Part IV 354 Chap.

13 / Overview of Manufacturing Systems

Manufacturing Systems Manufacturing

support systems
Enterprise level

Chapter 13 Quality control

systems

Automation and Material handling

control technologies and identification
Factory level

Manufacturing systems

Overview of Manufacturing operations

Figure 13.1 The position of the manufacturing system in the larger

Manufacturing Systems production system.

The present chapter provides an overview of the various types of manufacturing

systems by describing their common components and features. A framework is then
­developed for distinguishing how the components are combined and organized into
­different types of systems to achieve specific capabilities in production.

Chapter Contents 13.1 Components of a Manufacturing System

13.1 Components of a Manufacturing System
13.1.1 Production Machines A manufacturing system typically consists of the following components: (1) production
13.1.2 Material Handling System machines plus tools, fixtures, and other related hardware, (2) a material handling and/or
13.1.3 Computer Control System work-positioning system, (3) a computer system to coordinate and/or control the preced-
13.1.4 Human Resources ing components, and (4) human workers to operate and manage the system.
13.2 Types of Manufacturing Systems
13.2.1 Types of Operations
13.1.1 Production Machines
13.2.2 Number of Workstations and System Layout
13.2.3 Level of Automation
13.2.4 System Flexibility In virtually all modern manufacturing systems, most of the actual processing or assembly
13.2.5 Classification of Manufacturing Systems work is accomplished by machines and/or with the aid of tools. In terms of worker partici-
pation, the machines can be classified as (1) manually operated, (2) semiautomated, and
This part of the book considers how automation and material handling technologies, as (3) fully automated.
well as human workers, are combined to create manufacturing systems. A manufacturing Manually operated machines are controlled or supervised by a human worker.
system is defined as a collection of integrated equipment and human resources, whose The machine provides the power for the operation and the worker provides the control.
function is to perform one or more processing and/or assembly operations on a starting Conventional machine tools (such as lathes, milling machines, and drill presses) fit into this
raw material, part, or set of parts. The integrated equipment includes production ­machines category. The worker must be at the machine continuously to engage the feed, position the
and tools, material handling and work positioning devices, and computer systems. Human tool, load and unload work parts, and perform other tasks related to the operation.
resources are required either full time or periodically to keep the system running. The A semiautomated machine performs a portion of the work cycle under some form
manufacturing system is where the value-added work is accomplished on the parts and of program control, and a worker tends to the machine for the remainder of the cycle.
products. The position of the manufacturing system in the larger production system is An example of this category is a computer numerical control (CNC) machine tool or
shown in Figure 13.1. other programmable production machine that is controlled for most of the work cycle
by the part program, but requires a worker to unload the finished part and load the next

