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The Use of Tacit Knowledge in Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems
The Use of Tacit Knowledge in Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems
To cite this article: Daniel Podgórski (2010) The Use of Tacit Knowledge in Occupational Safety and Health
Management Systems, International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 16:3, 283-310
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International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics (JOSE) 2010, Vol. 16, No. 3, 283–310
Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute (CIOP-PIB), Poland
A systematic approach to occupational safety and health (OSH) management and concepts of knowledge
management (KM) have developed independently since the 1990s. Most KM models assume a division of
knowledge into explicit and tacit. The role of tacit knowledge is stressed as necessary for higher performance
in an enterprise. This article reviews literature on KM applications in OSH. Next, 10 sections of an OSH
management system (OSH MS) are identified, in which creating and transferring tacit knowledge contributes
significantly to prevention of occupational injuries and diseases. The roles of tacit knowledge in OSH MS are
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contrasted with those of explicit knowledge, but a lack of a model that would describe this process holistically
is pointed out. Finally, examples of methods and tools supporting the use of KM in OSH MS are presented
and topics of future research aimed at enhancing KM applications in OSH MS are proposed.
Correspondence and requests for offprints should be sent to Daniel Podgórski, CIOP-PIB, ul. Czerniakowska 16, 00-701 Warszawa,
Poland. E-mail: <dapod@ciop.pl>.
284 D. PODGÓRSKI
types of knowledge, where the other two support systems. These tools, however, allow us
are individual and structural knowledge [5]. to manage mainly explicit knowledge. Reaching
Individual knowledge can be found in human tacit knowledge and using it for the benefit of an
minds and is hard to grasp, whereas structural enterprise remain very important issues in KM
knowledge is a fairly easily accessible codified practice.
knowledge, the kind that can be found in various
databases, reports, instructions, procedures, 1.2. First Attempts at Adopting KM
etc. Nonaka and Takeuchi [6] define structural Principles to OSH Management
knowledge as explicit or formal, whereas
Regardless of the developments in KM discussed
knowledge that is informal, hard to gain and
in section 1.1., since 1995 there has been a
codify is defined as tacit knowledge. Usually the
movement in several industrialised countries
management of enterprises concentrates mainly
towards implementing a systematic approach to
on explicit knowledge, whereas achieving higher
managing occupational safety and health (OSH)
management effectiveness requires accessing
issues in enterprises. This development has
tacit knowledge resources and their conversion
involved setting voluntary standards that include
into formal and available knowledge. However,
OSH management system (MS) specifications
according to Davenport and Prusak “tacit,
complex knowledge, developed and internalized based on the continuous improvement cycle
by the knower over a long period of time, is Plan–Do–Check–Act (PDCA). When seeking
almost impossible to reproduce in a document new ways of making enterprises competitive
or a database. Such knowledge incorporates so and increasing their innovativeness, attempts
much accrued and embedded learning that its were made to use the principles of KM not only
rules may be impossible to separate from how to improve basic business processes (such as
designing products and services, production,
an individual acts” (p. 70) [3]. Additionally,
marketing or sales), but also to use those principles
in the case of tacit knowledge its owners are
in OSH. According to literature applying KM
often unaware of the knowledge they have and
principles has led to an improvement in the
of its value to others and to the organisation
effectiveness of an environmental management
for which they act. That is why acquisition of
system (EMS), which is based on a model similar
tacit knowledge and its use for the benefit of an
to that in OSH MS. This approach allowed the
organisation can be extremely difficult. Some
enterprise to decrease energy consumption as well
estimates indicate that tacit knowledge makes
as emission of pollutants into the atmosphere and
up as much as 80% of the total vital knowledge,
water [8, 9], proving at the same time that KM can
which may be useful for organisations to ensure
increase the potential of the enterprise with regard
their sustainable position on competitive markets
to green competitiveness.
[7].
exchange is possible due to dynamic interactions A spiral loop indicating a change of explicit
between members of an organisation, groups knowledge into tacit knowledge on successive
and organisational levels. There are four types of stages of its creation and recreation in an
knowledge conversion (see Figure 1): organisation is a very important element of
Nonaka’s model [2, 3]. In this way knowledge
• socialisation: change of individual tacit
conversion should lead to a continuous expansion
knowledge into group knowledge co-
of knowledge resources in the organisation.
perceptible by members of the organisation;
In Nonaka’s model, the most critical and most
• externalisation: conversion of tacit knowledge
difficult to realise is the stage of socialisation,
of the group into formal (explicit) knowledge
because individualised tacit knowledge can
of the group;
remain in the organisation members’ minds
• combination: systematic processing of
or demonstrate itself in their behaviours only.
fragmentary (segmented) formal knowledge
Despite its value, it can be partly subconscious
into formal knowledge (connection of new
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Ex
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io
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at
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is
Tacit Tacit
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So
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Tacit Ex plicit
Tacit Ex plicit
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In
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Explicit Explicit
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Figure 1. Japanese model of organisational knowledge creation (on the basis of Nonaka [6] and
Nonaka and Takeuchi [10]).
knowledge. That is why a slightly different Wiig’s first stage (building knowledge)
division of forms of knowledge into “hard” and consists of obtaining, analysing, reconstructing,
“soft” was suggested [15, 17]. According to synthesising, codifying and modelling knowl
Hildreth and Kimble each body of knowledge is edge. At this point knowledge is acquired and
both hard and soft. Since both are inexorably and built from various sources: experts and advisers,
inextricably interwoven there is no clear division training courses, procedures and instructions,
between these two forms [15]. research, books, media, inspections and
Hard knowledge is codified and observable observations, as well as individual experience of
formal knowledge, the kind that can be members of the organisation.
