Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104414

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

Mitigating eggplant processing waste’s environmental impact through

functional food developing
Nina-Nicoleta Lazăr a, Gabriela Râpeanu b, *, Cătălina Iticescu a, c
a
“Dunărea de Jos” University of Galati, REXDAN Research Infrastructure, 98 George Coșbuc Street, 800385, Galați, Romania
b
“Dunărea de Jos” University of Galati, Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, 111 Domnească Street, 800008, Galati, Romania
c
“Dunărea de Jos” University of Galaţi, Faculty of Sciences and Environment, 111 Domnească Street, 800008, Galati, Romania

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Dr AR Jambrak Background: Food wastes and by-products gained global focus due to rising amounts prompting pollution con­
cerns, regardless of the country’s development. Circular economy offers a sustainable solution, aiming to pre­
Keywords: vent, reuse, and recover resources for creating new, health-beneficial products.
Anthocyanins Scope and approach: The paper highlights the underexplored potential of anthocyanins found in the eggplant peel,
Extraction
a topic that has received less attention compared to the pulp. Considering the economic and technological
Encapsulation
relevance of anthocyanins, this paper reviews the ways through which these compounds can be valorized and
Functional food
Solanum melongena emphasizes their potential for food industry applications and, implicitly, waste minimization. The review
compiles existing data related to eggplant peel as a source of anthocyanins and reviews various methods for their
extraction and encapsulation. Additionally, it touches on incorporating the capsules into diverse food matrices,
considering the challenges they impose and regulatory aspects.
Key findings and conclusions: Eggplant peel anthocyanins can effectively serve as a natural substitute for artificial
preservatives and colorants in the food industry. Through encapsulation, fortified food products with improved
attributes that could positively impact human health and aid in waste management can be delivered. Never­
theless, additional research is essential to explore more detailed their application and health-promoting benefits.

1. Introduction encouraged to substitute chemical ingredients with natural ones due to

Food waste constitutes the largest portion of waste deposited in
landfills and is distinguished by its high moisture content and microbial
instability, presenting challenges in its management, regardless of its
source (Nayak & Bhushan, 2019). Moreover, when these wastes
decompose in landfills, they emit gases that contribute to the green­
house effect. Consequently, there is a critical need to devise a strategy
for reducing these losses (Du et al., 2018). The European Union has
introduced several initiatives, such as the circular economy for the value
of goods, materials, and resources preservation within the economy for
an extended duration and reducing the generation of waste. One strat­
egy in this endeavor involves transforming industrial processing waste
into valuable by-products by incorporating them into high-value food
products (Baiano, 2014) as presented in Fig. 1.
In the ever-evolving landscape of nutrition and functional foods, the
quest for natural sources of bioactive compounds with health-promoting
properties has intensified. In addition, the food industry is also being
growing client demands. These specifications apply to food products
that offer insufficient levels of nutrients essential for a healthy diet, but
also to those who use chemical colorants and preservatives (Galanakis,
2021). Therefore, there is an obvious need for the development of in­
gredients through the addition of natural extracts that present multiple
functionalities as natural alternatives to improve the sensory charac­
teristics, nutritional value, and technological functions, but also to
provide biological properties (Galanakis, 2021).
A class of compounds that can help to fulfill the objectives mentioned
above are the anthocyanins from plants (Mohammed & Khan, 2022).
They are recognized for the health benefits they provide. For example,
they possess the potential to neutralize free radicals through oxidation
or reduction processes (Mattioli et al., 2020). Through this mechanism,
they can prevent the denaturation of proteins, lipids, or even DNA by the
free radicals, and thus the appearance of cancer, neurodegenerative,
cardiovascular, or liver diseases (Gürbüz et al., 2018; Lobo et al., 2010).
The content of these chemicals in food, their bioaccessibility upon