353
Sec. 13.1 / Components of a Manufacturing System 355
workpiece during each cycle. In these cases, the worker must attend to the machine every
cycle, but need not be continuously present during the cycle. If the automatic machine
cycle takes, say, 10 min while the part unloading and loading portion of the work cycle
only takes 1 min, then the worker may be able to tend several machines. This possibility
is analyzed in Section 14.4.2.
What distinguishes a fully automated machine from the two previous types is the
capability to operate with no human attention for periods of time longer than one work
cycle. Although a worker’s attention is not required during each cycle, some form of
­machine tending may be needed periodically. For example, after a certain number of
cycles, a new supply of raw material must be loaded into the automated machine.
In manufacturing systems, the term workstation is used to refer to a location in the
factory where some well-defined task or operation is accomplished by an automated ma-
chine, a worker-and-machine combination, or a worker using hand tools and/or portable
powered tools. In the last case, there is no definable production machine at the location.
Many assembly tasks are in this category. A given manufacturing system may consist of
one or more workstations. A system with multiple stations is called a production line,
­assembly line, machine cell, or other name, depending on its configuration and function.
An important observation that will be revisited later in the chapter is that manually oper-
ated machines and semiautomated machines are both classified as manned workstations
because they require a worker to be present during each work cycle, while fully auto-
mated machines are classified as automated workstations because a worker does not need
to be present except periodically.
13.1.2 Material Handling System
In most processing and assembly operations performed on discrete parts and products,
the following material handling functions must be performed: (1) loading work units at
each station, (2) positioning the work units at the station, and (3) unloading the work units
from the station. In manufacturing systems composed of multiple workstations, (4) trans-
porting work units between stations is also required. In many cases, workers perform
these functions, but more often some form of mechanized or automated material trans-
port system (Chapter 10) is used to reduce the human effort. Most material transport
systems used in production provide (5) a temporary storage function as well. The purpose
of storage in these systems is usually to make sure that work is always present for the sta-
tions, so that the stations are not starved (meaning that they have nothing to work on).
Some of the issues related to the material handling system are unique to the particu-
lar type of manufacturing system, so it makes sense to discuss the details of the handling
system when each system is covered in a later chapter. The discussion here is concerned
with the general issues related to material handling in manufacturing systems.
Loading, Positioning, and Unloading. These three material handling functions
occur at each workstation. Loading involves moving the work units into the production ma-
chine or processing equipment from a source inside the station. For example, starting parts
in batch processing operations are often stored in containers (pallets, tote bins, etc.) in the
immediate vicinity of the station. For most processing operations, especially those requir-
ing accuracy and precision, the work unit must be positioned in the production machine.
Positioning means that the part is placed in a fixed location and orientation relative to the
work head or tooling that performs the operation. Positioning in the production equipment
356 Chap. 13 / Overview of Manufacturing Systems
is often accomplished by means of a work holder. A work holder is a device that accu-
rately locates, orients, and clamps the part for the operation, and resists any forces that may
occur during processing. Common work holders include jigs, fixtures, and chucks. When
the production operation has been completed, the work unit must be unloaded, that is, re-
moved from the production machine and either placed in a container at the workstation or
prepared for transport to the next workstation in the processing sequence. “Prepared for
transport” may simply mean the part is loaded onto a conveyor leading to the next station.
When the production machine is manually operated or semiautomated, loading,
positioning, and unloading are performed by the worker. This is accomplished either by
hand for lightweight work parts or with the aid of a hoist for heavy parts. In fully auto-
mated stations, a mechanized device such as an industrial robot, parts feeder, coil feeder
(in sheet metal stamping), or automatic pallet changer is used to accomplish these mate-
rial handling functions.
Work Transport between Stations. In the context of manufacturing systems,
work transport means moving parts between workstations in a multistation system. The
transport function can be accomplished manually or by material transport equipment.
In some manufacturing systems, work units are passed from station to station by
hand, either one at a time or in batches. Moving parts in batches is generally more ­efficient
according to the Unit Load Principle (Section 10.1.2). Manual work transport is limited
to cases in which the parts are small and light, so that the manual labor is ­ergonomically
acceptable. When the load to be moved exceeds certain weight standards, powered hoists
(Section 10.2.5) and similar lift equipment are used. Manufacturing systems that utilize
manual work transport include manual assembly lines and group technology machine cells.
Various types of mechanized and automated material handling equipment are
widely used to transport work units in manufacturing systems. Two general catego-
ries of work transport can be distinguished, according to the type of routing between
­stations: (1) fixed routing and (2) variable routing. In fixed routing, the work units al-
ways flow through the same sequence of workstations. This means that the work units
are identical, or similar enough that the processing sequence is the same. Fixed routing
is common on production lines. In variable routing, work units are transported through
a variety of different station sequences. This means that the manufacturing system
­processes or assembles different styles of work units. Variable routing transport is asso-
ciated with job shop production and many batch production operations. Manufacturing
systems that use variable routing include machine cells and flexible manufacturing sys-
tems. The difference between fixed and variable routing is portrayed in Figure 13.2.
Table 13.1 lists some of the typical material transport equipment used for the two types
of part routing.
Pallet Fixtures and Work Carriers in Transport Systems. Depending on the
geometry of the work units and the nature of the processing and/or assembly operations
performed, the transport system may be designed to accommodate some form of pallet
fixture. A pallet fixture is a work holder that is designed to be transported by the material
handling system. The part is accurately attached to the fixture on the upper face of the
pallet, and the under portion of the pallet is designed to be moved, located, and clamped
in position at each workstation in the system. Because the part is accurately located in the
fixture, and the pallet is accurately clamped at the station, the part is accurately located
at each station for processing or assembly. Use of pallet fixtures is common in automated
Sec. 13.1 / Components of a Manufacturing System 357 358 Chap. 13 / Overview of Manufacturing Systems

