MODULE-6

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND PRACTICES

Environmental Laws

Environmental law is a collective term describes the network of agreements, rules, acts,
regulations and common laws addressing the effects of human activity on the natural
environment.
Environmental impact assessment (EA) is the term used for the assessment of the
environmental consequences (positive or negative) of a plan, policy, program or project prior
to the decision to move forward with proposed action.

Environment Protection Act

Objective: The main objective of this act is to provide the protection and improvement of
environment (which includes water, air, soil, living organisms, plants, micro-organisms and
properties) and matters connected with it. There is a constitutional provision also for the
environment protection. Article 48 A, specify that state shall endeavour to protect and improve
the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country and every citizen shall
protect the environment (51A). The Environment protection act is applicable to whole of India,
Section 2 of the Environmental protection Act, 1986 (EPA) deals with some of the information
about the definition of the Act and these definitions are as follows.
“Environment” the word environment includes water, air, land and also the inter-relation
between their existence. It also includes human beings and other living creatures such as plants,
micro-organisms and property
“Environmental Pollution” means any substance in solid, liquid or gaseous form
which in consideration is injurious to the health of living being
“Handling” In relation to any substance, it means the manufacturing, processing, treatment,
packaging, storage, transportation, use, collection, destruction, conversion and offering for sale
etc
“Occupier” is in the relation of factory or any other premises which means a person who has
control over the affairs of it
“Penalty” whoever person or owner of the factories, companies or whichever source found to
be the cause of pollution may liable for punishment in term of fine
Functions of Environment Protection
1. Section 2 (A) of the Act defines the environment include water and interrelationship which
exists among and between water and human beings, other living creatures, plants, microbes
and property
2. The section 3 (1) of the act allows the central government to take all the measures as it is
necessary for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and
preventing, controlling and reducing environment pollution
3. The central government may allot specified duties and powers under the Environment Act
to any officer, state government or other authority
4. The central government is authorized to set new national standards for the
a. To maintain quality of the environment
b. For controlling emissions and effluent discharges
c. To regulate industrial locations
d. To prescribe procedures for managing hazardous substances
e. To establish safeguards for preventing accidents
f. To collect and circulate information regarding environmental pollution
5. The state government has given power to issue directions and the power to entry the right to
sample by pollution control boards officials under sections 10 and 11
6. No person shall handle any hazardous substances except following procedure and should be
used safe guards as prescribed during handling
7. The state government has given power to Pollution Control Boards official to issue directions
under the sections 10 and 11
8. No person carrying on any industry, operation or process shall discharge or emit or permit
to be discharged any environmental pollutant in excess. Such standards as may be prescribed
9. Person empowered by the central government can enter and inspect the industry, operation
or process
10. The central government or any officer are empowered to collect sample of air, water, soil
other substances from any factory premises
Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act

This Act provides for the prevention, control and reduction of air pollution
Both central and state pollution boards have been established for the prevention and control of
an air pollution

Powers and functions of central board

Advice central government on any matter concerning about the improvement of the air quality
and the prevention, control of air pollution
Plans and causes to be executed a nationwide programme for prevention, control of air
pollution
Co-ordinate the activities of the state and resolve disputes among them
Provide technical assistance and guidance to the state boards to carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution and prevention and control
Plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes
Organize through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention and
control of air pollution
Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution
The central board may establish or recognize a laboratory to enable the central board to perform
its functions under this section efficiently

Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act

Prevention and control of water pollution is achieved through a permit or consent

administration procedure
Discharge of industrial effluents is permitted by obtaining the consent of the state water board
Water pollution cess Act 1977, according to this act, anyone consuming water has to pay certain
amount of cess depending on
1. Whether the industry is using water for industrial cooling, spraying in mine pits, boilers feed
2. For domestic purpose
3. In processing, whereby water gets polluted and pollutants are easily biodegradable
4. In processing whereby eater gets polluted and the pollutants are not easily biodegradable and
are toxic
Those whoever adopts industrial effluents treatment plant can get a rebate of 70% on the cess
payable

Wildlife protection Act – 1972:

Objectives of the Wild Life Protection Act:
To prohibit hunting of wild animals; birds, etc. and impose punishment for violating the same.
The schedules give absolute protection to certain species and these cannot be infringed on any
account. To provide security to animals that are not in danger of becoming extinct.