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gabriela.rapeanu@ugal.ro (G. Râpeanu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104414
Received 11 December 2023; Received in revised form 26 February 2024; Accepted 1 March 2024
Available online 4 March 2024
0924-2244/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N.-N. Lazăr et al.
ingestion, their interaction with other molecules, and their degree of
polymerization, among other things, all affect their bioactivity (Eker
et al., 2019). Few studies have addressed the production of new foods
employing these chemicals, despite the enormous technological poten­
tial (de Araújo et al., 2021).
One potential source of anthocyanins, often overlooked but teeming
with promise, is the eggplant peel. While the succulent pulpy flesh of the
eggplant is a familiar food in kitchens worldwide, its vibrant and
nutrient-rich outer layer - the peel - has remained largely underexplored.
Solanum melongena L. belongs to the Solanaceae family and represents a
crop with a high production yield (Agregán et al., 2021). In 2021, the
worldwide production quantity of eggplant was 58,646,098.21 tonnes
(FAOSTAT). A major source of carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fiber,
vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds, eggplants are particularly
nutrient-dense vegetable (Agregán et al., 2021). They are low in calories
and high in minerals and fibers. Various studies have been published
addressing the extraction of pectin since they are rich in it (Higuer­
a-Coelho et al., 2023; Kazemi et al., 2019a; Kazemi et al., 2019b). The
peel of the eggplant has drawn particular interest due to its high level of
phenolic compounds (mostly anthocyanins), which have antioxidant
effects (Guohua Cao et al., 1996). What makes eggplant peels a unique
and valuable source of anthocyanins is their relative abundance. Often
discarded as culinary byproducts or agricultural waste, these peels
possess an untapped potential to contribute to a sustainable and
health-conscious food industry. In an era where consumers seek natural
and clean-label ingredients, the pigments extracted from eggplant peels
can replace synthetic food colorings and additives, contributing to
cleaner and more sustainable food production (Muhamad et al., 2018).
In addition, the inclusion of eggplant peel extracts in food products may
increase nutrient density. These extracts provide essential vitamins,
minerals, and antioxidants, enhancing the overall nutritional value of
the end products and aligning with consumer demands for healthier
options (Ramos et al., 2014, pp. 373–394).Considering the economic
and technological relevance of anthocyanins, the objective of this paper
was to summarize the ways through which these compounds from
eggplant peel can be valorized and to emphasize their potential for ap­
plications in the food industry. Eggplant peels constitute a significant
portion of the vegetable, and their frequent disposal contributes to food
waste. By recognizing the potential of eggplant peels as a valuable
source of bioactive compounds, we can contribute to the reduction of
food waste and promote sustainable agricultural practices. In this re­
gard, the data and publications now available about eggplant peel and
its potential as a source of bioactive compounds have been compiled and
summarized. The major approaches to valuing anthocyanins found in
eggplant peels and their uses in the food sector have been explored for
Fig. 1. Conversion of eggplant peels into functional food ingredients.
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104414
this purpose. Moreover, we explored the challenges, regulatory aspects,
and prospects that guide the path toward unlocking the full potential of
this underexplored resource. Anthocyanins are potent antioxidants with
various health benefits, including anti-inflammatory and cardiovascular
protective properties (Niño-Medina et al., 2017). By harnessing these
compounds from eggplant peels, we can create functional foods with
enhanced nutritional profiles. The extraction of anthocyanins and other
bioactive compounds from eggplant peels opens doors to the develop­
ment of novel functional ingredients. These ingredients can be incor­
porated into a wide range of food products, including beverages, snacks,
sauces, and baked goods, to provide health-promoting properties and
aesthetic appeal.
There aren’t many publications that discuss eggplant peels in the
literature. Some studies address eggplant pulp as a source of phenolic
acids, and only a few peel Karimi et al. (2021), for instance, review the
potential of eggplant peels to be used as a valuable source of bioactive
chemicals in terms of extraction techniques and potential applications.
However, too few of these research addresses encapsulation; instead,
they all focus on extraction as a valorizing method. Thus, our review also
addresses the microencapsulation as a valorizing method for the
eggplant peel anthocyanins, and their addition to food products as a
functionality test.
2. Types of anthocyanins in eggplant peels
Plants create anthocyanins during development and reproduction
cycles for a variety of reasons, including disease defense, UV protection,
and responses to environmental stress (Khoo et al., 2017). Anthocyanins
occur in hundreds of different varieties in nature (Karimi et al., 2021) as
glycosides of pelargonidin, cyanidin, delphinidin, peonidin, petunidin,
and malvidin (Fang, 2015). However, the purple color of eggplant peel is
mainly due to delphinidin glycosides (Chatterjee et al., 2013). Though,
delphinidin derivatives are not the only anthocyanins in the eggplant
peel, in the literature being identified also cyanidin, petunidin, and
malvidin derivatives (Khoddami et al., 2013). The chemical structures of
these compounds are presented in Fig. 2.
The most widely used method for the separation and identification of
anthocyanins is liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry
(Khoddami et al., 2013). Chromatographic methods have the ability to
separate all the components under analysis, along with any potential
derivatives or degradation products. This capability allows for the ac­
curate determination of analytes present at low concentrations, even in
the presence of numerous interfering and coeluting substances (Kalili &
de Villiers, 2011; Stalikas, 2007). Broadly, two types of chromato­
graphic techniques were employed to separate and characterize the
N.-N. Lazăr et al.