found in textbooks, procedures, instructions, Holding knowledge involves remembering it,
programmes, databases, etc. On the other hand, accumulating and embedding it in repositories
soft knowledge is tacit and takes the form of and archiving it. There are different forms of
internalised experience, automated skills and formal knowledge to be acquired, e.g., patents,
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internalised cultural knowledge embedded into research reports and technical documentation.
practice [17]. Changing tacit knowledge into hard This stage also includes holding tacit knowledge
knowledge is in certain circumstances possible that can be found in company members’ minds
but only a part of this knowledge can be made and which can be extracted in the form of
explicit. Moreover, knowledge is embedded practical tips and case studies, etc.
not only in habits and mental models of The third stage, pooling knowledge, assumes
individual employees, but it is a result of current knowledge co-ordination that primarily relies on
relations between certain members of working setting a knowledge resource network structure
teams. Therefore, it is often subconscious and and on defining responsibility for making
distributed across individual members of the certain resources available. Other activities at
organisation [18]. this stage include collecting information about
The following statement expresses well locating knowledge in documents, databases or
problems connected with management of tacit expert networks (assembling knowledge) and
(or soft) knowledge, “people know more than providing access and retrieval of knowledge to all
they can say and more than it results from their employees.
common sense” (p. 205) [19]. That is why The last stage of Wiig’s model, using
instead of focusing on changing tacit knowledge knowledge, concerns ways of using practical
into explicit, and later on trying to manage it with knowledge within an organisation. For example,
methods suitable for formal knowledge, investing this can consist in using knowledge in routine
in soft KM techniques would be more efficient. tasks, production and services but mostly in any
Those techniques consist in developing informal kind of decision-making processes conducted at
methods of sharing this knowledge, without the various management levels. The latter includes
necessity to externalise it [15]. using knowledge to identifying problems
and their potential consequences, choosing
2.2. Wiig’s Model of KM Cycle knowledge suitable for solving these problems,
searching for alternative solutions, assessing the
Creating and using knowledge in the enterprise advantages and disadvantages of those solutions,
can be made efficient by good organisation of and planning and implementing selected
acquiring and processing knowledge. Taking this solutions.
into account, Wiig proposed an organisational Wiig also proposed classifying manageable
KM cycle of four consecutive stages: (a) knowledge into three principal forms: (a) public
building, (b) holding, (c) pooling and (d) using knowledge, (b) shared knowledge (common
knowledge [11, 12]. This cycle can be presented for organisation members) and (c) personal
in linearly, but some activities within these stages knowledge [11]. Each of these forms was further
can be performed simultaneously or in reverse. divided into passive and active knowledge. Public
restrain both employees and managers from implemented in various enterprises (e.g., in
using new knowledge in practice. Methods consulting companies or enterprises focused
supporting the use of knowledge include on innovations). Still, there is no homogeneous
implementation of understandable forms of approach in this area and indicators chosen to
presenting knowledge (e.g., readable reports, assess the level of knowledge vary. Probst et al.
pictures and figures instead of text and easy-to- propose using, e.g., a Balanced Scorecard
use information management systems), training approach [20, 21], multidimensional knowledge
employees in a direct use of knowledge (so- measurement systems [22], assessment of
called action learning), etc. In the process of organisational culture sensibility to knowledge,
knowledge assimilation it is also important to or strategic benchmarking.
ensure a friendly working environment with a
proper organisation of departments and location 2.4. Criticism of KM, and Its Successive
of workstations within an office. Generations
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Grant and Grant analysed the criticism of factor related to implementing KM principles
the first phase of KM development; they saw in enterprises [35]. Employees must have
excessive focus on applying IT to KM to be its requisite skills and attitudes (personality traits),
main disadvantage. This resulted in KM turning which is strongly connected with the creation
into information management with no practical and transfer of components of tacit knowledge.
value [26]. Despite this criticism, support of the Other success factors involve creating and
KM concept did not decrease; instead, there were maintaining a suitable organisational culture
a number of successful KM implementations in and work atmosphere, in which employees have
enterprises. There were also failures resulting the permission to act innovatively, to improvise
from mistakes in KM implementation and not and to step beyond established schemes and
from the concept itself [27]. That is why KM scopes of activities to serve the enterprise and it
researchers tried to improve the concept. As a stakeholders as best as they can. Furthermore,
result, new generations of KM were developed: it is very important to motivate employees to
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McElroy’s second-generation KM [28, 29, act intelligently by showing them that their
30], Snowden’s third-generation KM [31, 32] actions will be valuable to the stakeholders, the
and Sveiby’s [33] and Wiig’s [34, 35] next enterprise and to themselves.
generation KM (NGKM). Wiig underlined that “KM must be people
NGKM’s main feature is its strong focus focused, not technology-centric, and must rely on
on human aspects. The basic differences people-related mechanisms such as storytelling,
among NGKM and previous generations of communities of practice (CoP), and social
KM are the degree of integration between networking” (p. 229) [35]. The implementation
NGKM and enterprise philosophy, strategy, of NGKM must be harmonised with culture and
aims, practices and procedures, and the way with joint values of the enterprise, employees and
in which this concept becomes a part of the external stakeholders.