Arrows indicate Workstations An alternative to using pallet fixtures or work carriers is direct transport, in
work flow which the transport system is designed to move the work unit itself. The obvious ben-
efit of this arrangement is that it avoids the expense of purchasing pallet fixtures or
work carriers, as well as the ongoing costs of returning them to the starting point in
Starting Completed the system for reuse. In manually operated manufacturing systems, direct transport
work units work units
is quite feasible, since any positioning required at workstations can be accomplished
(a) by workers. In automated manufacturing systems, in particular systems that require
accurate positioning at workstations, the feasibility of direct transport depends on
Arrows indicate Workstations the part’s geometry and whether an automated handling method can be devised that
work flow
is capable of moving, locating, and clamping the part with sufficient precision and
­accuracy. Not all part shapes allow for direct handling by a mechanized or automated
system.

13.1.3 Computer Control System

Starting Completed
work units work units
In modern automated manufacturing systems, a computer system is required to control
the automated and semiautomated equipment and to participate in the overall coordina-
tion and management of the system. Even in manually driven systems, such as manual as-
(b)
sembly lines, a computer system is useful to support production. Typical computer system
functions include the following:
Figure 13.2 Two types of routing in multistation manufacturing
systems: (a) fixed routing and (b) variable routing.
• Communicate instructions to workers. In manually operated workstations that
­perform different tasks on different work units, operators must receive processing
manufacturing systems, such as single machine cells with automatic pallet changers, trans- or assembly instructions for each specific work unit.
fer lines, and automated assembly systems. • Download part programs. The computer sends these instructions to computer-­
The fixtures can be designed with modular features that allow them to be used for controlled workstations.
more than one part geometry. By changing components and making a few adjustments, • Control material handling system. This function coordinates the activities of the
these modular pallet fixtures can accommodate variations in part sizes and shapes. They ­material handling system with those of the workstations.
are ideal for use in flexible manufacturing systems.
• Schedule production. Some production scheduling functions may be accomplished
Alternative methods of work part transport avoid the use of pallet fixtures. Instead,
at the site of the manufacturing system.
parts are moved by the handling system either with or without work carriers. A work
­carrier is a container (e.g., tote pan, flat pallet, or wire basket) that holds one or more • Diagnose failures. This involves diagnosing equipment malfunctions, preparing
parts and can be moved in the system. Work carriers do not fixture the part(s) in an exact ­preventive maintenance schedules, and maintaining the spare parts inventory.
position. Their role is simply to contain parts during transport. When the parts arrive at • Monitor safety. This function ensures that the system does not operate in an unsafe
the desired destination, any locating requirements for the next operation must be satis- manner. The goal of safety monitoring is to protect both the human workers and the
fied at that station (this is usually done manually). equipment comprising the system.
• Maintain quality control. The purpose of this control function is to detect and reject
Table 13.1   Common Material Transport Equipment Used for Fixed and Variable Routing defective work units produced by the system.
in Multistation Manufacturing Systems • Manage operations. This consists of managing the overall operations of the manu-
facturing system, either directly (by supervisory computer control) or indirectly (by
Type of Routing preparing the necessary reports for management personnel).
Fixed Routing Variable Routing
Powered roller conveyor Automated guided vehicle system 13.1.4 Human Resources
Belt conveyor Power-and-free overhead conveyor
Drag chain conveyor Monorail system In many manufacturing systems, humans perform some or all of the value-added work
Overhead trolley conveyor Cart-on-track conveyor
Rotary indexing mechanisms
on the parts or products. In these cases, the human workers are referred to as direct
Walking beam transfer equipment labor. Through their physical efforts, they directly add to the value of the work unit by
Sec. 13.2 / Types of Manufacturing Systems 359
performing manual work on it or by controlling the machines that perform the work. In
fully automated systems, direct labor may still be needed to perform activities such as
periodically loading and unloading parts, changing tools, and resharpening tools. Human
workers are also needed in automated manufacturing systems to manage or support the
system as computer programmers, computer operators, part programmers for computer
numerical control (CNC) machine, maintenance and repair personnel, and similar indi-
rect roles. In automated systems, the distinction between direct and indirect labor is not
always precise.
13.2 Types of Manufacturing Systems
This section explores the various factors that distinguish different types of manufacturing
systems. The factors are (1) types of operations performed, (2) number of workstations
and system layout, (3) level of automation, and (4) system flexibility. From these factors,
a general classification of manufacturing systems is derived.
13.2.1 Types of Operations
First of all, manufacturing systems are distinguished by the types of operations they per-
form. One distinction is between (1) processing operations on individual work units and
(2) assembly operations to join individual parts into assembled entities. Included in this
distinction are the technologies of the individual processing and assembly operations