Fig. 2. The structures of the main anthocyanidins from eggplant
peel (PubChem).
anthocyanins from eggplant peels such as a high-performance liquid
chromatograph with a diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) and a
high-performance liquid chromatograph coupled with a tandem mass
spectrometer (HPLC-MS/MS), as detailed in Table 1. HPLC-DAD sepa­
rates and identifies analytes using their proprieties to absorb light in the
UV–Vis spectrum, while HPLC-MS separates and identifies analytes
based on their molecular weight and fragmentation pattern (Chew et al.,
2021).
Typically, the literature emphasizes the use of gradient mobile
phases when isolating and identifying the anthocyanins from eggplant
peels, as outlined in Table 1. These phases comprise a combination of
two or more reagents, commonly polar organic solvents such as meth­
anol or acetonitrile along with a mild acid such as acetic or formic acid
(Mizzi et al., 2020).
Six glycosides of delphinidin were identified in the eggplant peel in
the specialized literature, the major one identified by most of the re­
searchers being delphinidin 3-O-rutinoside as shown in Table 1 (Azuma
et al., 2008; Braga et al., 2016; Horincar et al., 2019; Philippi et al.,
2016). The same glucoside of delphinidin was also the main form of
anthocyanin discovered employing standards in earlier research that we
carried out (Condurache (Lazăr) et al., 2021; Condurache Lazăr et al.,
2021). Moreover, glycosides of cyanidin, malvidin, and petunidin were
also identified by various authors (Table 1).
The differences between the types and concentrations of anthocya­
nins found in the eggplant peel are given by the plant species, cultivar,
developmental stage, or agronomic conditions in general, but also by the
environmental factors (Luthria et al., 2010; Mekapogu et al., 2020; Zaro
et al., 2014). For instance, the highest concentrations of anthocyanin
occur during the unripe eggplant stage, decreasing as the fruit achieves
physiological maturity (Lo Scalzo et al., 2021). Kumari et al. (2022)
demonstrated as well that the concentrations of biologically active
compounds in eggplant are strongly influenced by seasonal variation.
Also, high temperatures inhibit anthocyanin biosynthesis while low
temperatures promote it both with and without light (Fang, 2015).
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104414
3. Biological activities of eggplant peel anthocyanins
Most of the anthocyanin’s functionalities are related to its antioxi­
dant power (Tena et al., 2020). Eggplant fruit peel rich in anthocyanins
shows particularly high superoxide scavenging activity (SOS). More­
over, anthocyanins are recognized also as reactive oxygen species (ROS)
and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) scavenging (Enaru et al., 2021).
Nasunin isolated from the peel of purple eggplant fruit was associated
with both suppression of hydroxyl radical formation and superoxide
scavenging activity (Akanitapichat et al., 2010).
In a previous work (Condurache Lazăr et al., 2021), we managed to
produce extracts with high antioxidant activity that corresponded to
conventional and UAE extraction methods using 70% ethanol. Thus,
values of 39.85 ± 3.19 mM TE/g DW for conventional extraction at
50 ◦ C and 34.31 ± 0.42 mM TE/g DW for UAE extraction at 25 ◦ C were
achieved.
Boulekbache-Makhlouf et al. (2013) reported the antioxidant activ­
ity of eggplant peel ranging between 58.81 ± 1.1% and 63 ± 0.48%
when they tested the solvent extraction combined with stirring for 40
min at room temperature. They used three solvents (70% methanol, 70%
ethanol, and 70% acetone) containing 0.2% formic acid. Comparatively
to the acetonic and ethanolic extracts, the methanolic one displayed the
strongest radical scavenging efficacy against DPPH and H2O2. Hosseini
et al. (2016) reported the eggplant peel’s capacity to scavenge DPPH
ranging from 24.09% to 71.68% using the conventional approach
varying the solvents (water, absolute ethanol, water/ethanol 1:1,
water/ethanol/citric acid, water/ethanol/acetic, and water/­
ethanol/hydrochloric acid in a 50:48:2 ratio) for 60 min in the dark.
Following these results, the authors stated that the concentration of
anthocyanins in eggplant peel extracts had a significant impact on their
capacity to scavenge free radicals. Horincar et al. (2019) stated that
methanolic extract produced by UAE seemed to have the highest ca­
pacity for antioxidant activity among the polyphenolic extracts (51.15
± 0.57%), followed by the ethanol and acetone extracts (39.69 ± 0.63%
and 33.52 ± 0.58%). Chatterjee et al. (2013) reported that solvent
extraction inhibited the free radical in a range of 87.39–89.57%, while
SC-CO2 was in the range of 59.28–91.16% when using the DPPH and
FRAP methods.
Nevertheless, the antioxidant activity is not the only biological ac­
tivity that eggplant peel exerts. Phenolic compounds were reported to
inhibit in vitro the enzymes involved in the mechanism of metabolic
syndrome disease appearance (Kaur et al., 2021). Salivary glands pro­
duce α-amylase that breaks down starch molecules and hydrolyzes them
into glucose or maltose by acting on the − 1,4 glycosidic linkages
(Kaushal et al., 2022). Lipoxygenase is involved in several
inflammation-related disorders by catalyzing the formation of hydro­
peroxides from polyunsaturated fatty acids (Snodgrass & Brüne, 2019).
Triglycerides are broken down into free fatty acids and glycerol by
lipase, an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ester bonds in tri­
glycerides. An indication of pancreatitis is a high level of lipase in the
serum (Pirahanchi et al., 2022). By blocking the activity of these en­
zymes, phenolics may aid in lowering hyperglycemia, obesity, over­
weight, and inflammation (Kaur et al., 2021). Kwon et al. (2008)
demonstrated that eggplant peel extracts have moderate to high
α-amylase in vitro inhibition capacity. Moderate in vitro inhibition ca­
pacity of an eggplant peel extract against lipoxygenase and lipase,
among α-amylase we were also able to obtain in previous work (Con­
durache Lazăr et al., 2021). Given all this evidence, it can be assumed
that anthocyanins from eggplant peels, in the proper dose, may be
engaged in lowering the development of various disorders. However,
more studies are required, especially in vivo studies, to support the in
vitro ones.
4. Extraction of anthocyanins from eggplant peels
Over time, different green, efficient, and economical methods for
N.-N. Lazăr et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104414