employees’ motivation and their everyday life
[36]. The main characteristics of NGKM are (a)
broad and proactive business philosophy and 3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON
management beliefs; (b) knowledge-focused KM IN OSH MS
business strategies and practices; (c) intellectual
3.1. KM in OSH MS in High-Risk
capital stewardship mentality; (d) systematic,
Industries
self-sustaining and self-renewing KM practices;
(e) systems perspective of enterprise and Mining, including hard coal mining, is a high-
environment; and (f) vigilant application of risk industry. Working conditions in this sector
state-of-the-art KM practices and infrastructure are very dangerous, which is reflected by a high
capabilities [34, 35]. ratio of occupational accidents and diseases in
First generations of KM were more focused on comparison with other industries and service
technology, systems, or organisational culture, sectors. Therefore, searching for efficient ways
whereas NGKM is focused on how people learn, to improve working conditions in mining is of
remember, make decisions, solve problems and primary importance. That is probably why the
act, and the connection between knowledge and first attempts to introduce KM principles in OSH
workers’ behaviour. When the NGKM principles management were made in this sector. To date
were formulated, research results were used in there have been some studies and implementation
mental models, narrative, conceptual blending, efforts in this area, but few offer ideas on how
decision theory and sense-making. KM concepts can be used in practice to manage
According to Wiig, ensuring that all em OSH.
ployees have access to necessary resources of One of those studies used experience gained
professional, craft and navigational knowledge in developing OSH management in Australian
and metaknowledge is a significant success mining to describe an example of a formal KM
process implemented to improve strategies of This method is increasingly used not only in
occupational risk management [36]. The most the arts and literature, but also in medicine, or
important steps of this process are (a) mapping science, in general [38]. Thirty rescue veterans
knowledge in the organisation, (b) carrying took part in the study. In the presence of
out a KM audit, (c) identifying knowledge researchers they told their stories about specific
gaps and needs, (d) appointing project teams moments of rescue actions they took part in.
and initialising projects for acquiring and Next, those stories were used to design scenarios
documenting knowledge and, after their of simulated rescue actions that were later used in
completion, (e) overviewing and assessing the training miners, rescuers and people responsible
results in view of a reimplementation of KM for emergency management in mines. Such
processes in accordance with the principle of field training sessions were organised in real
continuous improvement. This process is to be conditions in a U.S. hard coal mine. As a result
applied to various kinds of formal knowledge of this experiment, tacit knowledge hidden in the
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related to risk assessment and management, minds of the rescue veterans was transferred to
particularly to hazard and risk registers; the the minds of a future generation mine rescuers.
scope, completeness and application of safety- Additionally, the rescue veterans’ recorded
related policies and procedures; the effectiveness stories were used as explicit knowledge and a
of current risk controls; investigation and free publication for miners and rescuers was
identification of new controls; development developed [39].
of skills and knowledge inventories; risk Many social sciences researchers have
communication methods, emergency confirmed the success of storytelling as a
management plans, etc. Cater proposed several natural method of knowledge sharing, especially
methods and tools to support KM processes with regard to tacit knowledge. Most people
in practice in risk management, such as remember complicated relations and conditions
benchmarking, peer assistance, workshops and better if they are structured and presented in
discussion groups, after-action reviews, corporate the form of a story. Therefore, this method
yellow pages and OSH knowledge websites; may be very useful for many aspects of KM
and the need to acquire tacit knowledge within applications in organisations; it influences both
risk management activities. However, there the ways in which knowledge is disseminated
was no suggestion of any solutions that would among workers, and in which it is acquired and
ensure effective dissemination and the use of institutionalised [33]. In enterprises that belong
OSH-related tacit knowledge held by individual to high-risk industries, it has been proven that
employees [36]. people learn safety rules faster when those rules
Vaught, Mallett, Brnich, et al. studied are presented in the form of stories than in formal
explorations of tacit knowledge in OSH training or through instructions [40]. However,
management in the USA [37]. This research so far storytelling has not been appreciated or
focused on acquiring tacit knowledge on specific used widely by managers; formal and systematic
behaviours of mine rescuers during mine approaches predominate.
emergency responses. Since some sources of According to Gherardi and Nicolini safety
useful tacit knowledge may exist outside of the knowledge should be perceived as a collective
consciousness of individual employees and may competency or a culture developed within
be distributed across the individuals [18], it was CoP [41]. Wenger, McDermott and Snyder
assumed that such knowledge was transferred define CoPs as informal “groups of people who
among rescue team members and that the process share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion
was manageable. about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge
Narratives (storytelling) were used in National and expertise in this area by interacting on an
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health’s ongoing basis” (p. 4) [42]. Studies indicate that
research to acquire and cultivate tacit knowledge. formal and model-based approaches are not
ergonomic interventions in an enterprise. That is The generic models of those systems are based
why the whole area covered by the concept has on the same concept, i.e., PDCA, and their
been denoted as occupational safety, health and formal specifications contain similar functional
ergonomics (OSHE). To indicate the possibilities conceptions of their main elements. Therefore,
and the scope of applying KM principles to it was possible that the exploration and use of
OSHE management, the ILO-OSH 2001 [44] tacit knowledge in EMS would throw light on
organisational framework of the OSH MS model the potential role and use of tacit knowledge in
was adopted. OSH MS.
