Basic Electronics

BECE101L

Module-4: Amplifiers and Oscillators

BJT as an amplifier (CE configuration), MOSFET as an amplifier (CS
configuration), Feedback concept, Oscillators - Barkhausen's criteria for
sustained oscillation, RC Phase Shift Oscillator, LC Oscillator.

Prof. D. Kannadassan, TT 218-3

dkannadassan@vit.ac.in
Common-Emitter Configuration

VBB=VBE+IBRB

IC
=
IB

VCC = VCE + I C RC
 Common Emitter: Input/Transfer characteristics

NPN Case

All signs, current direction and DC

source, are opposite for PNP case)
 Common Emitter: Output characteristics

NPN Case

To bias the BJT in active region, the B–C

junction must be zero or reverse biased, which
means that VCE > VBE(on). In active region, the
IV characteristics are linear with a small slope
(resistance).
 Early effect

An exaggerated view of the current–

voltage characteristics: The curves are
theoretically linear with respect to the
C–E voltage in the forward-active
mode
J.M. Early, "Effects of space-charge
layer widening in junction
transistors", Proc. IRE, vol. 40, pp.
1401-1406 (1952).

IC=0

(Early voltage, ranges 50 to 300 V)

When the reverse-bias voltage on the collector–base junction increases the width of the
B–C space-charge region also increases. This in turn reduces the neutral base width.
A decrease in the base width causes the gradient in the minority carrier concentration to
increase, which increases the diffusion current through the base. The collector current
then increases as the C–E voltage increases. It is also known as the base-width
modulation effect.
 DC Analysis of BJT circuits
Common-Emitter Circuit

Equivalent Circuit

We will assume that the B–E junction is forward biased, so the voltage drop across that
junction is the cut-in or turn-on voltage VBE(on).
When the transistor is biased in the forward-active mode, the collector current is
represented as a dependent current source that is a function of the base current. We are
neglecting the reverse-biased junction leakage current and the Early effect in this case.
In the following circuits, we will be considering dc currents and voltages, so the dc
notation for these parameters will be used.
 Common-Emitter Circuit
The base current is

Implicit in above equation is that VBB >

VBE (on), which means that IB > 0.
When VBB < VBE (on), the transistor is cut off and IB = 0. In the collector–emitter
portion of the circuit, we can write

and:

VCE > VBE (on), which means that the B–C junction is reverse biased and the
transistor is biased in the forward-active mode. power dissipated in the transistor is
given by
 Example
Calculate the base, collector, and emitter currents and the C–E voltage
for a common-emitter circuit. Calculate the transistor power dissipation

β = 200

Solution: The base current is found as

 The collector current is

and the emitter current is

the collector-emitter voltage is

We knew

The power dissipated in the transistor is found to be

Comment: Since VBB > VBE (on) and VCE > VBE (on), the transistor is indeed biased in the
forward-active mode. As a note, in an actual circuit, the voltage across a B–E junction may
not be exactly 0.7 V, as we have assumed using the piecewise linear approximation. This may
lead to slight inaccuracies between the calculated currents and voltages and the measured
values. Also note that, if we take the difference between IE and IC , which is the base current,
we obtain IB = 20 μA rather than 15 μA. The difference is the result of round-off error in the
emitter current.
 Load Line and Modes of Operation
The load line can help us visualize the characteristics of a transistor circuit. For
the common-emitter circuit, we can use a graphical technique for both the B–E
and C–E portions of the circuit.

β = 200
 Output Load Line
For the C–E portion of the circuit,
the load line is found by writing
Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation
around the C–E loop.

β = 200

The two end points of the load line

are found by setting IC = 0,
yielding VCE = VCC = 10 V, and by
setting VCE = 0, yielding IC =
VCC/RC = 5 mA.
The quiescent point, or Q-point, of
the transistor is given by the dc
collector current and the collector–
emitter voltage. The Q-point is the
intersection of the load line and the
IC versus VCE curve corresponding
to the appropriate base current.
 Load Line Analysis

As VBB increases Mode of operation

VBB < VBE (on) IB = IC = 0, transistor is
in the cutoff mode.
VBB > VBE (on) IB increases and Q-point
moves up the load line.
IB is too high IC can no longer increase.
transistor is biased in the
saturation mode
 Example 5.7
For VBB = +4V and +8V: Calculate the base, collector, and emitter currents and the C–E
voltage for a common-emitter circuit. Analyse the mode of operation and calculate the
transistor power dissipation