Table 1
Anthocyanin glycosides found in eggplant peel using HPLC techniques.
Anthocyanins in eggplant peel Chromatographic analysis Analysis parameters Reference

Delphinidin 3-O-rutinoside HPLC-DAD Synergi 4u Fusion-RP 80A (150 × 4.6 mm, 4 μm) column; mobile phases: Condurache Lazăr
520 and 280 nm 10% formic acid (FA) and 100% methanol (MeOH) under gradient et al. (2021)
conditions: 0–20 min, 9–35% (FA); 20–30 min, 35% (FA); 30–40 min, Condurache
35–50% (FA); and 40–55 min, 50–90% (FA) (Lazăr) et al.
(2021)
Horincar et al.
(2019)
LC-DAD-MS employing electrospray Endcapped Superspher RP-18 (125 × 2 mm, 4 μm) column; mobile phases Philippi et al.
ionization (ESI) in positive ion mode 1.5% acetic acid (AA) and MeOH with an elution program as follows: 0–2 (2016)
min, 0 % MeOH; 2–52 min, 100 % MeOH; and 60 min, 100 % MeOH.
HPLC-DAD TSKgel ODS-80Ts (4.6 mm × 250 mm) column; mobile phases acetonitrile Azuma et al.
240–600 nm in 10% (2008)
FA under the linear gradient of 0–40% mobile phases for 35 min
RP-HPLC-DAD Inertsil ODS-3 (250 × 6 mm i.d.) column; mobile phases AA 5% in water Braga et al.
and AA 5% in MeOH with the following (2016)
gradient: 98% AA for 20 min, decreased to 50% AA for 15 min,
kept at 50% AA for 10 min, and returned to the initial
conditions in 10 min
Delphinidin 3-O-glucoside HPLC-DAD mobile phases 10% FA and 100% MeOH Condurache Lazăr
et al. (2021)
Condurache
(Lazăr) et al.
(2021)
Horincar et al.
(2019)
HPLC-MS/MS employing electrospray Luna 3μ C18 100 Å (50 × 2.00 mm) column; mobile phases water and 0.5 Mauro et al.
ionization (ESI) in positive ion mode; m/z % trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and MeOH (2020)
611, m/z 773, and m/z 920 ions using a gradient rate of 0–10 min 80 % TFA and 20 % MeOH; 10–12 min
100 % MeOH; and 12–14 min 80 % TFA and 20 % MeOH.
HPLC-DAD mobile phases acetonitrile in 10% Azuma et al.
FA (2008)
Delphinidin 3-O-rutinoside-5- HPLC-DAD mobile phases 10% FA and 100% MeOH Condurache Lazăr
glucoside et al. (2021)
Condurache
(Lazăr) et al.
(2021)
Horincar et al.
(2019)
HPLC-MS/MS mobile phases water and 0.5 % TFA and MeOH Mauro et al.
(2020)
HPLC-DAD Prontosil C18AQ (4.6 × 250 mm, 5 μm) column; mobile phases water–AA Ferarsa et al.
543 nm (93:7, v/v) and water–acetonitrile–MeOH–AA (47:23:23:7, v/v) (2018)
Delphinidin 3-O-rutinoside-5- HPLC-MS/MS mobile phases water and 0.5 % TFA and MeOH Mauro et al.
galactoside (2020)
Delphinidin-3-(p- HPLC-MS/MS mobile phases water and 0.5 % TFA and MeOH Mauro et al.
coumaroylrutinoside)-5- (2020)
glucoside (nasunin) HPLC-DAD mobile phases acetonitrile in 10% Azuma et al.
FA (2008)
RP-HPLC-DAD mobile phases acetic acid 5% in water Braga et al.
and AA 5% in MeOH (2016)
Delphinidin 3- HPLC-DAD mobile phases acetonitrile in 10% Azuma et al.
caffeoylrutinoside-5-glucoside FA (2008)
Cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside HPLC-DAD mobile phases 10% FA and 100% MeOH Condurache Lazăr
et al. (2021)
Condurache
(Lazăr) et al.
(2021)
Horincar et al.
(2019)
HPLC-MS/MS mobile phases water and 0.5% TFA and MeOH Mauro et al.
(2020)
Malvidin 3-O-rutinoside-5- HPLC-DAD mobile phases MeOH 100% and 10% FA Horincar et al.
glucoside (2019)
mobile phases water–acetic acid (93:7, v/v) and Ferarsa et al.
water–acetonitrile–MeOH–AA (47:23:23:7, v/v) (2018)
Petunidin 3-O-rutinoside HPLC-DAD mobile phases 10% FA and 100% MeOH Condurache Lazăr
et al. (2021)
Condurache
(Lazăr) et al.
(2021)
Horincar et al.
(2019)
mobile phases water–AA (93:7, v/v) and water–acetonitrile–MeOH–AA Ferarsa et al.
(47:23:23:7, v/v) (2018)
(continued on next page)

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N.-N. Lazăr et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104414

Table 1 (continued )
Anthocyanins in eggplant peel Chromatographic analysis Analysis parameters Reference

Petunidin 3-(p- HPLC-DAD mobile phases acetonitrile in 10% Azuma et al.

coumaroylrutinoside)-5- FA (2008)
glucoside

HPLC-DAD - High-Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with Diode Array Detector; RP-HPLC-DAD - Ion-pair Reversed Phase-High Performance Liquid
Chromatography coupled with Diode Array Detector; HPLC-MS/MS - High-Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with a tandem Mass Spectrometer.