First of all, Sherehiy and Karwowski assumed The results of a study conducted in eight
that knowledge is a central resource that helps to Canadian industrial enterprises implementing
achieve goals in OSHE management. However, EMS provide some evidence for this thesis
the current approach to management in this area [8]. The study revealed the relevance of
focuses on formal KM, i.e., on legal provisions, tacit knowledge in three areas of EMS: (a)
standards, guidelines, procedures and internal identification of pollution sources, (b) proposals
instructions, registers, etc., whereas to ensure for preventive solutions and (c) management
efficient OSHE management in an enterprise it of emergency situations. These areas can be
is necessary to explore tacit knowledge hidden considered as analogical to the following
in the minds of experienced employees at all elements of OSH MS: (a) hazard identification,
organisational levels. This knowledge is strictly and risk assessment and management; (b)
connected with the working context and is hard prevention and control measures and (c)
to verbalise, e.g., a safety engineer’s experience, emergency prevention, preparedness and
hazard recognition and its practical aspects, response. Moreover, this study showed that
perceptual and cognitive skills, rules of thumb, promoting and sharing tacit knowledge in
intuition and syntheses of facts. EMS appeared within the framework of (a)
Sherehiy and Karwowski emphasised that consultation of the personnel, (b) empowerment,
KM is an important method that should allow (c) training and (d) documentation and retention.
achieving management goals in OSHE [43], The first three of these categories are essentially
although at present there are no validated models analogous with OSH MS sections on worker
of KM applications in this area. KM should participation, and competency and training.
stimulate suitable conditions of knowledge Research on tacit knowledge in EMS has also
exchange, innovative solutions application shown many other findings that can be adequate
and the use of knowledge already existing to view these issues from the perspective of
in an organisation. Moreover, according to OSH MS. First of all, it turned out that workers’
Sherehiy and Karwowski a future KM model personal knowledge greatly influenced the
for OSHE should include creating organisational identification of environmental hazards. This
knowledge was based on routine work activities and exploring tacit knowledge can improve the
and physical proximity to those hazards. Tacit effectiveness of hazard identification and risk
knowledge was also useful in seeking preventive management, implementation of prevention
solutions and solutions that would minimise and control measures, emergency prevention,
those hazards. To use that knowledge, however, preparedness and response, and of training
it was necessary to create a suitable climate and other forms of developing competencies.
and conditions in an enterprise, which would Tacit knowledge acquisition processes should
trigger workers’ voluntary participation and support organisational learning and should lead
commitment in those activities. to effective OSH management in enterprises.
Boiral suggested a general framework for However, to achieve these goals it is necessary
managing tacit knowledge in an enterprise. It to develop and disseminate practical tools
consisted of four stages: creation, consultation, supporting enterprises in efficient knowledge
codification and implementation. These exploration and management.
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processes would work only if there were A search for literature on applications of
suitable structures and management habits KM produced several studies on applications
that favoured consultations with employees, of KM to improving the general safety of the
empowerment practices and creation of good public. However, most of them concerned issues
climate for informal exchange of knowledge outside the traditional scope of OSH and focused
[8]. Codification of tacit knowledge could be on societal concerns regarding the influence
difficult. Managers, especially those in formal of industrial development. Thus, there were
management systems, tend to document all numerous attempts to apply KM principles in
activities and thus codify relevant knowledge. industrial safety [46], nuclear safety [47] and
Codification of tacit knowledge may be aviation safety [48]. Some KM applications in
expensive and lead to bureaucracy and excessive these fields include interesting concepts, models
documentation. It may also result in more and tools, but there is no evidence that they will
importance being paid to formal knowledge; thus be applicable to OSH. That is why at present they
both managers and employees might overlook might be considered as sources of ideas that may
the advantages of tacit knowledge. lead to future studies, rather than sources of any
practical conclusions on the role of KM in OSH.
3.4. KM in OSH MS—a Summary
The overview of literature in sections 3.1 and 3.2 4. TACIT KNOWLEDGE IN OSH MS
shows that research on the use of KM principles
in OSH management is still fragmented and 4.1. Systematic Approach to OSH
that it focuses on attempts to use a set of KM Management
methods to support different components of OSH The era of systematic management of OSH
MS. The conclusion regarding the role of tacit started in the mid-1990s. Since then there has
knowledge in this system is that its acquisition been a significant transformation in strategies
and exchange require special attention. This of improving working conditions. This process
type of knowledge may be important in hazard includes a radical change in the approach of
identification and risk control processes, in all stakeholders from enforcing obligatory
efficient training of workers, particularly rescuers compliance with detailed technical provisions
in high-risk industries, etc. on OSH to voluntary implementation of system
The results of research on the role of tacit procedures aimed at continuous improvement.
knowledge in specific areas of EMS (section 3.3) The latest stage of this transformation is reflected
provided an indirect proof of the potential in voluntary national standards on OSH MS, e.g.,
and importance of that knowledge in OSH BS 8800:1996 [49], AS/NZS 4804:1997/2001
MS. A comparison of these areas with their [50] and PN-N-18001:1999/2004 [51]. At an in
equivalents in OSH MS shows that acquiring ternational level, dissemination of a systematic
approach to OSH management was connected Many consulting companies offer and promote
with the development of the OHSAS 18001 BBS implementation programmes world-wide.
specification [52] and with the establishment of Many studies provide a sufficient amount of
the ILO-OSH 2001 guidelines on OSH MS [44]. scientific evidence that attests to the effectiveness
OSH MS models adopted in the afore of behavioural safety initiatives across a variety
mentioned documents are based on the PDCA of industries in many countries [56, 57]. An
or Deming’s cycle. Some of those models were implementation programme in an enterprise
developed for specific industries or activity should cover identification and specification
sectors, e.g., an OSH MS for the construction of employees’ behaviours that are critical for
industry as specified in Standard No. SAA HB53 their safety, observation of these behaviours and
[53]. However, most of those models are generic collection of data that concern their frequency
and can be used in enterprises regardless of the and, finally, implementation of appropriate
economic sector or type of activity. correction and prevention actions for ensuring
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Adoption of an OSH MS model based on improvement of workers’ safety and health [58].
