Sport and Art

M. J. SARAF (U.S.S.R.)
Abstract

The question of connections between sport and art becomes particularly actual:
it is relatedas well with the development of sport itself and its variants, as with
its spectacular side which is especially emphasized by the mass media, above
all by TV.

The analysis if this question shows, at any rate, three aspects. The first the —

most controversial: whether sport is art, or not. The second is a problem of sports
spectacles and their main components. The third are artistic questions, appearing
—

in the course of development of contemporary sport.

The associating of sport with art, the putting of an identity mark between them,
results, to our mind, from the fact, that one magnifies the alleged compositional
uniformity of the sports phenomenon and the one of artistic effect. However, firstly,
this uniformity is of syntactic character only (arranging, putting together),
secondly-semantic (transmission of significant substance) and sigmatic (rela-
tion to the received subject). The assumptions of sport and art are essen-
tially different. From this we draw the conclusion to the effect, that one cannot trans-
fer to sport the laws ruling art and build a sport spectacle according to these
laws.

The spectacular value is one of the most important conditions making the
existence and development of sport possible. It arises on the basis of objective
action of sports fights rules of composition, irrespective of whether it is a fight
against an opponent, or weight, against speed, or highness. These are the
vicissitudes of the fight, its consistency, that make the effect of the compositional
structure of sport, the base of its spectacular value. Therefore many of the sports
branches demand not only a stage-setting, but simply cannot exist without it.
That is just why the rules of aesthetic perception, the rules of stage-setting of
sports undertakings are of the same importance in sport as canon in music, or
composition in fine arts.
Finally, the crucial aspects of cooperation between sport and art appear in
connection with the necessity of organization of space and creation of conditions
for sports activity. Sport creates ground itself a specific atmosphere these are —

various implements, equipment and sports symbols. There takes place a complex
entanglement of interests of sport and architecture, of applied and monumental
art this question demands a separate study.
—

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124

The of the relation between sport and art belongs to the

problem
most and most lively discussed ones whenever attempts are
interesting
made to define the principal developmental tasks of contemporary
sport. The role played by aesthetics in sport was most clearly outlined
in the 1960s and 1970s. It found its expression first in the rapid de-
velopment of new sport disciplines, the~Lr aesthetic value being thedr
principal content and the result depending directly on the aesthetic
evaluation; I have in mind here such disciplines as artistic gymnastics,
figure skating on ice, bounding on a trampoline, and synchronized
(artistic) swimming. Second, the aesthetic factor was thrown into relief
also in those sport disciplines which previously had been deprived of
it; here one could mention weight.lifting, boxing and wrestling. Third,
competitions have become so popular in spot, that ,it, arises the envy
of film and theater; the spectacular aspect of sport has become one of
the important factors of its development. After all, this spectacular
aspect is a phenomenon that should be analyzed in categories of ’

aesthetics.
Since it has become an urgent need to find the reasons to explain
the above-mentioned phenomena the question regarding interaction
between sport and art has become especially pertinent.
One of theinterpretations most widespread in social opinion and
philosophical interpretations of sport is the point of view whose
adherents maintain that sport is very close to art or that sport is one
cf its spheres.
E. Van Aaken and ~C. Nat,tkampière voiced similar opinions, inspired
most probably by the philosophical essays of Karl Jasper and Jose
Ortega y Gasset, dealing with sport. The principal thesis and at the
same time starting point is here the statement that the
unity oi art
and sport stems from the similarity of the results.. Or .more accurately:
the results in both these fields are the outcome of the drive to achieve
some practical, utilitarian goal.
’

Developing this idea Frassign6, who considers that sport belongs

to the fine arts, main-tains that it has features of painting and sculpture.
He also stresses that the absence of the utilitarian factor in sport and
artistic activity makes it in an essential manner differ from play which
has similar properties, because sport and art in contradistinction to
play require a serious approach, intensive work and strong will. If the
product of an art,ist is a sculpture or dance, that of an athlete is
a jump w~’ ~’-
or race...J -

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The above-mentioned authors ma.intain that sport just like art

creates a kind of specific reality which does not agree with the external
world. It should, however, be borne in mind that this is an illusory real-
i~ty, because in these spheres exist certain structural premises for this
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 125

type of structures. It is simply so that in the world of music and sport

there exists another space and another time, different from the real
ones.