anthocyanins’ recovery from different plant sources have been sought
(Mariacaterina et al., 2022). These methods impart the techniques in
conventional and modern Putnik et al. (2019). Among the conventional
ones, maceration, Soxhlet, and hydrodistillation are the most known.
Among the modern methods, ultrasound-assisted (UAE),
enzyme-assisted (EAE), microwave-assisted, pulsed-electric field, and
supercritical fluid extraction were highlighted (Roselló-Soto et al.,
2016). Various studies have been published in the specialized literature
regarding the extraction of biologically active compounds from eggplant
peels, as presented in Table 2.
With the use of the maceration approach, Kumari and Dhatt (2018)
extracted the bioactives from the peel of 50 eggplant genotypes by
resting it in 1% HCl acidified methanol overnight at 4 ◦ C, as shown in
Table 2. This method recovered a total anthocyanin content (TAC) in the
range of 0.04–113.93 mg/100g peel. However, anthocyanins were not
detected in certain varieties. Jung et al. (2011) also employed the
maceration process for 24 h at room temperature in the dark using 1%
HCl acidified methanol. The eggplant peel extract showed a high
anthocyanin content of 138.05 mg/100g. Since maceration is a
time-consuming method, Boulekbache-Makhlouf et al. (2013) tested the
solvent extraction combined with stirring for 40 min at room tempera­
ture. They used three solvents (70% methanol, 70% ethanol, and 70%
acetone) containing 0.2% formic acid. After the methanolic extraction,
the authors reported a maximum anthocyanin concentration of 82.83 ±
1.07 mg DGE/100 g DP. While ethanol recovered 62.92 ± 0.15 mg
DGE/100 g DP, acetone only recovered 51.56 ± 4.87 mg DGE/100g DP.
Hosseini et al. (2016) used a variety of solvents and solvent mixtures
(water, absolute ethanol, water/ethanol (1:1), water/ethanol/citric
acid, water/ethanol/acetic, and water/ethanol/hydrochloric acid in a
50:48:2 ratio) for 60 min in the dark to extract anthocyanins from the
peel of eggplant. Water extracts had the lowest anthocyanin concen­
tration of 5.61 mg/100g FW, while citric acid extract had the highest
anthocyanin content of 51.40 mg/100g FW. It is already known that the
addition of an acid in the extraction solvent facilitates the cell mem­
brane’s rupture while stabilizing the anthocyanins since they are
pH-dependent and have high stability in acidic environments (Hasbay &
Galanakis, 2018).
Although conventional methods are efficient, they are time and
energy-consuming, with modern ones being preferred. Horincar et al.
(2019) employed ultrasound-assisted extraction with 70% methanol,
ethanol, or acetone, each solvent prepared with distilled water, to obtain
eggplant peel extracts. Three successive extractions were carried out
while the samples were subjected to ultrasound treatment at 40 kHz and
40 ◦ C for 30 min. When compared to acetone, the authors found that
methanol and ethanol produced higher concentrations of bioactive
chemicals from eggplant peel. For methanol and ethanol extracts, TAC
showed a 0.74 ± 0.05 and 0.58 ± 0.03 mg DGE/g DW concentration,
respectively. The acetone extract yielded a value of 0.36 ± 0.00 mg
DGE/g DW. Dranca and Oroian (2016) varied methanol, ethanol, and
2-propanol as extraction solvents. The sample was processed in an ul­
trasonic bath at various temperatures (50, 60, and 70 ◦ C), sonication
frequencies (0, 25, and 45 kHz), and extraction times (10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
and 60 min). Following each treatment, the extract was filtered and
cooled to 20 ◦ C to be analyzed. The extraction of 54.4% methanol at 37
kHz, 55.1 ◦ C for 44.85 min produced the maximum TAC recovery of
2410.71 mg C3G/kg. After achieving a TAC maximum yield of 5.88 ±
0.39 mg/g, Liao et al. (2022) claimed that multi-frequency ultrasonic
extraction was an effective method to enhance the extraction of bioac­
tive components from eggplant peels.
Researchers also tested other modern extraction techniques to
maximize the bioactive compounds extracted from eggplant peels. In
order to compare the solvent and supercritical carbon dioxide (SC–CO2)
extraction methods, Chatterjee et al. (2013) varied the parameters. To
achieve the best yield of extraction from the peels, different tempera­
tures (23, 40, 60, and 80 ◦ C) and rotary speeds (100, 150, and 180 rpm)
were used when the solvent extraction was employed. For the SC-CO2

Table 2
Extraction methods and parameters of anthocyanins from eggplant peels.
Plant matrix Extraction method Solvent Extraction parameters Anthocyanins’ maximum References
extraction yield

Conventional approaches
Eggplant Maceration Methanol and 1 % HCl 4 ◦ C, overnight 113.93 mg/100g peel Kumari and Dhatt (2018)
peels Methanol and 1 % HCl Room temperature, 24 h 138.05 mg/100 g peel (Jung et al., 2011)
Solvent extraction combined 70 % methanol and 0.2 % Room temperature, 40 min 82.83 ± 1.07 mg DGE/100 g Boulekbache-Makhlouf et al.
with stirring formic acid DP (2013)
Static solvent extraction Water/ethanol/citric acid in Room temperature, dark, 60 51.40 mg/100 g FW Hosseini et al. (2016)
a 50:48:2 ratio min
Solvent extraction in a rotary water-ethanol (1:1) and 10% 60 ◦ C 19.75 ± 0.08 g/kg DP Chatterjee et al. (2013)
shaker citric acid
Solvent extraction combined 96 % ethanol acidified with 1 50 ◦ C, 30 min 1.13 ± 0.10 mg D3G/DW Condurache Lazăr et al. (2021)
with stirring N HCl
Modern approaches
Eggplant UAE 70 % methanol 40 kHz, 40 ◦ C, 30 min 0.74 ± 0.05 mg D3G/g dw Horincar et al. (2019)
peels 54.4% methanol 37 kHz, 55.1 ◦ C, 44.85 min 2410.71 mg C3G/kg Dranca and Oroian (2016)
50 % ethanol 25 + 40 + 70 kHz, 45 ◦ C, 35 5.88 ± 0.39 mg/g Liao et al. (2022)
min
96 % ethanol acidified with 1 40 kHz, 30 min, 25 ◦ C 1.04 ± 0.10 mg D3G/g DW Condurache Lazăr et al. (2021)
N HCl
SC-CO2 CO2 60 C, 10 MPa, 1.5 h, 0.2 L
◦
17.04 g/kg of dry peel weight Chatterjee et al. (2013)
min-1 of CO2
EAE Cellulase 37.32 ◦ C, 5% enzyme, 1 h 578.66 mg C3G/L (Amulya & ul Islam, 2023)