PDCA in such international documents as Implementation of BBS in an enterprise
OHSAS 18001 [52] or ILO-OSH 2001 [44] has where a formal OSH MS already exists and
caused domination of this model in applications is complementary with one of the previously
all over the world. For example, in 2005 OSH described models does not require major
MS certified according to OHSAS 18001 were in changes in the system itself. New components
place in over 15 000 enterprises in 82 countries1. that include BBS can be easily integrated with
The exact number of enterprises with OSH MS the existing management system and output
is not known at present, but as the market for from that system can be used as input into
certification services in OSH MS has grown by behavioural safety interventions and vice versa.
~30–40% per year, the number of enterprises In particular, BBS processes can be a part of a
with this system in place could be estimated at risk management subsystem; e.g., workstations
~50 000 in 2009. or operations identified in a risk management
process as related to significant hazards can be
4.2. Behaviour-Based Safety in OSH MS further analysed to identify critical behaviours
that are needed for hazard prevention. Results
In recent years the behaviour-based safety (BBS) of such analyses can be used for modifying
approach (sometimes called behavioural safety) employees’ behaviours to prevent hazards and to
has become increasingly popular within OSH reduce occupational risks [59].
management. BBS is commonly defined as a
systematic application of psychological research
4.3. Potential Use of Tacit Knowledge in
on human behaviour to the problems of safety
OSH MS
in the workplace [54]. This method assumes that
people tend to take risky actions but these actions Desk research was carried out to find the most
are not a result of an inappropriate approach important areas of OSH MS where processes
towards safety but of a lack of experience. BBS of acquiring, processing, transferring or using
has been successful because ~80% of accidents OSH-related knowledge took place. It consisted
at work result from employees’ inappropriate in an analysis of the detailed specifications
behaviour [55]. Moreover, BBS is focused on of all elements of this system and a review of
observable and measurable behaviours critical to the relevant literature on OSH management
occupational safety in a given enterprise. issues. The model and specifications of OSH
MS laid down in ILO-OSH 2001 [44] were the
1 OHSAS Project Group, 2006, Results of the survey into the availability of OH&S standards and certificates, up until 2005-12-31
[unpublished document].
structural framework of this analysis. They were sections. Additionally, the scopes of the explicit
supplemented with a set of management system and tacit knowledge determined in Table 1 for
requirements connected with an implementation the different sections of the system have been
of BBS. Table 1 presents the results of this divided into two parts, for managers (M) and
analysis. To demonstrate the potential role of for workers (W). Because of the different roles
tacit knowledge to be used in the individual of those groups in the management system and
sections of the system more clearly, its scopes with regard to work processes, the types and
are described and contrasted with the types of amount of knowledge possessed or transferred by
formal (i.e., explicit) knowledge relevant to these managers and by workers differ considerably.
TABLE 1. The Use of Knowledge in Sections of an Occupational Safety and Health Management
System (OSH MS)
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W Arrangements for workers and their safety and Concerns, ideas and other inputs on OSH submitted
health representatives to participate actively in by workers to be considered within OSH MS
OSH management
B. Scope of knowledge useful for the Organisation section
Formal (Explicit) Knowledge Tacit Knowledge
B1. Responsibility and accountability
M Legal regulations on employer’s responsibility for Personal experience and leadership skills in
OSH in the enterprise implementing OSH improvement activities
Records on allocation of responsibility,
accountability and authority for the development,
implementation and performance of OSH MS
Definition of managers’ responsibility and
accountability in OSH MS
Arrangements and responsibilities to identify and
control work-related hazards and risks
W Formal rules and procedures related to OSH No OSH-specific tacit knowledge required
established at the level of the workplace
Scopes of individual workers’ responsibility and
accountability in OSH management
TABLE 1. (continued).
W Training programmes for workers on OSH and their OSH-related knowledge acquired by workers by
roles in OSH management learning on the job, apprenticeship, mentoring,
etc.
OSH knowledge transferred to workers in training
courses, and through procedures, instructions, Personal knowledge and awareness of hazards,
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publications, websites, etc. risks and safety rules acquired from co-workers
B3. OSH MS documentation
M Documented OSH policy and objectives No OSH-specific tacit knowledge required
Arrangements, procedures, instructions, etc., within
OSH MS
Allocated key OSH management roles and
responsibilities for OSH MS
Results of hazard identification, risk assessment,
and monitoring active and reactive OSH
performance
Records on workers’ exposure, injuries, ill health,
diseases, incidents, absenteeism, and on
surveillance of workers’ health
W The same types of formal knowledge as for No OSH-specific tacit knowledge required
managers, but limited to the scope required for
individual workers at their workstations
B4. Communication
M Arrangements and procedures for receiving, Personal experience and skills in implementing
documenting and responding to internal and OSH-related communication procedures
external communications related to OSH
OSH-related information transferred between
relevant levels, managers and workers
W Arrangements and procedures for internal Personal knowledge and awareness of hazards
communication related to OSH and risks (acquired by learning on the job)
transferred between workers and managers
Documented concerns, ideas and other inputs on
OSH submitted by workers Concerns, ideas and other inputs on OSH
submitted by workers to their safety and health
representatives and managers
C. Scope of knowledge useful for Planning and Implementation* section
Formal (Explicit) Knowledge Tacit Knowledge
C1. System planning, development and implementation
M Arrangements and procedures for planning of OSH Personal experience and skills in preparing,
improvement activities establishing, implementing and evaluating OSH
improvement plans
Records on risk assessment, OSH monitoring,
workers’ exposure, injuries, ill health, diseases,
incidents, absenteeism, etc., as a basis for OSH
improvement plans
OSH improvement plans adopted in the enterprise
including criteria selected for measuring
achievement of objectives
TABLE 1. (continued).