Identifying sport and art one also makes use of the ideas voiced by
Dufr6 and Surio regarding the characteristic features of works of art.
They maintain that the material existence of works of art depends
on g’Lving matter new shape, while a sport deed depends on the devel-

opment of the body. An athlete experiences his activity as harmony

of muscles, breathing and movement, while the spectator enjoys the
rhythmical and emotional orgariizabion of the athlete’s movements.
These authors ma,intain also that sport is an image, an image of reality,
because it reflects the given epoch, its characteristic feature and typical
aspects.
The external similarity of sport (at least some of its disciplines) and
art .is sometimes so obvious, that the above-mentioned opinions find
a positive reception from the points of view of the theory as well as

practice of sport and art. Proof of this is partly the discussion entitled
&dquo;Sport and Art&dquo; which was published by the magazine &dquo;Teatr&dquo; (Thealtelr)
in the second half of the 1960s. Some of those taking part in it, people
enjoying respect in the world of, art, thought that sport undoubtedly
should be considered as art. Note, haweve~r, that it was precisely during
that period that the Soviet figure skating champions and those of
artistic and sport gymnastics were winning world renown.
The ties between sport and art certainly exist and the postulate
to investigate them is undoubtedly fully justified and should be carried
out. Not less important for an understanding of the reflation between
these two fields is to make a sharp distinction between them, to point
to the existing differences.
We think that the central problem in this plan is the question
whether it is possible to make use in sport of means of artistic expres-
’

sion and to what extent sport needs it.

At first sight, especially if we take into account such sport disci-
plines as artistic gymnastics, figure skating or gymnastic sport exercises,
an unequivocal and positive answer is something obvious. 1t is true, doll

their best programs athletes are picture, breath-

creators of brilliant
taking, unforgettable, obtained thanks to the of artistic means use
of expression, which, after all, are attributes of art. It turned out that
some of the sport disciplines may be considered art, others wi.ll be

beyond the confines of art (provided of course we approach art in

a broadly conceived manner, as continuity in a certain field).This means
that sport is not internally cohesive, has no general properties which
would define the specific aspect of this sphere, nor one logical develop-
mental trend. In other words some sport dsis~iplines should develop
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126

according to the laws and principles of the development of art, the

functions that are implemented should be identical with the functions
of art. Other disciplines, suoh as track and field do not at all submit
to these laws. But note that such an approach to the problem does not
enable us to understand the genesis and structure of the aesthetic
meanings of sport.
.We ~th~iwk that sport and ar.t ~~are two separate spheres of aesthetic
activities and there is no need to identify them. The attitude adopted
by man to the aesthetic aspect of his own body and of his motoric
possibilities gives rise to sport behaviour and determines its development.
Obviously, taking into account the complex elements shaping the phe-
nomenon of sport, aesthetic aspects can be set apart. The presence of

precisely these components of the phenomenon of sport is being stressed

in the so-called artistic disciplines of sport. But they make their
appearance here in another system of interaction and perform different
functions than art.
The means of expression in art, due to their concrete aspect, brring
forth the very essence of the phenomenon that is being depic~ted. One
may present artistic expression as a kind of confrontation whrich shows
what is general by means of concrete examples and vice versa. The
expressive aspect made its appearannce in sport above all and mainly
in the form of a show, which requires the organization of matter in
accordance with the laws of aesthetic perception. Since it is not
a question here of giving lasting features to a result obtained in com-
petitive sport (weight, speed, distance) but of an evaluation of movement
itself, there arises the necessity of proper organization and the creation
of mot,o,ric program.
a

Precisely on this level the syntactic level

-
we are in a po- -

sition to speak about similarity of expressiveness in sport and art.

However, in the semantic and the sigmatic meanings (attitude towards
the reflected object) both these types of expression can be distinguished
without the slightest difficulty.
_.

=.

