closing was an unpredictable natural disaster (an ice dam). There is no indication that Trenton
Homes would be unable to pay Bellevue as at December 31, 2017.
The key difference in the treatment of the two receivables is whether the information
obtained in the subsequent events period reflects events and conditions prior to the year-end. As
at December 31, 2017, Kingston Pen was most likely already in financial difficult, whereas
Trenton Homes was financially healthy.
c. Investment $55,000 In an efficient market, the change in value after the year-
– RBC (no change) end reflects information and events occurring after the
shares year-end. The decline in value after June 30, 2016 is not
relevant to the measurement of value as at June 30, 2016.
d. Cash $67,000 A variety of different reasons could explain the change in
(no change) cash balance after the year-end. The $3,000 balance on
September 30 is not an indication that the cash balance is
overstated at the year-end of June 30, 2016.
b. An adjustment is required as the event pertains to conditions prevailing at the balance sheet
date. This is required as this new information relates to the measurement of an obligation
not previously recognized at the year-end.
d. An adjustment is required as the event pertains to conditions prevailing at the balance sheet
date. While not part of the question, it appears that the company made an error and that the
adjustment will likely require that the company’s 2017 financial statements be restated in
accordance with IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors.
e. An adjustment is required as the event pertains to conditions prevailing at the balance sheet
date. This is required as the information provided in events (a) – (d) changes estimates
used at the year-end for calculating bonus expense.
a. No adjustment is required as the fire does not change any estimates or assumptions used
in valuing year-end amounts. This event should be disclosed in the notes to the financial
statements and the amount of the loss quantified; but not recorded, only described in the
notes. Mention should be made of the effect of the fire on the following year’s earnings.
Disclosure is required as all the relevant information is known and the event is significant
to the future operations of the company.
b. An adjustment is required as the market price is lower than cost, and inventory should be
valued at the lower of cost and market. The drop in market price is relevant to the
measurement of inventories at year-end because it reflects conditions at that point in time.
No additional disclosure; this is just an unfortunate but unusual operating occurrence.
c. New competition requires neither recognition nor disclosure. The event does not relate to
conditions at or prior to the year-end for recognition. The event is neither specific nor
unusual in nature to warrant disclosure.
d. Due to the new technology, you should review the assumptions for useful life, salvage
value, and depreciation methods and change the assumptions that are no longer
appropriate based on this new information. The depreciation expense for the current year
should reflect these new estimates. This is required as this information clarifies estimates
used at the year-end for calculating depreciation expense.
e. For the bankruptcy of a client, recognize the reduction in the carrying value of the
accounts receivable by 70% and make the necessary adjustment. This is required as this
new information relates to the measurement of receivables recognized at the year-end.
f. No adjustment and no disclosure; labour strikes are just an unfortunate aspect of normal
business operations. However, if the strike threatens the survival of the company it
should be disclosed, as this would put into question the validity of the going-concern
assumption.
Derivation of bad debt expense (BDE) for Accounting policy set B ($000’s):
Allowance for
Accounts doubtful accounts
receivable (ADA)
2018 Jan 1 balance 0
2018 Credit sales 11,000
Collections 9,000
Write-offs 600 600
740 BDE (plug)
2018 Dec 31 balance 1,400 ×10% = 140 Required balance
2019 Credit sales 12,000
Collections 10,500
Write-offs 650 650
735 BDE (plug)
2019 Dec 31 balance 2,250 ×10% = 225 Required balance
2020Credit sales 12,800
Collections 13,270
Write-offs 800 800
673 BDE (plug)
2020 Dec 31 balance 980 ×10% = 98 Required balance
b. By coincidence, cumulative net income for the three years is the same for both situations
($9,320,000). As a result, retained earnings will be equivalent between the two methods.
d. Net incomes are different between methods for each of the three years due to the timing
of when certain amounts were expensed. As the cumulative net incomes for the three
years happen to be the same, it is just a matter of when the warranty and bad debt
expenses were accrued. As accruals try to estimate actual expenditures or events that
occur later, the aggregate effects over multiple periods eventually net or wash out.
Accrual or allocation methods are ways of estimating amounts that will only be
clarified later when confirming events occur (warranty actually paid) or fail to occur
(account receivable actually written off due to non-payment). Accruals are essential as
accounting seeks to implement the matching principle, whereby expenses are matched
with revenues recognized to determine net income for a period.
Type of
Situation change Treatment Discussion (not part of required)
a. Furniture Change in Prospective Due to new information
maker bad estimate
debts
b. Manufacturer Change in Prospective Due to new information (that credit
credit losses estimate losses are becoming material).