W OSH objectives and targets relevant to individual No OSH-specific tacit knowledge required
workers’ activity and responsibility
W Knowledge of hazards and risks identified and Personal knowledge of hazards and risks at the
assessed at individual workstations within formal workplace (acquired by learning on the job or
risk assessment transferred by co-workers within team work)
Formal safety rules, instructions and technical Personal knowledge of safety-critical behaviours
requirements to be applied by workers when and safety rules (acquired by learning on the job
using protective or preventive measures for or transferred by co-workers within team work)
elimination of hazards and reduction of risks
W Knowledge of new hazards and risks identified and Personal knowledge of hazards and risks introduced
assessed at individual workstations in the case of by modification or introduction of new work
modification or introduction of new work methods, methods, materials, processes or machinery
materials, processes or machinery (acquired by learning on the job)
C5. Hazard and risk prevention: emergency prevention, preparedness and response
M Knowledge of potential hazards and OSH risks Personal knowledge of potential impact of hazards
associated with storing, processing, producing and risks associated with storing, processing,
and transporting dangerous materials and goods producing and transporting dangerous materials
(inflammable, explosive, toxic, etc.) and goods on workers’ safety and health
Procedures for identifying potential for major Personal knowledge of emergency rules and
accidents and emergency situations within the evacuation plans acquired by participation in
enterprise and in the neighbourhood training courses and exercises in emergency
procedures
Emergency plans and procedures (including
evacuation) and other arrangements for first aid,
medical assistance, firefighting, etc.
Training programmes for all members on emergency
procedures, including plans for regular exercises
in emergency procedures
TABLE 1. (continued).
Legal regulations, standards and internal safety and Personal knowledge of potential hazards and risks
health requirements established in the enterprise brought by contractors’ workers
for selecting contractors
Contractors’ reports on OSH, including identified
hazards and risks, results of OSH monitoring,
records of injuries, ill health, diseases, incidents,
absenteeism, etc.
W OSH procedures established by the enterprise for Personal knowledge of hazards and risks at the
contractors’ workers workplace (acquired by contractors’ workers by
learning on the job or transferred by co-workers)
Training programmes on OSH provided for
contractors’ workers prior to commencing work Personal knowledge of safety-critical behaviours
and safety rules (acquired by contractors’
workers by learning on the job or transferred by
co-workers)
D. Scope of knowledge useful for the Evaluation section
Formal (Explicit) Knowledge Tacit Knowledge
D1. Performance measurement and evaluation
M Procedures for monitoring, measuring and recording Personal knowledge of dangerous work processes,
OSH performance of the enterprise workstations and work methods, where workers’
behaviours may be critical for their safety
Results of proactive OSH monitoring, including,
e.g., systematic inspections of work systems,
premises end equipment, surveillance of workers’
health, achievement of OSH-related plans, and
of compliance with national regulations and other
commitments
Results of reactive OSH monitoring, including,
e.g., statistics on work-related injuries, ill health,
diseases and incidents, data on damage to
property and other losses, decisions of labour
inspectors, and results of programmes of
workers’ rehabilitation and behaviour-based
safety programmes
W Procedures for monitoring, measuring and recording Personal knowledge of hazards and risks at the
OSH performance of the enterprise relevant to workplace (acquired by learning on the job or
individual workers’ at their workstations transferred by co-workers within team work)
Personal knowledge of safety-critical behaviours
and safety rules (acquired by workers by
learning on the job or transferred by co-workers
within team work)
TABLE 1. (continued).
W Reports from internal investigations on the origin Personal knowledge of the origin and underlying
and underlying causes of work-related injuries, causes of work-related injuries, ill health,
ill health, diseases and incidents (relevant to diseases and incidents reported by individual
individual workers’ at their workstations) workers
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D3. Audit
M Arrangements, programmes and procedures related Personal experience and skills in methods and
to conducting periodic audits of all components techniques necessary to carry out periodic
of OSH MS audits of OSH MS
Reports from periodic audits of OSH MS with
conclusions for persons responsible for
corrective actions
W Reports from periodic audits of OSH MS with Personal knowledge of failures and deficiencies in
conclusions for persons responsible for OSH MS
corrective actions (relevant to individual workers’
workstations) Workers’ ideas for corrective and preventive
actions to improve OSH MS
TABLE 1. (continued).