Each time when thene is concern regarding the impression made

by the performance of an athlete there also appear problems connected
with the proper direction and carrying out of movements. After all
sport activity is divided: on the one hand taking into account technical
goals (results) and on the other hand - it aims at imbuing movements
with artistic features. It is obvious that more than in other sport disci-
plines this is true of those where the artistic features of the given
program of movements in sport directly determine the technical result
and the evaluation of the referees. In those cases where the result
in sport is defined, irrespective of the aesthetic impressions derived
by the referee, there is no need for a distinct, expressive shaping of
’

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at UNIVERSITE
.,I DE MONTREAL on June 17, 2015
 127

movements. That is why figure skaters arrange their programs in the

manner one creates a work of art (of in the syrrtaotsc level),
course

but in the long jump there is no need for aesthetic expressiveness of

the jump. Of course, an athlete may behave like an actor, but in that
case we would have to deal with a completely different problem.
Thus, expressiveness and means of expression in sport have a gen-
eral source -
the necessity to organize and compose a complex of
movements but with a different structure of meaningfulness. The two
extremes of its development are: excessive technicalization and evo-
lution in sport in the direction of art, which can be noticed in the
programs of such sport champions as P. Fleming, E. Sadi, L. Pakhomova
and A. Gorshkov. In regard to the latest example mentioned by us it
should be stressed that it goes beyond the frame of sport, ceases to
be sport, due to far-reaching modification of the situation in sport,
due to the above-mentioned semantic and sigmatic meanings.
Let us now deal at length with the general characteristic outline
of the principle of expression in sport.
First, the picture created in sport is always generalized, it expresses
a certain emotional mood, a cer,t,ain way of perceiving the world. The
movements of an athlete are very clear-cut, they have their specific
meaningful intonation. But the expressive aspect of movement is not
especially worked out, individualized, were it otherwise the complex
of sport movements would become transformed into show business,
something that can be distinctly noticed at figure skating shows and
performances of artistic gymnastics.
Second, expression in sport is not a planned aim of movement, but
is the outcome of its form (the way it takes shape) as an organizing
principle. Thus, we may say, that at the foundation of a sport program
lies not the logic of creating a certain picture but the logic combination
of certain elements on one foundation. It is not difficult to find out
that when sport follows the path of the logic of creating a picture
of reality, it turns anto ballet, choreography, circus. But -when art
(ballet, circus) is the outcome of a combination of technical procedures
it loses its typical means of expression.
Third, an athlete’s performance is not at all a creative reflection of
reality with the help of a conventional system of means of expression.
Sport, after all ds direct reality where everything is truth; sweat, pain
and triumph.
Expression in sport and artistic expression in art therefore differ
quite essentially. That is why it is wrong from the point of view of
methodological order to approach an analysis of sport from a position
that is typical of the theory of art, because these spheres perform
different social functions. Just as useless would be reflection on art
in a manner that is typical of an analysis of sport. ,

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 128

Persistent and .¡t1ring gymnastic exercises do not suffice to turn a

competitor into a.rtist;, gracefulness, precision and correct perform-

an
- ance of exerellses alone cannot guarantee top-level results in sport.
The sport movement and staging differ not only as regards the goals
that have been set, but there is also lay difference as to the methods
of organization and public performance.
-
But all this does not mean that the methods used by us in one
field are inadvisable for the other field. On the contrary they comple-
ment and enrich one another. It is known how important choreographic
exercises for artistic gymnastics and for figure skating, how vital
are

big training load is for ballet, circus and floor show artists. Thus,
a

what is needed here is to see these methods in the proper light, to

understand their limitations and the fact that they render services
in a field that is &dquo;not their own ome.&dquo;
Obvious is the influence exerted by the tradition of Russian ballet
and the Russian dancing school on the Soviet figure skating schools,
the technique of which never overshadowed the individual traits of the
given artdst and was always deeply national. Only the continuation and
development in sport of these traditions can explain the unprecedented
successes of such champions as Ludmila Pakhomova and Andre~i
Gorshkov, Rodnina and Zaitsev. Observance of these traditions finds
its expression in deep understanding for the expressive structure of
music and the meaning of each element of ,the program, also in the
absence of chrestomathy and comonplace mere illustrativeness.
Note that E.A. Tchaikovska, a known Soviet coach, who has a spe-
cial~ized artistic education, wrote in her book that her aw~n practical
experience made her reach the conclusion, that figure skating should
not be treated as choreography, whi~ch ~im principle is very o,ften made
use of in skating, because figure skating is a kind of sport and its

development is determined by the laws of sport competition with all

its peculiarities.
To justify ideas identifying sport and art their spokesmen often
use the spectacular aspect of sport as an argument.
In western aesthetics theatre and sport are treated as separate
worlds, in contradistinction to everyday life and productive work.
In those worlds, defined by the relations between the show and the
public occurs an unceas~in~g &dquo;expressive r-ejuvenaotri.OtI1 and an analysis
of the moral values of society.&dquo; From this point of view theatre, and
in the future to a growing extent sport are to perform a function
- of a cultural nature, ousting and replacing such traditional forms
belonging to the past, as religion.
But the -advocates of these opinions do not fully understand the
essence of sport and its social functions. The aesthetic features of sport
become eompletely blurred here, losing their specific traits.
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 129