(Section 2.2.1).
Additional parameters of the product that affect the operations performed in the
manufacturing system are the following:
• Type of material processed. Different engineering materials require different types
of processes. Processing operations used for metals are usually different from those
used for plastics or ceramics. These differences affect the type of equipment and
handling method in the manufacturing system.
• Size and weight of the part or product. Larger and heavier work units require bigger
equipment with greater power capacity. Safety hazards increase with the size and
weight of parts and products.
• Part geometry. Machined parts can be classified as rotational or non-rotational.
Rotational parts are cylindrical or disk-shaped and require turning and related
rotational operations. Non-rotational parts are rectangular or cube-like and re-
quire milling and related machining operations to shape them. Manufacturing
systems that perform machining operations must be distinguished according to
whether they make rotational or non-rotational parts. The distinction is impor-
tant not only because of differences in the machining processes and machine
tools required, but because the material handling system must be engineered
differently for the two cases.
• Part or product complexity. In general, part complexity correlates with the number
of processing operations required to produce the part, and product complexity cor-
relates with the number of components that must be assembled (Section 2.4.2).
360 Chap. 13 / Overview of Manufacturing Systems
13.2.2 Number of Workstations and System Layout
The number of workstations is a key factor that differentiates manufacturing system
types. It has a strong influence on the performance of the manufacturing system in terms
of production rate and reliability. Let the symbol n denote the number of workstations
in the system. Thus, manufacturing systems can be distinguished as single-station cells
1n = 12 or multistation systems 1n 7 12.
The number of workstations in the manufacturing system is a convenient measure
of its size. As the number of stations increases, the amount of work that can be accom-
plished by the system increases. It stands to reason that two workstations can accomplish
twice the workload of one station. Thus, one obvious relationship is that the workload
capacity of a manufacturing system increases in proportion to the number of worksta-
tions in it.
In addition, there must be a synergistic benefit obtained from multiple stations
working together rather than individually; otherwise, it makes more sense for the stations
to work independently. The synergistic benefit is usually derived from the fact that the
total amount of work performed on the part or product is too complex to accomplish at
a single workstation. There is just too much work to perform at one station. By break-
ing the total work content down into tasks, and assigning different tasks to different sta-
tions, the workload at each station is simplified. The different stations can be designed
to specialize in their own assigned tasks. They are therefore highly efficient. This is what
provides a multistation system with its synergistic benefit. Because of the specialization
designed into each station in a multistation system, such a system is able to deal with
product complexity better than the same number of single stations that each performs
the total work content on the part or product. The result is a higher production rate for
complex parts and products. Automobile final assembly plants illustrate this advantage.
The total work content to assemble each car is typically 15–20 hr—too much time and
too much complexity for one workstation to cope with. However, when the total work
content is divided into simple tasks of about 1-min duration, and these tasks are assigned
to individual workers at stations along the line of flow, cars are produced at the rate of
about 60 per hour.
More stations also mean the system is more complex and therefore more difficult
to manage and maintain. It consists of more workers, more machines, and more parts
being handled. The material handling system is more complex in a multistation system. It
becomes increasingly complex as n increases. The logistics and coordination of the system
are more involved. Reliability problems occur more frequently.
Closely related to the number of workstations is the way the multiple stations are
laid out. Workstation layouts organized for fixed routing are usually arranged linearly,
as in a production line, while layouts organized for variable routing can have many pos-
sible configurations. The layout of stations is an important factor in determining the most
­appropriate material handling system, as indicated in Table 13.1.
13.2.3 Level of Automation
The level of automation of the workstations is another factor that characterizes a man-
ufacturing system. Inversely correlated with automation level is the manning level
of a workstation, symbolized Mi, which is the proportion of time that a worker spends
at the station. If Mi = 1 for station i, it means that one worker must be at the station
Sec. 13.2 / Types of Manufacturing Systems 361
continuously. If one worker tends four automatic machines, then Mi = 0.25 for each of
the four machines, assuming each machine requires the same amount of attention. On
sections of automobile and truck final assembly lines, many stations are occupied by mul-
tiple workers, in which case Mi = 2 or 3 or more. In general, high values of Mi 1Mi Ú 12
indicate manual operations at the workstation, while low values 1Mi 6 12 denote some
form of automation.
The average manning level of a multistation manufacturing system is a useful indi-
cator of the direct labor content of the system. It is defined as
wu + a wi
n • Quick changeover of operating instructions. The instructions, or part program in
i=1 w rect operation for the given part. In the case of a manually operated system, this
M = = (13.1)
n n
where M = average manning level for the system; wu = number of utility workers as-