D3G – delphinidin 3-O-glucoside; C3G – cyanidin 3-O-glucoside; FW – fresh weight; DP – dried powder; DGE - delphinidin-3-glucoside equivalent.

5
N.-N. Lazăr et al.
extraction, the peels were placed into the extraction vessel after
pre-treating them for 1 min in a 10% citric acid solution. Variable
extraction pressure (10, 12, 15 MPa), temperature (60, 80 ◦ C), time, and
2 L/min flow rate of CO2 were used to optimize the extraction of
anthocyanin from eggplant peels. TAC and the yield of the
solvent-extracted compounds have been seen to increase with higher
extraction temperatures from 23 to 60 ◦ C. Both, the yield and TAC
decreased once the temperature was raised to 80 ◦ C. The previously
mentioned mixture, heated to 60 ◦ C, produced the best yield of color
with a TAC of 19.75 g/kg of dry peel weight. With an increase in tem­
perature, the yield and TAC of the SC-CO2 extracted dropped. It was
discovered that the retrograde phenomena of supercritical extraction
occur at considerably higher pressure regimes (12–15 MPa). Therefore,
it can be concluded that 60 ◦ C and 10 MPa were the ideal SC-CO2 con­
ditions for extracting colors from eggplant peels with a high anthocyanin
concentration (17.04 g/kg of dry peel weight). TACs of 4.25 ± 0.02 g/kg
dried peel to 19.75 ± 0.08 g/kg dried peel were achieved using solvent
extraction, whereas SC-CO2 values ranged from 2.95 ± 0.05 g/kg dried
peel to 17.04 ± 0.06 g/kg dried peel (Chatterjee et al., 2013).
Amulya and ul Islam (2023) compared the conventional extraction
method with the enzyme-assisted one, optimizing the latter in the end.
They observed that cellulase facilitated the rupture of eggplant peel cells
resulting in improved extraction yields and reducing the extraction time
compared to the conventional technique. Thus, the maximum yield of
phenolics from eggplant peel extracted with cellulase was 578.665 mg
C3G/L for TAC after 1 h of extraction using 5% enzyme concentration
(Amulya & ul Islam 2023).
In order to compare the total anthocyanins recovered using con­
ventional and ultrasound-assisted approaches, we performed both in
previous work (Condurache Lazăr et al., 2021). For each method,
different solvent concentrations (70 and 96% ethanol), times, and
temperatures were used. For the conventional method based on stirring
for 30–120 min, 70 and 96% ethanol acidified with 1 N HCl at 25 and
50 ◦ C. For the ultrasounds-assisted extraction, the same ethanol con­
centrations acidified with HCl were used at 40 kHz for 25–45 min at 25
and 50 ◦ C. Values between 0.75 ± 0.07 mg D3G/g DW and 1.13 ± 0.10
mg D3G/g DW were achieved for both techniques. The highest TAC in
the conventional extraction case was obtained at 50 ◦ C (1.13 ± 0.10 mg
D3G/g DW). The extraction at 25 ◦ C yielded the highest TAC for the UAE
(1.04 ± 0.10 mg D3G/g DW). Both methods presented a high anthocy­
anin content at 96 % ethanol and 30 min. Although the TAC of the two
extracts were not significantly different, at the same ethanol concen­
tration, using UAE has the advantage of lowering the temperature,
allowing for energy savings and minimizing the risk of phenolic
degradation.
In general, the extraction of anthocyanins from eggplant peel with
methanol was the most efficient and used method. However, extraction
with ethanol is preferable to methanol due to its lower toxicity if the
extracts aim to be added to food products. Although conventional
extraction methods are efficient, they are nevertheless very time- and
resource-consuming. Thus, ultrasound-assisted extraction is preferable.
However, other modern extraction methods should not be neglected
either.
5. Encapsulation of anthocyanins from eggplant peels
Despite all their benefits and advantages, due to the limited bio­
accessibility and bioavailability of anthocyanins, the human body ab­
sorbs only 2% of the anthocyanins ingested dosage (Calderaro et al.,
2020). Additionally, they easily oxidize and suffer molecular modifica­
tions when exposed to excessive temperature, oxygen, and light condi­
tions during food processing and storage (Mattioli et al., 2020). Martini
et al. (2021) demonstrated that ordinary cooking methods degrade the
phenolics from eggplant, but on the other way help their release from
the matrix during digestion. Thus, to enhance their bioavailability and
bioaccessibility and protect them from degrading environmental factors,
6
Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104414
there are options such as encapsulation. This method expands the
shelf-life of active compounds while reducing nutritional and sensory
degradation (Fang & Bhandari, 2010).
The optimization of encapsulation method for proper incorporation
of bioactive compounds depends on the characteristics of the bioactive
molecule, the encapsulating material, the desired final product, and
other factors (particle size, surface morphology, storage stability, etc.)
(Zabot et al., 2022). To protect the bioactive compounds against
degradation in along the processing chain and in vivo, the produced
capsules must contain a significant concentration of bioactive com­
pounds and be easily added in food matrices (Mehta et al., 2022). The
time, expense, and steps necessary to obtain the capsules, as well as
production volume, market demands, and existing legislation, are other
factors to consider (Celli et al., 2015).
In recent years, the food industry has employed this technique