The Wildlife Act of 1972 as amended in 1982, 1986, 1991 and 1993 has 7 chapters, 66 sections
and 6 schedules
CHAPTER - I [PRELIMINARY SECTIONS]:
1. Short title, extent and commencement.
2. Definitions.
CHAPTER - II [AUTHORITIES TO BE APPOINTED OR CONSTITUTES UNDER THE
ACT]:
3. Appointment of Director and other officers.
4. Appointment of Life Warden and other officers.
5. Power to delegate. 5A. Constitution of the National Board for Wild
Life. 5B. Standing Committee of the National Board.
5C. Functions of the National Board.
6. Constitution of State Board for Wild Life.
7. Procedure to be followed by the Board.
8. Duties of State Board for Wild Life.
CHAPTER - III [HUNTING OF WILD ANIMALS]:
Prohibition of hunting.
Hunting of wild animals to be permitted in certain cases,
Grant of permit for special purposes.
CHAPTER IIIA PROTECTION OF SPECIFIED PLANTS:
Prohibition of picking, uprooting, etc. of specified plant.
Grants of permit for special purposes.
Cultivation of specified plants without licence prohibited.
Dealing in specified plants without licence prohibited.
CHAPTER IV PROTECTED AREAS Sanctuaries, Declaration of sanctuary, Protection to
sanctuaries.
Prohibition of entry into sanctuary with weapon, Ban on use of injurious substances.
National Parks: Declaration of National Parks.
Power of Central Government to declare areas as sanctuaries or National Parks.
CHAPTER IV – A: CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY AND RECOGNITION OF ZOOS
SECTIONS:
Constitution of Central Zoo Authority, Term of office and conditions of service of
Chairperson and members, etc. Functions of the Authority, Procedure to be regulated by
the Authority. Grants and loans to Authority and Constitution of Fund.
CHAPTER IV – B: NATIONAL TIGER CONSERVATION AUTHORITY:
Definitions, Constitution of National Tiger Conservation Authority, Term of office and
conditions of
service of members, Officers and employees of Tiger Conservation Authority, Powers and
functions of Tiger Conservation Authority, Procedure to be regulated by Tiger Conservation
Authority. Grants and loans to Tiger Conservation Authority and Constitution of Fund.
CHAPTER IV – C: TIGER AND OTHER ENDANGERED SPECIES CRIME CONTROL
BUREAU: Constitution of Tiger and other Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau.
Powers and functions of the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau.
CHAPTER – V: TRADE OR COMMERCE IN WILD ANIMALS, ANIMAL ARTICLES
AND
TROPHIES:
Declarations, Immunity in certain cases, Inquiry and preparation of inventories.
Certificate of ownership.
Regulation of transfer of animal, etc.
Dealings in trophy and animal articles without licence prohibited.
CHAPTER V-A: PROHIBITION OF TRADE OR COMMERCE IN TROPHIES, ANIMAL
ARTICLES, ETC., DERIVED FROM CERTAIN ANIMALS:
Definitions, Prohibition of dealings in trophies, animal articles, etc., derived from scheduled
animals.
CHAPTER – VI: PREVENTION AND DETECTION OF OFFENCES:
Power of entry, search, arrest and detention.
Penalties, Certain conditions to apply while granting bail, Attempts and abetment.
Punishment for wrongful seizure.
CHAPTER VII MISCELLANEOUS:
Officers to be public servants, Protection of action taken in good faith.
Reward to persons.
Reward by State Government.

CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY:

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is the international legal instrument for
"The conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair
and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources" that
has been ratified by 196 nations. The Convention has three main goals: the conservation of
biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable use of its components; and the fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
PREAMBLE:
Article 1. Objectives
Article 2. Use of Terms
Article 3. Principle
Article 4. Jurisdictional Scope
Article 5. Cooperation
Article 6. General Measures for Conservation and
Sustainable Use Article 7. Identification and Monitoring
Article 8. In-situ Conservation
Article 9. Ex-situ Conservation
Article 10. Sustainable Use of Components of Biological Diversity
Article 11. Incentive Measures
Article 12. Research and Training
Article 13. Public Education and Awareness
Article 14. Impact Assessment and Minimizing Adverse
Impacts Article 15. Access to Genetic Resources
Article 16. Access to and Transfer of technology
Article 17. Exchange of Information
Article 18. Technical and Scientific Cooperation
Article 19. Handling of Biotechnology and Distribution of its Benefits
Article 20. Financial Resources
Article 21. Financial Mechanism
Article 22. Relationship with Other International
Conventions Article 23. Conference of the Parties
Article 24. Secretariat
Article 25. Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological
Advice Article 26. Reports
Article 27. Settlement of Disputes
Article 28. Adoption of Protocols
Article 29. Amendment of the Convention or
Protocol Article 30. Adoption and Amendment of
Annexes Article 31. Right to Vote
Article 32. Relationship between this Convention and Its
Protocols Article 33. Signature
Article 34. Ratification, Acceptance or Approval
Article 35. Accession
Article 36. Entry Into Force
Article 37. Reservations
Article 38. Withdrawals
Article 39. Financial Interim Arrangements
Article 40. Secretariat Interim Arrangements
Article 41. Depositary
Article 42. Authentic texts
Annex I. Identification and Monitoring
Annex II - Part 1. Arbitration
Annex II - Part 2. Conciliation

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted for protection
of plants and animal species. Before 1972, India only had five designated national parks.
Among other reforms, the Act established schedules of protected plant and animal species;
hunting or harvesting these species was largely outlawed. The Act provides for the protection
of wild animals, birds and plants; and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental
thereto. It extends to the whole of India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir which has its
own wildlife act. It has six schedules which give varying degrees of protection. Schedule I and
part II of Schedule II provide absolute protection - offences under these are prescribed the
highest penalties. Species listed in Schedule III and Schedule IV are also protected, but the
penalties are much lower. Schedule V includes the animals which may be hunted. The plants
in Schedule VI are prohibited from cultivation and planting. The hunting to the Enforcement
authorities has the power to compound offences under this Schedule (i.e., they impose fines on
the offenders). Up to April 2010 there have been 16 convictions under this act relating to the
death of tigers.
• Animal" includes amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles, and their young, and also
includes, in the cases of birds and reptiles, their eggs.
• "Animal article" means an article made from any captive or wild animal, other than
vermin, and includes an article or object in which the whole or any part of such
animal has been used and an article made therefrom.
• "Hunting" includes
➢ capturing, killing, poisoning, snaring, or trapping any wild animal, and
every attempt to do so
➢ driving any wild animal for any of the purposes specified in sub clause
➢ injuring, destroying or taking any body part of any such animal, or in the case of wild
birds or reptiles, disturbing or damaging the eggs or nests of such birds or reptiles.

• "taxidermy" means the curing, preparation or preservation of trophies.

• "trophy" means the whole or any part of any captive or wild animal (other than
vermin) which has been kept or preserved by any means, whether artificial or natural.
This includes:
 ➢ Rugs, skins, and specimens of such animals mounted in whole or in part
through a process of taxidermy
➢ Antler, horn, rhinoceros’ horn, feather, nail, tooth, musk, eggs, and nests.
➢ "Uncured trophy" means the whole or any part of any captive animal (other than
vermin) which has not undergone a process of taxidermy. This includes a freshly
killed wild animal, ambergris, musk and other animal products.
➢ "Vermin" means any wild animal specified in Schedule V.
➢ "Wildlife" includes any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacean, fish and moths; and
aquatic or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat

Forest Conservation Act

The Indian Forest Act, 1927 was largely based on previous Indian Forest Acts
implemented under the British. The most famous one was the Indian Forest Act of 1878.
Both the 1878 act and the 1927 one sought to consolidate and reserve the areas having
forest cover, or significant wildlife, to regulate movement and transit of forest produce,
and duty leviable on timber and other forest produce. It also defines the procedure to be
followed for declaring an area to be a Reserved Forest, a Protected Forest or a Village
Forest. It defines what is a forest offence, what are the acts prohibited inside a Reserved
Forest, and penalties leviable on violation of the provisions of the Act.
1.Reserved Forest
2.Protected Forest
3.Village Forest

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS:
MONTREAL PROTOCOL:
The Montreal Protocol, finalized in 1987, is a global agreement to protect the stratospheric
ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances
(ODS).
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (The Montreal
Protocol) is an international agreement made in 1987. It was designed to stop the production
and import of ozone depleting substances and reduce their concentration in the atmosphere to
help protect the earth's ozone layer.
Parties: As of 23 June 2015, all countries in the United Nations, the Cook Islands, Holy See,
Niue as well as the European Union have ratified the original Montreal Protocol (see external
link below), with South Sudan being the last country to ratify the agreement, bringing the total
to 197.The Montreal Protocol falls under the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer (the Vienna Convention). The Vienna Convention was adopted in 1985 following
international discussion of scientific discoveries in the 1970s and 1980s highlighting the
adverse effect of human activity on ozone levels in the stratosphere and the discovery of the
‘ozone hole’.
Its objectives are
➢ To promote cooperation on the adverse effects of human activities on the ozone layer.
➢ 16 September is International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer. It
celebrates the anniversary of the day the Montreal Protocol came into effect.
➢ The Montreal Protocol is widely considered as the most successful environment
protection agreement. It sets out a mandatory timetable for the phase out of ozone
depleting substances.
➢ This timetable has been reviewed regularly, with phase out dates accelerated in
accordance with scientific understanding and technological advances.
The Montreal Protocol sets binding progressive phase out obligations for developed and
developing countries for all the major ozone depleting substances, including
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons and less damaging transitional chemicals such as
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). The
Montreal Protocol targets 96 ozone depleting chemicals in thousands of applications across
more than 240 industrial sectors. In 2016 the Montreal Protocol also became responsible for
setting binding progressive phase down obligations for the 18 main hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs).The Montreal Protocol has been further strengthened through six Amendments, which
have brought forward phase out schedules and added new substances to the list of substances
controlled under the Montreal Protocol.

The Amendments are:

London 1990
Copenhagen 1992
Vienna 1995
Montreal 1997
Beijing 1999
Kigali 2016
The Protocol includes provisions related to Control Measures (Article 2), Calculation of control
levels (Article 3), Control of trade with non-Parties (Article 4), Special situation of developing
countries (Article 5), Reporting of data (Article 7), Non-compliance (Article 8), Technical
assistance (Article 10). The parties to the Protocol meet once a year to make decisions aimed
at ensuring the successful implementation of the agreement. These include adjusting or
amending the Protocol, which has been done six times since its creation.