signed to the system; wi = number of workers assigned specifically to station i, for
i = 1, 2, c, n ; and w = total number of workers assigned to the system. Utility workers
are workers who are not assigned to specific workstations; instead they perform functions
such as (1) relieving workers at stations for personal breaks, (2) maintenance and repair,
(3) material handling, and (4) tool changing. Even a fully automated multistation system
is likely to have utility workers who are responsible for keeping it running.
There are two basic levels of automation and its approximate inverse, manning level,
for workstations in a manufacturing system: (1) manned workstations and (2) automated
workstations. Manned workstations consist of production machines that are manually op-
erated or semiautomated. Both categories require a worker to be in attendance during
each and every work cycle. As mentioned earlier, in some cases, one worker may be able
to attend more than one machine (e.g., a machine cluster, discussed in Section 14.4.2) if
the semiautomatic cycle is long relative to the service required each cycle by the worker.
An automated workstation is centered by a fully automated machine in which a
worker is not required to be present during each cycle. Periodic attention by a worker is
commonly required for purposes of maintenance, loading and unloading of parts, and so on.
The automation level of the workstations in a manufacturing system defines the
level of automation of the system itself. In most cases, this means that the system is
manned or automated. However, some multistation systems consist of some stations that
are manned while others are fully automated. This is referred to as a partially automated
or hybrid system.
13.2.4 System Flexibility
The fourth factor that characterizes a manufacturing system is the degree to which it
is capable of dealing with variations in the parts or products it produces. Examples of
possible differences and variations that a manufacturing system may have to cope with
include (1) starting material, (2) size and weight of the work unit, (3) part geometry, (4)
part or product complexity, and (5) optional features in an assembled product. Flexibility
is the capability that allows a manufacturing system to cope with a certain level of varia-
tion in part or product style without interruptions in production for changeovers between
models. Flexibility is generally a desirable feature of a manufacturing system. Systems
that possess it are called flexible manufacturing systems, or flexible assembly systems, or
similar names. They can produce different part or assembly styles, or they can readily
adapt to new styles when the previous ones become obsolete.
362 Chap. 13 / Overview of Manufacturing Systems
In order to be flexible, a manufacturing system must be able to perform the follow-
ing functions every work cycle:
• Identification of different work units. Different part or product styles require differ-
ent operations. The manufacturing system must identify the work unit in order to
perform the correct operations. In a manually operated or semiautomatic system,
this task is usually an easy one for the worker(s). In an automated system, some
means of automatic work unit identification must be devised.
the case of computer-controlled production machines, must correspond to the cor-
generally means workers who (1) are skilled in the variety of operations needed to
process or assemble the different work unit styles, and (2) know which operations to
perform on each work unit style. In semiautomatic and fully automated systems, it
means that the required part program is readily available to the controller once the
work unit has been identified.
• Quick changeover of physical setup. Flexibility in manufacturing means that the dif-
ferent work units are not produced in batches. To enable different work unit styles
to be produced with no time lost between one unit and the next, the flexible manu-
facturing system must be capable of making any necessary changes in fixturing and
tooling in a very short time (the changeover time should correspond approximately
to the time required to exchange the completed work unit for the next unit to be
processed).
These capabilities are often difficult to engineer. In manually operated manufac-
turing systems, human errors can cause problems, such as workers not performing the
correct operations on the different part styles or omitting steps during assembly of the
product. In automated systems, sensor systems must be designed to enable work unit
identification. Part program changeover is accomplished with relative ease using today’s
computer technology. Changing the physical setup is often the most challenging problem,
and it becomes more difficult as part or product variety increases. Endowing a manu-
facturing system with flexibility increases its complexity. The material handling system
and/or pallet fixtures must be designed to hold a variety of part shapes. The required
number of different tools increases. Inspection becomes more complicated because of
part variety. The logistics of supplying the system with the correct quantities of different
starting work parts is more involved. Scheduling and coordinating the system become
more difficult.
13.2.5 Classification of Manufacturing Systems
Summarizing the preceding discussion, three basic types of manufacturing systems can
be identified: (1) single-station cells, (2) multistation systems with fixed routing, and
(3) multistation systems with variable routing. Each type can be implemented as a manned
system or an automated system, as depicted in Figure 13.3. In the case of multistation sys-
tems, hybrids consisting of manned and automated stations are also possible.
Single-Station Cells. Applications of single-station cells are widespread. The
typical case is a worker-machine cell. Two categories are distinguished: (1) manned cells,
Sec. 13.2 / Types of Manufacturing Systems 363 364 Chap. 13 / Overview of Manufacturing Systems