Let us ask the question whether sport as a show is identical with

the theatre? Or more precisely: if sport functions as an independent
sphere of social life does it, besides the general features of a show,
which .it has in common with the theatre, also possess its own prin-
c ip~l.e~s?
has its law, rules of play, symbols of victory, but the fight
Sport
in sport is some sort of make-believe, its course is not subjected to the
laws governing a theatre play. It is, however, true that its course
.is determined by specific rules, a specific dramaturgy.
A theatre without spectators is an absurdity. However, spectators
are not an absolute necessity for a sport competition. In other words,

despite the importance of sport fans for sport, the spectacular aspect
of sport is not the principal goal of sport, it makes its appearance
as an accompanying phenomenon. The sharper and more intense the

situation of a fight in sport, the better the show aspect. The opposite
is not possible.
I- -

Thus, when organizing a sport show there should be set differen-

tiated tasks; one of them is a guarantee of the best possible condition
for the holding of competitions, the second is to guarantee the specta-
tors possibilities to watch the competitions in accordance with their
interests. The first task is the principal one, but in the theatre every-
thing is subordinated to the second one.
Thus, we see that as far as its spectacular aspect is concerned sport
differs essentially from art. Nevertheless we find in sport a whole num-
ber of phenomena, for which the show aspect is very essential.
To such phenomena belong various shows, sport circus perform-
ances, sport holidays and parades, though here don’t find sport we

fight in the true sense of the word, especially directed activity imitates
sport competitions or in a specific manner defines the value of sport.
Since such activities have no content typical of sport their spectacular
aspect is being defined by other principles which are closer to the
theatrical aspect.
.The absence of an authentic sport conflict is here being replaced
by a conflict constructed according to the laws governing theater plays.
The. principal driving force of activity is not the logic of sport fight,
but he subject, the scenario-writer’s idea. The acting hero is not the
sportsman as such, but the athlete who plays the role laid down for
him in the scenario.
The elementary dramatic principles, made use of for the organiza-
tion of a show of this type, were in the past applied in circus where
all sorts of &dquo;world&dquo; championships were organized. Each one of these
circus wrestlers had his own title, such as &dquo;the public’s favourite&dquo;,
&dquo;the Volga strongman&dquo; or &dquo;Ki.n,g of the athletes&dquo;. He bad to wear
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130

a &dquo;black&dquo; mysterious mask, but ithere also were the so-called

or &dquo;red&dquo;
&dquo;enemies&dquo; whom the public should hate and boo. The wrestlers very
skilfully fought violent duels: involving strength, technical skill and
should the need arise: causing scandals. And the spectators believed
in the authenticity of the fight.
It as, of course, obvious that similar contests have nothing in com-
mon with sport. They don’t even pretend to, but nevertheless make a con-
tribution to the propaganda ’of sport.
But it is much worse if attempts are made to falsify sport fights,
to increase the~ir value as a show, when behind the back of the public,
in offices, decisions are made which determine the course of a fight
and the athletes play the role, laid down for them in advance. Sport,
deprived of its directness, its aim and content, turns into a mere floor-
show.
In attempts to transform sport in accordance with the laws govern-
ing &dquo;floor-sho~ws&dquo; can be detected elements of authentic fight which
can ,be noticed in the activity of &dquo;Harlem Globetrotter&dquo; the basketball
circus and in long bouts of many rounds of professional boxe>rs. Built
in all these cases sport features are being subordinated to external
effects. Sport results are less important, first place is given to tricks.
.