An overview of Table 1 shows that the right The right part of Figure 2 contains a complete
column (tacit knowledge) has fewer descriptions list of the consecutive sections of OSH
of scopes of knowledge than the left column. management incorporated into the model of the
However, this does not mean that processing and system according to the concept and structure
transferring tacit knowledge are less important in ILO-OSH 2001 [44]. The left part represents
in managing OSH; tacit knowledge is difficult Nonaka’s cycle of creating organisational
to grasp, define, explore and describe, because knowledge [6, 10], which is widely used in
it is stored and distributed in the minds of the literature to explain the difference between
members of the organisation. Therefore, it is hard tacit and explicit knowledge and to introduce
to unequivocally assign it to individual elements the concept of mutual conversion of those two
of OSH MS. types of knowledge (see section 2.1). The spiral
loop within this model shows the direction of
4.4. Tacit Versus Explicit Knowledge in subsequent steps in the creation and recreation
OSH MS of knowledge within OSH MS. Therefore, this
The overall aim of the study on the possible and cycle may be considered as a kind of engine
actual applications of KM principles in OSH MS driving the whole OSH MS towards substantial
was to determine how the management of tacit improvement by injecting new amounts of vital
knowledge might contribute to such a system and, organisational knowledge.
as a consequence, how it might potentially benefit The links and arrows running from left to right
the enterprise that has implemented that system. do not represent a flow of any real knowledge.
A literature review on that issue (section 3) and Both tacit and explicit already exist and/or are
a desk analysis of the detailed specifications of being created within the sections of OSH MS.
OSH MS components (section 4) resulted in an The purpose of the dark and light grey arrows
identification of the main roles of tacit knowledge is to indicate the sections where relevant bodies
in this system, particularly in contrast to the of tacit and explicit knowledge are particularly
usually well-defined scope of the use of explicit important for ensuring the overall effectiveness
knowledge. Figure 2 is a graphic representation of and improvement of the whole system.
the results of this study.
A. Policy
B. Organisation
B1. Responsibility and
accountability
B4. Communication
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Combination
Internalisation
D3. Audit
Figure 2. The main roles of tacit and explicit knowledge in an occupational safety and health (OSH)
management system.
OSH if it is not converted and embedded in the solution; it may even lead to a deterioration in
workers’ and managers’ minds as awareness OSH conditions since it hinders an informal
of hazards and risks in the workplace and as exchange of tacit knowledge and leads to an
their internal motivation to act pro-safety. increase in unsafe behaviours.
This conversion belongs to the domain of tacit Effective teaching of safe work is based on
knowledge and attests to its dominant role in acquiring practical experience and on using
OSH MS. all senses rather than on acquiring cognitive
knowledge [60]. Newly employed workers
on construction sites learn better to recognise
5. TACIT KNOWLEDGE IN OSH hazards and to behave according to certain rules
MS; PRACTICAL METHODS AND through observing, listening, talking, feeling
TOOLS and acting than through formal training with
traditional educational methods. Efficient OSH
Results of literature reviews and analyses in
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There are many examples of how CoP can 5.3. Practical Techniques and Tools
be used in enterprises and how it positively Supporting the Use of Tacit
influences organisational performance [42, 64, Knowledge
65, 66]. However, there are few publications on
The discussion on the various aspects of tacit
CoPs in OSH [63, 67].
knowledge in OSH management indicates that
the use of tacit knowledge has good prospects
Since CoPs should be wholly voluntary, it is
and can benefit an enterprise, particularly if
more appropriate to talk about the cultivation
rules of people-focused NGKM (see section
of CoPs than about their implementation.
2.4) are used. However, dissemination of this
Nonetheless, it is necessary for the management
concept will depend on managerial knowledge
to be involved and to initiate activities that would
and availability of relevant methods and tools
cause CoPs to achieve a level of sustainability
that support the use of tacit knowledge in OSH
and bring advantages. To build CoPs managers management. Literature on KM shows that
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can, e.g., use Wenger’s seven principles of there are solutions in this area, but so far their
cultivating CoPs [42] or consider McDermott’s dissemination has been minimal and they have
critical factors [68]. not been verified in practice yet. Sections 5.3.1.,
5.3.2. and 5.3.3. bring examples of easy-to-adapt
solutions.
5.2. Tacit Knowledge, BBS and OSH
Management
5.3.1. Narratives
In general, safety knowledge can improve As mentioned before, narratives (storytelling) are
the level of safety in an enterprise because it a successful way of transferring tacit knowledge
reduces employees’ unsafe behaviours. On in OSH. If this method is used well, it has many
the other hand, relying only on formal training advantages, more than standard communication
and workers’ professionalism may lower techniques. However, implementing this infor
mal method into routine procedures of OSH
this level because it can increase the number
management is a problem, as is guaranteeing
of unsafe behaviours [61]. This means that
a good and sustainable flow of information and
there is potential in using BBS-related tacit
the use of tacit knowledge. OSH-related stories
knowledge in OSH MS (see section 4.2). The
can be recorded and disseminated with various
relationship between knowledge use and BBS
media: verbally, in writing, as films or pictures.
programmes is two-directional. On the one hand,
For example, in Shell International Exploration
tacit knowledge transferred and disseminated
and Production there was a formalised
among workers may influence the modification programme of gathering and popularising
of identified critical safety behaviours. On implemented narratives [69]. It consisted in
the other, BBS programmes are an efficient employees submitting voluntarily via the intranet
mechanism that supports organisational learning stories of various length and complexity on
within the scope of safety management. These aspects of their work. However, according to
programmes encourage learning via observations, other studies this kind of simple recording and
coaching and mentoring. Studies on safety archiving in databases is not effective because
behaviours within reactor plants carried out it loses “recipient design”, a valuable feature
in the UK confirmed this [57]. They showed of oral stories [70]. Recipient design means
that BBS approaches increased possibilities of that storytellers adjust to their listeners and to
organisational learning through communication their relations with them. A partial solution to
and exchange of knowledge among employees. this problem would be to use a computer-based
learning system that selected and supplied stories 5.3.3. Wiki-type corporate encyclopaedia
(also visual) most suitable to the listeners’ needs.