KYOTO PROTOCOL:
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that aimed to manage and reduce carbon
dioxide emissions and greenhouse gases. The Protocol was adopted at a conference in Kyoto,
Japan, in 1997 and became international law on February 16, 2005.The Kyoto Protocol
operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change by committing
industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gases
(GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets.It was adopted in Kyoto, Japan,
on December 11, 1997, and entered into force on February 16, 2005. The detailed rules for the
implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and
are referred to as the “Marrakesh Accords.” Its first commitment period started in 2008 and
ended in 2012. Specifically, under the Protocol and during the first commitment period, the
industrialized countries had committed to reduce, during the period 2008–12, the emissions of
six gases responsible for global warming, namely carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and hexafluoride sulfur, at least by 5% compared to
1990 levels. In this context, EU member states pledged to reduce their emissions by 8% during
this period.
In Doha, Qatar, on December 8, 2012, the Kyoto Protocol was amended in order to
include13:
• New commitments of its Parties for the period 2013–20;
• A revised list of GHGs to be reported in the second commitment period; and
• Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol that required to be updated for
the second commitment period.
• During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce the GHG emissions
by at least 18% below 1990 levels in the 8-year period from 2013 to 2020; however,
the composition of Parties in the second commitment period is different from the first.
The Protocol offers three market-based mechanisms to its Parties to achieve their targets.
Specifically, the Kyoto mechanisms are 13:
•International Emissions Trading. Emissions trading, as set out in Article 17 of the
Kyoto Protocol, allows countries that have emission units to spare—emissions
permitted them but not “used”—to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over
their targets. Thus, a new commodity was created in the form of emission reductions
or removals. Since carbon dioxide is the principal GHG, people speak simply of
trading in carbon. Carbon is now tracked and traded like any other commodity. This is
known as the “carbon market”.
Conservation of natural resources

Conservation of natural resources, is the wise use of the earth's resources by

humanity.
The various approaches applied to natural resource management include:

• Top-down (command and control)

• Community-based natural resource management
• Adaptive management
• Precautionary approach
• Integrated natural resource management
• Biodiversity Conservation
• Precautionary Biodiversity Management
• Concrete "policy tools"
• Land management

1. "Ecosystem based Management" including "more risk-averse and precautionary

management", where "given prevailing uncertainty regarding ecosystem structure,
function, and inter-specific interactions, precaution demands an ecosystem rather than
single-species approach to management".
2. "Adaptive management" is "a management approach that expressly tackles the
uncertainty and dynamism of complex systems".
3. "Environmental impact assessment" and exposure ratings decrease the
"uncertainties" of
precaution, even though it has deficiencies.
4. "Protectionist approaches", which "most frequently links to" biodiversity
conservation in
natural resources management.

Solid waste management

Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from combined
residential,
industrial and commercial activities in a given area. It may be categorised according
to its origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or institutional);
according to its contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper etc); or
according to hazard potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive, infectious
etc). Management of solid waste reduces or eliminates adverse impacts on the
environment and human health and supports economic development and improved
quality of life. A number of processes are involved in effectively managing waste for
a municipality. These include monitoring, collection, transport, processing, recycling
and disposal.
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
Methods of waste reduction, waste reuse and recycling are the preferred options when
managing waste.
There are many environmental benefits that can be derived from the use of these
methods.
They reduce or prevent green house gas emissions, reduce the release of pollutants,
conserve
resources, save energy and reduce the demand for waste treatment technology and
landfill space. Therefore, it is advisable that these methods be adopted and
incorporated as part of the waste management plan.

TRIBAL POPULATION AND RIGHTS:

A tribe is a group of people who live and work together in a shared geographical area.
A tribe has a common culture, dialect and religion. The tribe is usually headed by a
chief. A tribal society is a group of tribes organized around kinships. Tribes represent a
part in social evolution between bands and nations. As the tribal people had no legal
rights over their land, it became easier for non-tribal people to acquire their land. These
people live under the continuous threat of being ousted from their homes. They do not
have any legal right and the only legal protection they have is the due process of law.

Provisions of the Act:

Definitions under the act

“Community forest resource” means customary common forest land within the
traditional or customary boundaries of the village or seasonal use of landscape in the
case of pastoral communities, including reserved forests, protected forests and protected
areas such as Sanctuaries and National Parks to which the community had traditional
access”.

“Critical wildlife habitat” means such areas of National Parks and Sanctuaries where
it has been specifically and clearly established, case by case, on the basis of scientific
and objective criteria, that such areas are required to be kept as inviolate for the
purposes of wildlife conservation as may be determined and notified by the Central
Government in the Ministry of Environment and Forests after open process of
consultation by an Expert Committee.

“Forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes” means the members or community of the

Scheduled Tribes who primarily reside in and who depend on the forests or forest lands
for bona fide livelihood needs and includes the Scheduled Tribe pastoralist
communities.

“Forest land” means land of any description falling within any forest area and includes
unclassified forests, under marketed forests, existing or deemed forests, protected
forests, reserved forests, Sanctuaries and National Parks.
“Minor forest produce” includes all non-timber forest produce of plant origin
including bamboo, brushwood, stumps, cane, tussar, cocoons, honey, wax, lac, tendu
or kendu leaves, medicinal plants and herbs, roots, tubers and the like;

Types of rights under the act are:

1. Right to hold and live in the forest land under the individual or common
occupation for habitation or for self-cultivation for livelihood by a member or
members of a forest dwelling Scheduled Tribe or other traditional forest dwellers.
2. Community rights such as nistar, by whatever name called, including those used in
erstwhile Princely states, Zamindari or such intermediary regimes.
3. The right of ownership, access to collect, use, and dispose of minor forest produce (
includes all non-timber forest produce of plant origin) which has been traditionally
collected within or outside village boundaries.
4. Other community rights of uses of entitlements such as fish and other products of
water bodies, grazing (both settled or transhumant) and traditional seasonal resource
access of nomadic or pastoralist communities.
5. Rights including community tenures of habitat and habitation for primitive tribal
groups and pre-agriculture communities.
6. Rights in or over disputed lands under any nomenclature in any State where claims
are disputed.
7. Rights for conversion of Pattas or leases or grants issued by any local council or
any State Govt. on forest lands to titles.
8. Rights of settlement and conversion of all forest villages, old habitation, un surveyed
villages and other villages in forest, whether recorded, notified or not into revenue
villages.
9. Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource
which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use.
10. Rights which are recognised under any State law or laws of any Autonomous Dist.
Council or Autonomous Regional Council or which are accepted as rights of tribals
under any traditional or customary law of the concerned tribes of any State;
11. Right of access to biodiversity and community right to intellectual property and
traditional knowledge related to biodiversity and cultural diversity
12. Any other traditional right customarily enjoyed by the forest dwelling Scheduled
Tribes or other traditional forest dwellers, as the case may be, which are not mentioned
in clauses1 to 13, but excluding the traditional right of hunting or trapping extracting a
part of the body of any species of wild animal.

Constitutional Safeguards for ST’s:

I. Educational & Cultural Safeguards:

Art. 15(4): - Special provisions for advancement of other backward classes (which
cludes STs);
Art. 29:- Protection of Interests of Minorities (which cludes STs);
Art. 46:- The State shall promote, with special care, the educational and economic
interests of
the weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes, and the
Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of
exploitation, Art. 350:- Right to conserve distinct Language, Script or Culture;
Art. 350:- Instruction in Mother Tongue.

II. Social Safeguard

Art. 23: - Prohibition of traffic in human beings and beggar and other similar form of
forced labour;
Art. 24: - Forbidding Child Labour.
III. Economic Safeguards
Art.244: - Clause (1) Provisions of Fifth Schedule shall apply to the administration &
control of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes in any State other than the states
of Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura which are covered under Sixth Schedule,
under Clause (2) of this Article.
Art. 275: - Grants in-Aid to specified States (STs &SAs) covered under Fifth and
Sixth
Schedules of the Constitution.
IV. Political Safeguards
Art.164 (1):- Provides for Tribal Affairs Ministers in Bihar, MP and Orissa;
Art. 330: - Reservation of seats for STs in Lok Sabha;
Art. 337- Reservation of seats for STs in State Legislatures;
Art. 334: - 10 years period for reservation (Amended several times to extend the
period.);
Art. 243: - Reservation of seats in Panchayats.
Art. 371: - Special provisions in respect of NE States and Sikkim
V. Service Safeguards (Under Art.16 (4), 16(4A), 164(B) Art.335 and Art. 320 (40)