regularly to increase the nutritional content of food products (Ye et al.,
2018). This kind of substance has several benefits, including keeping the
product stable for extended periods and lowering storage and shipping
expenses (Celli et al., 2015).
In the specialized literature, few published studies have as a theme
the encapsulation of biologically active compounds from eggplant peels.
In 2013, Chatterjee et al. (2013) encapsulated eggplant peel extracts in
calcium alginate. The authors observed that an extract concentration
increase over 15 g/L led to significant color loss, while decreasing the
alginate concentration under 25 g/L led to unstable beads, incapable of
retaining 10 g/L of extract. In addition, they reported that the beads
with 10 g/L extract showed insignificant bioactive compound contents
and antioxidant activity. In the 25–45 g/L and 10–15 g/L ranges of so­
dium alginate and extract concentrations, they obtained 51–72%
encapsulation efficiencies of the bioactive compounds, the latter
increasing in general with the concentration of wall material. However,
the highest encapsulation efficiency of 72.79% was observed for the
beads prepared with 45.00 g/L sodium alginate and 12.50 g/L eggplant
peel extract. For this encapsulation efficiency corresponds to 0.44 ±
0.02g D3G/kg of beads. The same parameters also led to antioxidant
activity with an IC50 of 4.60 ± 1.33 μg/mL. A storage stability test in the
dark at 4 ◦ C for 60 days revealed high protection of the sodium alginate
matrix on the anthocyanins from the eggplant peel, 16 times higher than
the stability of the anthocyanins from the unencapsulated extract
(Chatterjee et al., 2013).
Sarabandi et al. (2019) encapsulated the eggplant peel extract in
maltodextrin, gum Arabic, and combinations of them (1:1) through
spray drying. The temperature of the inlet air varied from 140 to 170 ◦ C
during the drying process. The antioxidant activity values ranged from
55.48 to 73.38%. The authors reported that both the wall material and
inlet air temperature influenced the antioxidant activity. Thus, malto­
dextrin entrapped high contents of compounds that provided the highest
antioxidant activity. However, a partial or complete substitution of
maltodextrin with gum Arabic led to an antioxidant activity decrease.
Horincar et al. (2020a) reported a 94.31 ± 3.32% efficiency of the
encapsulation of anthocyanins from eggplant peel in whey proteins and
acacia gum through freeze-drying. The powder presented a TAC of 0.837
± 0.086 mg D3GE/g DW and antioxidant activity of 45.522 ± 6.789
mM TE/g DW. Barretto et al. (2020) encapsulated eggplant peel extract
in various concentrations of gum Arabic using the spray drying tech­
nique. The anthocyanins content ranged between 5.81 and 42.61
mg/100g peel depending on the inlet air temperature into the drying
process, which ranged between 130 and 180 ◦ C and wall material con­
centration, which ranged between 10 and 20%. However, the highest
TAC was achieved at 150 ◦ C with 15% gum Arabic. They also reported
an antioxidant activity of 92.25% inhibition.
In 2019, our research group (Condurache et al., 2019) published a
study in which we encapsulated the eggplant peel extract in various
combinations of carboxymethyl cellulose, pectin, whey proteins, and
whey peptides through freeze-drying. Four variants of microcapsules
were prepared, having encapsulation efficiencies between 69.90 ±
N.-N. Lazăr et al.
1.90% and 77.60 ± 1.92%. In addition, TAC contents ranging between
0.52 and 0.89 mg D3G/g DW and antioxidant activities ranging between
55.43 ± 7.17 and 94.71 ± 2.8 mM Trolox/g DW were achieved. The
encapsulation efficiency increased with the concentration of carbox­
ymethyl cellulose in the matrix. However, a slight instability of com­
pounds during storage after 28 days at 25 ◦ C was noticed. In this case,
also, the powder variant with the highest carboxymethyl cellulose
concentration protected better the anthocyanins from the environ­
mental conditions during storage. In another previous study, our
research team (Condurache (Lazăr) et al., 2021) encapsulated eggplant
peel bioactive compounds in stabilized hydrogels through freeze-drying.
Two powders were produced in which the concentrations between
carboxymethyl cellulose, pectin, and whey proteins were varied. As in
the 2019 study, also in this case it was observed that the increase in the
concentration of carboxymethyl cellulose from the matrix leads to an
increase in the encapsulation efficiency and, implicitly, to the retention
of the highest concentrations of biologically active compounds. Thus,
the highest encapsulation efficiency of 96.44 ± 3.43% was achieved for
the powder with higher polysaccharides than protein content compared
to the powder with similar content of polysaccharides and proteins
(64.67 ± 0.67%). In addition, they reported TAC contents ranging be­
tween 50.41 ± 2.13 and 94.94 ± 7.94 mg D3G/g DW. The antioxidant
activity of the powders has values between 36.60 ± 0.83 and 41.96 ±
0.28 mM TE/g DW.
A more recent study published by Sharma et al. (2023) deals with the
subject of eggplant peel bioactive compounds encapsulation by emul­
sification in various concentrations of soybean oil and emulsifier. They
reported an antioxidant activity starting from 0.81 ± 0.01 μM TE/mL to
1.03 ± 0.01 μM TE/mL. After 30 days of storage at 25 ◦ C, the antioxi­
dant activity increased significantly.