A corporate encyclopaedia is based on the
Better results can be also achieved through
wiki concept, i.e., a special knowledge-
creating various social interactions and events
sharing software tool with which users upload
with their natural conditions for storytelling (e.g.,
information to the Internet or intranet and
anniversaries, campfires and retirement parties)
edit materials uploaded by others. Wikipedia2
[71].
is the most famous example of this concept,
whereas Shell wiki, Shell’s corporate internet
5.3.2. Thematic seminars and interviews encyclopaedia, is an example of how wiki can
Thematic seminars or workshops and interviews be used in KM and organisational learning.
are a slightly more formal method of acquiring Shell wiki focuses on a voluntary exchange of
and transferring tacit knowledge. The former knowledge by all employees. Its most popular
can be especially useful in experts passing features are easy updates, and filling the content
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their knowledge to young or new workers. For of documents and direct links to other documents
example, there can be two- or three-day seminars that provide, e.g., terminology of additional
on selected KM-related topics [71]. Their par explanations [73]. The development of this
ticipants should have an opportunity to mingle platform and employee co-operation is promoted
with experts from various departments to see by company management and experts from
who knows what and who they want to learn various disciplines who, anonymously or not,
from. It would also be useful to pass on practical take part in this process by creating a unique KM
behaviour rules, especially golden rules that community focused on exchanging knowledge
often have the form of a metaphor. During such and personal experience.
seminars case studies connected with respective
narratives could be discussed, too. 5.3.4. Virtual reality
Interviewing is a good method of acquiring
Virtual reality (VR) technologies provide
valuable tacit knowledge from competent retiring
promising results as support tools in acquisition
employees. It is advisable that the interviewers
and transfer of tacit knowledge. Current VR
know interview techniques and have an area of
systems can generate virtual environments (VEs)
expertise similar to the interviewee. Interviews
that effectively simulate various conditions of
should have a certain fixed structure and should
work and life and, at the same time, successfully
be similarly documented, but half-standardised
support learning processes. The more senses are
interviews are a good approach, too [71]. The
involved in the learning process and the greater
latter consist of several fixed questions with
the brain activity, the better the processed
other ones asked freely depending on the context.
information will be stored and remembered.
Interviewing then may resemble storytelling
Therefore, VR applications enhance human
and help to acquire tacit knowledge of greater
abilities and motivation to absorb new
value. Shell’s Retention Of Critical Knowledge
knowledge and to modify inefficient and false
programme is an example of using interviews to
working procedures [71].
acquire tacit knowledge from employees leaving
According to a European study, VR
an enterprise or retiring; interviews are carried
applications can have a potentially large impact
out to identify so-called knowledge nuggets that
on learning processes and KM [73]. Hendrix and
should remain in the enterprise [72].
Johannsen described possible VR applications of
those processes that proved the unique usefulness
of VEs in transferring tacit knowledge. They also
said that “in many cases, therefore, VEs could
be a valuable substitute for real experiences,
2 http://en.wikipedia.org
management in mines [37], is a good example. Workers’ tacit knowledge on hazards and risks
at their workstations is essential in providing
input to measuring and evaluating OSH in an
6. CONCLUSIONS enterprise, particularly in proactive and reactive
OSH monitoring. Improvement plans and any
The literature review on KM in OSH
corrective and preventive actions, which will be
management, followed by a desk analysis,
based on this knowledge, will reflect workers’
identified sections of OSH MS in which acquiring,
real concerns and needs more successfully and
creating, processing and transferring tacit
better address irregularities within OSH MS.
knowledge was important and could substantially
Workers’ tacit knowledge is also embedded in
contribute to the core objectives of the system,
ideas or other inputs into OSH matters that are
i.e., preventing or reducing occupational injuries,
submitted under the general concept of worker
incidents, diseases and ill health. Those sections
participation. However, both the managers
(according to the structure of system specifications
and the whole enterprise will appreciate the
in ILO-OSH 2001 [44]) are
usefulness of that knowledge if workers are
• competency and training; motivated to be involved actively in OSH
• communication; management activities, and if all their suggestions
• hazard and risk prevention (including for OSH-related improvements are suitably
prevention and control measures, management received, considered and responded to.
of change, emergency prevention, In the section on preventive and corrective
preparedness and response, procurement and action, tacit knowledge may play an
contracting); important role in identifying root causes
• performance measurement and evaluation; of any inconsistencies or nonconformities
• investigation of work-related accidents, within OSH MS, which will then lead to a
diseases and incidents. better reaction and more efficient correction
of those failures. Finally, tacit knowledge in
Tacit knowledge is also important in three continuous improvement activities should
other sections of OSH MS. They are not directly also be highlighted, because it relies on its
linked with identifying, assessing and preventing valuable potential to shape habits and skills of
hazards and risks; however, they concern routine application of continuous improvement
managerial activities aimed at proper functioning techniques by all members of the enterprise.
and improvement of OSH MS. They are The review of literature carried out to identify
• worker participation; and analyse KM applications (section 3) showed
• preventive and corrective action; that they are fragmentary and selective. The
• continuous improvement. summary of this review indicates that to date
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