Could also be a change in
accounting policy and treat
retrospectively to maintain
comparability from year to year.
c. Parking service Change in Retrospective with Not due to new information, but just
bad debts accounting restatement of a choice by management
policy prior periods
d. Shipbuilder Change in Prospective This is a change in circumstance,
revenue estimate which is a change in estimate. It is
recognition due to new information. This is a
change in accounting that reflects a
change in business policy, not a
change in accounting policy.
e. Electronics Change in Prospective Due to new information (enactment
retailer estimate of new law)
warranties
f. Clothing Change in Retrospective but Not due to new information.
company accounting likely unable to Retrospective treatment would be
inventory policy or restate prior ideal, but information on net
correction periods realizable values for prior years is
of error unlikely to be obtainable.
Kyrön
Syysyö oli ohi mennyt ja päiwän kajo tuntui taiwaalla, niin että woi
eroittaa tunturien huiput taiwaan tummalla kannella; silloin läksi 12
miestä nuotiolta nukkumasta, 10 kuorma selässä, 2 ilman. Mutta 10
miestä eiwät uskoneet 2 miehen 2 komppassia, ja niin lähtiwät he
Nattastentunturia siwu ajamaan wasemman puolitse. Tunturien
eteläjuurilta lähtee pieniä koiwumetsä-harjuja, toinen toisensa
wieressä, jotka kaikki uppoawat aawoihin jänkiin tunturien wieressä.
Niitä poikki kulettiin ylös ja alas, tehtiin 3 neljänneksen mutka,
kunnes eräältä kukkulalta nähtiin Nattaset oikealta kädeltä; sitte
lähdettiin kohti painamaan. Ruualla woimat wahwistuiwat. Meillä oli
wielä jälellä ne 2 leipää, jotka kantomiehen säkissä oliwat sattuneet
aiwan selkää wasten ja oliwat litkuiset selkahiestä; ensimäisessä
lähteessä lähti ihmimaku suusta. Lähettiin Nattasia, mutta wielä oli
neljänneksen lewyinen wetelä jänkä yli mentäwä. Otettiin ensiksikin
lewot syötyämme Sitte lähdettiin porkkaamaan. Muutamia satoja
syliä meni hywästi, kun kiirettä piti. Mutta kun seisoin hyllywällä
mättäällä ja näin, miten leweät aulakkeet juoksiwat pitkin suota,
silkka wesi pohjattoman liejun päällä, jo sanoin: »ei tullut mitään yli
menosta» »On tästä ennenkin poikki päästy», sanoi mies, joka sattui
wiereen; »niin, lentäwä lintu;» »jopa kaksijalka ihminen», wirkkoi
mies. Yksi koetteli yhdestä, toinen toisesta paikasta; joku juoksi
ensimäisenä, toiset heti tohtiwat perästä. Aulakkein toisella puolella
on mätäsriwi, joka pienenä harjuna seuraa aulakkeiden suuntaa. Se
on keltaissaan wasta kypsyneitä, mehukkaita lakkoja; niitä
ehdättiwät kaikki nokkimaan. Joka ensin sai kyllänsä, rupesi
katsomaan kulku-kohtaa, käwi kaukana ja palasi taas takaisin; pääsi
jostakin poikki ja rupesi toisella mätäspenkerellä lakkoja syömään,
niinkuin ei mikään asia maailmassa häneen koskisi. Mikä tuli
paremmin, mitä pahemmin perässä; ei suinkaan kukaan puolella
silmäyksellä wilkaissut toisiin, pääsewätkö he, wai jääwät. Tuo oli
tosisuostumus lantalaisilla: joka ei jaksa, se jääköön. Laukattiin yli
kauheasti hyllywäin liejujuomien ja oltiin pelossa; syötiin lakkoja
penkereillä ja oltiin ihankuin kotona. Paha paikka oli keskisuolla.
Kusti aikoi rennosti sen kulkea, juoksi kuin hurja aulakkeelle ja
upposi wyötäryksiään myöten mutaan, rypi, ryömi tai miten lie
huppuroinut, mutta pääsi yli, hyppäsi tasakäpälässä penkerelle,
kirosi, löi käsiwartensa hajalleen, että rapa roiskui ympäri — ja
rupesi lakkoja syömään. Kaikessa hiljaisuudessa kysäisin
wierimäiseltäni: »pääseeköön tästä yli», ja tuo kirkaisi: »hätäkö —
nuorilla miehillä — tässä walmiissa maailmassa!» »No, walmis kait
se on tästä kohti», mukisin itsekseni ja rupesin lakkoja syömään.
Miten lie yli päästykään, waan minä ihmettelin, että meitä oli 12, kun
oltiin suon poikki ja otettiin hywät unet.
Loppu.
(Senaatiin annettu).