It would be incorrect to maintain that a sport show and a theatre

performance possess no common features. Neither a sport show nor
a theater performance should be too long drawn out and monotonous.
Certain rules of staging are obligatory on the stadium as well as
in the theatre. A sport show and a theatre play must have a distinct
beginning, there must be a conflict that grows in intensity and the
mood has to undergo changes; the conflict has to be solved. In the
case of sport the above-mentioned rules make their appearance spon-

taneously during the course of activity, action organizes itself in accord-

anc.e with the above-mentioned principles. And this exactly is the fun-
dalmental difference between sport and theatre.
It is interesting that only some of the sport disciplines can be
transformed into a &dquo;shorov&dquo;. Skiing, high mountain climbing, track-and-
field do not permit, a shift of sport fight towards &dquo;show business&dquo;.
It is a known fact that an attempt to organize an ice circus, where
performances would be given by professional skaters, was a failure.
This, however, does not mean that the above-mentioned sport disci-
plines are not spectacular.
Sport despite the great variety of its aspects and its many disci-
plines remains the same. And what follows, the principles of sport
are binding for all its disciplines. That is why the marathon and ice

figure skating, diving and fencing, all have simdlar features. Despite
all their differences they belong to the same category of phenomena.
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 131

But in the performances given by figure skaters during a ballet

case of
on ice, by gymnasts and circus acrobats, despite the entire external
identity of action, we find that these are phenomena belonging to
different fields, and what follows, the principles of their organization
and functioning differ.
Sport, to the extent to which it reveals its aesthetic content and
appears in the form of artistic activity, requires its own language
of expression and its own criteria of an aesthetic evaluation. That
is why a mechanical transfer of research conceptions from the sphere
of the history of art to that of sppomt is incorrect from the methodological
point of view.
Representing an organic element of aesthetic culture of contempo-
rary society sport and art exert an influence on one another. One
of the aspects of such interaction is the fact that methods typical of
artistic creative work have made deep inroads into the sphere of sport.
This is true first of all as regards the organization of sport days
on a mass scale, secondly also the aesthetic taking shape of the
attributes of sport, and thirdly the spatial architecture of the organ-
-

ization of the sport environment. But the latter its already a new and
fully independent sphere of problems connected with the interaction
between sport and art. ,

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SPORT UND KUNST

Zusammenfassung

Die Probleme des Zus.ammenihangs zwisohen Sport und. Kunst slÏ1nd bes-o-nders
akiGuell. Sie sind sowohl mit der Entwicklung des Sports und seiner Va~rieta~te~n
wie auch mit seiner Spe~ktakelseite VerhUIl1:d’&eth;.ll. Besontders die Spe<kt.aike1selilte
wird von den Massenmedien, vor allem vom Fernsehen, betont.
--
°~

Die Analyse dieses Problems weisit mindesterrs 3 Aspekite nalch:

Oer erste Aspekt ist am meisten sitriitti-g: Gehort d,eT Sport zu den Kurlsterl
oder nich~t’? Zweitens handelt es sich um das Problem des Sport-spektakels und
seiner wichtigste,n Bestandte~i.le. Der dritte Aspekt betrifft die KiiI1stIerprobleme,
die in der Verbindung mit der Entwicklung des mod,e~nnew Sposts zum Ausdiruck
kommen.
/Das Setzen des Glei~chheits~zeichems zwischen Sport und Kumst ergibt sich
davon, dal3 man die Kompositionsehiheitlichkeit beim Bilden des SportphKnomeJ1s
und des kiinstlerischen Effekts in zu grellen Farben darstellt. In der Wirk-
-

lichkeit hat diese EinheAlichkeit nur einen syntaktischean Cha~r~a,lote~r (das Ordnen
und Zusaanmenstellen). Weiter handelt es sich hier um ei~nen semantischen (das
Uberweisen der Bedeutungsinhalte) und einen sygmaIti,schen Character (Beziehng
zum emjpfangenen Objekt). Die Voraussetzungen de.s Sports und der Kunsst
unterscheiden sich voneinander und darum diirfen die Gesetze, die die Kunst
regieren, auf den Sport nicht automatilseh übertlla.gell1 werden; das Spartspektakes
da~rf nicht naoh diesen Re~ohten awtomatisch ko~ns~t~ru2ert werde’l1. Die Schaubarkeit
ist eine der wichtigsten Bedingungen, die da,s Existieren wn~d die Entwicklung
des Sportlebens ermbglichen. Die Schauba~r.keit eiltsteht auf der G~nund,lage der
Wirkung der Prinzipien der Komposition des Sportkampfes, unabhang’ig von
dem, ob es sich urn einen Kampf gegen einen konkreten Gegner handelt, older
gegen das Gew~icht, die Geschwindigkeit oder H6he. Dies sind eben die Aben.teuer
des Kampfes. Die Logik des Kampfes bildet das Wesen der Kompositiotll6<truiktu&OElig;’
des Sports, die Grundlage seiner Schauba~rkeit. Viele SpOrtd~iSZi~pliQlen k6nnen sich
ohne Regie in der Organisierung des Spektakells nicht entraten. Es ist eben die
Ursache, daf3 drie pI)ÎiI1JZ~pien des ästhetis.~hen Empfa,ngs, die Regieprinøipien der
Sportveranstaltungetn fur den Sport eine gleicvhe Bedeultun,g haben wi,e der
-