For VBB = +4V :

β = 200

Solution: The base current is found as

 The collector current is

and the emitter current is

the collector-emitter voltage is

We knew

The power dissipated in the transistor is found to be

Comment: Since VBB > VBE (on) and VCE > VBE (on), the transistor is indeed biased in the
forward-active mode. As a note, in an actual circuit, the voltage across a B–E junction may
not be exactly 0.7 V, as we have assumed using the piecewise linear approximation. This may
lead to slight inaccuracies between the calculated currents and voltages and the measured
values. Also note that, if we take the difference between IE and IC , which is the base current,
we obtain IB = 20 μA rather than 15 μA. The difference is the result of round-off error in the
emitter current.
 Since +8 V is applied to the input side of RB,
For VBB = +8V : the base–emitter junction is certainly forward
biased, so the transistor is turned on. The base
current is

then the collector current is:

The collector–emitter voltage is then

Therefore, our initial assumption of the transistor being biased in the forward-active
mode is incorrect. Instead, the transistor must be biased in saturation.
Therefore, we should take VCE(sat) = 0.2 V. The collector current is:

This yeild:
= βforced < β
The emitter current is

The power dissipated in the transistor is found to be

IB=33.2 µA
 BJT Applications
Transistors can be used
to: switch currents,
voltages, and power;
perform digital logic
functions; and amplify
time-varying signals. In
this section, we
consider the switching switch digital logic
properties of the bipolar
transistor, analyse a
simple transistor digital
logic circuit, and then
show how the bipolar
transistor is used to
amplify time-varying
signals. amplifier
 Voltage Transfer Characteristics
A plot of the voltage transfer characteristics (output voltage versus input
voltage) can also be used to visualize the operation of a circuit or the state of a
transistor.
Vout

Vout

Vin

Vin
 Example A
Develop the voltage transfer curve for the circuit shown below. Assume NPN
transistor has VBE(on) = 0.7 V, β = 120, VCE(sat) = 0.2 V, and VA = ∞

Solution:
For VI ≤ 0.7 V, the transistor is cut off,
so that IB = IC = 0. The output voltage is
then VO = V+ = 5 V.

For VI > 0.7 V, the transistor turns ON

and is initially biased in the active mode.

or Vout

or Vin

and
Then

This equation is valid for 0.2 ≤ VO ≤ 5 V. When VO = 0.2 V, the transistor goes into
saturation.

When VO = 0.2 V,
the input voltage is found from

which yields

VI = 1.9 V

For VI ≥ 1.9 V,
the transistor remains in saturation
region. VCE (sat)
 Example B
Develop the voltage transfer curve for the circuit shown below. Assume PNP
transistor has VBE(on) = 0.7 V, β = 80, VCE(sat) = 0.2 V, and VA =∞

0.2 V

0.7 V

Refer: Donald Neamen

 Amplifier
The bipolar CE (inverter) circuit can also be used to amplify a time-varying signal.
The dc voltage source VBB is used to bias the transistor in the forward-active
region. The Q-point is shown on the transfer characteristics. If the magnitude of
the slope of the transfer characteristics is greater than unity, then the time-varying
output signal will be larger than the time-varying input signal—thus an amplifier.

VCE

Amplification factor:
Inverted Signal
 Example C
Determine the amplification factor for the circuit given, assume β = 120,
VBE(on) = 0.7 V, and VA =∞. (Same as Example A)

First Step is
finding the
voltage
transfer
characteristics
(Example A)
 Calculation of ‘Amplification factor’ (or Amplifier Gain)

➢ From the Voltage Transfer curve, Find the “Active

region” so that the circuit will an Amplifier.

➢ Bias the circuit in active region, the best location is

“Center of the active region”.

VO = 2.6 V ➢ Find the slop of the active region around Q point, called
amplification factor.

120(1.3 − 0.7 ) 5k

= 5−
150k
VO = 2.6 V

120(VI − 0.7 ) 5k

1.3 V
VO = 5 − = 7.8 − 4VI
150k
Negative sign indicate the
Amplification factor: circuit invert the signal to
180o
 Importance of Q-point

Active Region Saturation Region