Manned system. However, in some cases the work is simply pushed between stations by hand.
machine Production lines are generally associated with mass production, although they can also be
Single-station applied in batch production. Examples of multistation systems with fixed routing include
cell the following:
Automated
machine
• Manual assembly line that produces small power tools (manually operated workstations)
Manual
• Machining transfer line (automated workstations)
production line • Automated assembly machine with a carousel system for work transport (auto-
Manufacturing Multistation mated workstations)
systems fixed routing • Automobile final assembly plant, in which many of the spot welding and spray
Automated painting operations are automated while general assembly is manual (hybrid
production line
system).
Cellular
manufacturing Manual production lines usually perform assembly operations, and manual assem-
Multistation
bly lines are discussed in Chapter 15. Automated lines perform either processing or as-
variable routing sembly operations. The two types are described in Chapters 16 and 17. There are also
Flexible
hybrid systems, in which both manual and automated stations exist in the same line. This
manufacturing
system case is analyzed in Section 17.2.4 for assembly systems.

Figure 13.3 Classification of manufacturing systems.
in which a worker must be present each work cycle, and (2) automated cells, in which pe-
riodic attention is required less frequently than every cycle. In either case, these systems
are used for processing as well as assembly operations. Examples of single-station cells
include the following:
• Worker operating an engine lathe (manually operated machine)
• Worker loading and unloading a CNC lathe (semiautomated machine)
• Welder and fitter working in an arc-welding operation (manually operated
equipment)
• CNC turning center with parts carousel operating unattended using a robot to load
and unload parts (fully automated machine).
Single-station cells are described in Chapter 14. This type of manufacturing system
is popular because (1) it is the easiest and least expensive manufacturing system to imple-
ment, especially the manned version; (2) it is arguably the most adaptable, adjustable, and
References
flexible manufacturing system; and (3) a manned single workstation can be converted to
an automated station if demand for the parts or products made in the station justify this
conversion.
Multistation Systems with Fixed Routing. A multistation manufacturing sys-
tem with fixed routing is a production line, which consists of a series of workstations
laid out so that the work unit moves from one station to the next, and a portion of the
total work content is performed on it at each station. Transfer of work units from one
station to the next is usually accomplished by a conveyor or other mechanical transport
Multistation Systems with Variable Routing. A multiple-station system with
variable routing is a group of workstations organized to produce a limited range of part or
product styles in medium production quantities (typically 100–10,000 units annually). The
differences in part or product styles mean differences in operations and sequences of opera-
tions that must be performed. The system must possess flexibility in order to cope with this
variety. Examples of multiple-station systems with variable routing include the following:
• Manned machine cell designed to produce a family of parts with similar geometric
features (manually operated machines)
• Flexible manufacturing system with several CNC machine tools connected by an
automated conveyor system and operating under computer control (automated
workstations).
The first example represents cellular manufacturing that uses the principles of
group technology, discussed in Chapter 18. The flexible manufacturing system in the sec-
ond example is a fully automated system. Flexibility and flexible manufacturing systems
are discussed in Chapter 19.
[1] Aronson, R. B., “Operation Plug-and-Play is On the Way,” Manufacturing Engineering,
March 1997, pp. 108–112.
[2] Groover, M. P., Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems,
3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, 2007.
[3] Groover, M. P., and O. Mejabi, “Trends in Manufacturing System Design,” Proceedings, IIE
Fall Conference, Nashville, TN, November 1987.