Kanon in der Musiik oder wie die Komposi tion in de.n bildenden Kunsten.
iDi~e wi’chtigen Aspekte der Zusammenwlrkulng des Sports und der Kun~st
k4o~mmen - in Beziehung mLt der Notwendigkeit, den Plaltz und die Be4di-iigu,nge(n
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 133

der sportlichen T5tigkeit zu organiaieren, zum richti,gen Ausdr’uck. Der Sport

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bildet um sich eine besol1Jde-re Sphere; dazu tragen die verschiedenen Sporteiln-
richtungen., die Sportausrusttunfg und dde Sportsymbolik ihren Anteil bei. Es bes-
teht ein kompliziertes Geflecht der Interesse des Sports und der Architektur,
der ange~wa~ndten und der rnol1!urnentalen Kun~t. Dies brauchtt einer besonderen
Behandlung.
6chluJ3fo.lgeru’ng: das Problem der gegenseitigen Beziehungen zwisiche-ii Sport
u:nd l~,u~nstgeh6rt zu den komplizierten.

DBS SPORTS ET DES ARTS

Resume
.

Le proble~tne de 1’existort.ce de la Iiadson entre des sports et des arts dev.ient

particulièrement actuel et est lie au d6veloppement du sport lui-meme et de ses
varietes, de meme qu’a la partie spectaculaire du sport, ce qui est particuli6rement
soulign6 par des mass-media et, avant tout, par la television.
L’analyse de ce probleme fait conna’Ítre, tout au moins tro,is aspects. Le
premier aspect, le plus disputable, c’est la question si les sports a’ppartiennent
a I’art ou non. Le deuxieme - c’est I’aspect du spectacle sportif et de ses
elements les plus important. Le trois18me aspect ce sont des questdons
-

artistiques qui appa,raissenit jws~tement avec le développement des sports

modernes.
;L’i~ncorporation des sports aux airts r8su’lte de l’exagéraltion de 1’umafo~rrrnite
-

de composition du phenomone sportif et de 1’effet artistique. Ma’is premi6re- -

ment cette uniformité n’a qu’un caractere syn,ta,ctique (juxtaposant, classant),

deuxiemement semantique (transmission des contenus semantiques) et sigmatique
(rapport a l’objet apperceptible).
Des principes des sports et des arts se distinguent de facon significative; il ne
faut pas transmettre aux sports des lois qui doivent regner des arts, il ne faut
pas contruire un spectacle sportif d’apr6s ces lois.
iLe caract8re spectaculaire ce sont des conditions les plus I.mportan.tes qui
-

font possible 1’existence et le d6veloppement des sports. Ce caractere specta-

oula,ire se forme a la base de la gestion des principes de la composition du
combat sportif, n’importe si c’est le combat contre un adversaire com,cret ou
contre une barre plomb6e, contre la celerite ou 1’ha~uteur. Ce sont justement
des peripeties due combat et la logique du combat q~ud font 1’essent,iel de la
struTture de composition du sport, le fond de son caiI’1actère spectacul-aire.
C’est pourquoi beaucoup des disciplines sportives ont besoin d’une mise en scene
et sans cela elles ne peuvent meme existe~r. Les principes de la perception
esthetique, les principes de la mise en scene des entreprises s,portives ont -

pour des sports une meme importance comme le canon pour la musique ou la
composition pour les arts piastiques.
Et, enfin, 1es aspects impo,r’tatI1its de la cooperation des sports avec des
arts -

se revelent par rapport a la necessite d’organiser le lieu et des conditions

des activilt6s sportives. Des sports torment, awtau~r d’eux, une sphere specifique.
Ce sont des installations sportives diverses, 1’6q,ui,pemerbt et 1a sy~m~boldq~ue spor-
tive. I1 y a u,n noeud complique des interests des sports et de 1’architecture,
aLnsi que de l’art usager et monumental, ce qui ex~ige des études sp8ciales.
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