Regardless of the method and materials used, encapsulation led to
increased stability of anthocyanins from eggplant peels. Thus, the pub­
lished articles demonstrated that encapsulation could be a technique
that promises to remove at least some of the limitations of this type of
compound in terms of valorization. In addition, encapsulation may be a
beneficial tool in customizing solutions to preserve and utilize phenolics
since they are unstable when exposed to environmental and industrial
process conditions (Comunian et al., 2021).
6. Application of anthocyanins in the food industry
The visual element is a significant factor in how contemporary
consumers choose food products, with color being a crucial component
in both food and beverages. Phenolic compounds are suitable natural
dyes for the bakery, beverage, confectionery, dairy, ice cream, and meat
industries. They can also be successfully utilized in cosmetics, pharma­
ceutics, or pet food (Dey & Nagababu, 2022). In the food industry, these
substances were linked to the enhancement of naturally occurring
colors. Additionally, they were noted for their ability to safeguard the
Table 3
Food products enriched with eggplant peel bioactive compounds.
Source Encapsulation Encapsulation matrix Food
method matrix
Eggplant peel – – Lager beer
extract
– – Cookies
– – Sorbet
freeze-drying Whey protein isolate, Pastry
acacia gum cream
spray-drying Gum Arabic Yogurt
spray-drying Maltodextrin, gum Gummy
Arabic candies
Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104414
color, flavor, and vitamins of food from potential damage caused by
factors like light, air, and temperature. Thanks to their wide spectrum of
vibrant colors, they find applications in decorative uses, such as
enhancing cake icing. Furthermore, they can effectively conceal
inherent color variations, thereby enhancing the overall taste (Dey &
Nagababu, 2022).
The industrial application of anthocyanins as natural pigments is
constrained by their instability to the conditions during processing and
storage (Gençdağ et al., 2022), although they offer an alternative to
synthetic additives. They are also extremely susceptible to digestive
system conditions at the same time (Verediano et al., 2021). However,
several researchers have attempted to add non-encapsulated extracts
from eggplant peels to various food products, as shown in Table 3. For
instance, Horincar et al. (2020b) found that anthocyanin levels in a beer
enhanced with eggplant peel extract significantly decreased with time.
In addition, Zhang et al. (2020) reported anthocyanin degradation from
cookies enriched with eggplant peel extract after their thermal treat­
ment. Moreover, according to Aboelhaggag et al. (2023), eggplant peel
extracts may still improve the quality, taste, and acceptability of foods
like sorbets compared to chemical dyes.
By enhancing or creating new functions, the usage of anthocyanins in
a variety of products results in functional foods that give customers extra
health benefits. That is why some researchers have tried to incorporate
microencapsulated anthocyanin extracts from eggplant peels into
different food products.
Horincar et al. (2020a) enriched a pastry cream with 5, and 10%
encapsulated eggplant peel extract. The encapsulation matrix consisted
of 2.5% WPI and 1% acacia gum, freeze-drying being the technique used
for the stabilization of capsules. The amount of microparticles boosted
the antioxidant activity of the pastry cream samples, and the encapsu­
lation matrix ensured good stability of the biologically active com­
pounds in the food matrix. However, the authors revealed significant
decreases in the anthocyanin content of the pastry cream enriched with
5% microparticles from eggplant peel extract and high stability in cream
with 10%. The authors appreciated based on the sensory evaluation that
encapsulated eggplant peel extract improved the product’s color.
Additionally, all pastry creams displayed rheological behavior specific
to a gel structure and had no impact on the samples’ adhesion, cohesion,
springiness, or chewiness.
Barretto et al. (2020) encapsulated anthocyanins from eggplant peel
in gum Arabic by spray drying and used the produced microparticles to
enrich yogurt. They reported a reduction in the concentration of an­
thocyanins in yogurt enriched with microencapsulated powder from
eggplant peel extract after 30 days of storage. However, microencap­
sulation protected the compounds. Sarabandi et al. (2019) fortified
gummy candies with microencapsulated eggplant peel extract, and the
sensory qualities of the final products were studied. They claimed that
the 1.5% powder addition enhanced the product’s color characteristics
and general acceptance.
Characteristics References
increased phenolic content; good sensory characteristics; good stability Horincar et al.
without artificial preservatives; low anthocyanins stability (2020b)
low stability of anthocyanins after thermal treatment Zhang et al.
(2020)
improved product quality, yellowness, taste and acceptability Aboelhaggag et al.
(2023)
Increased concentration of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity; high Horincar et al.
stability of bioactive compounds in the food matrix during storage; improved (2020a)
color properties of the product
high stability of encapsulated anthocyanins in the food matrix during storage Barretto et al.
compared to the non-encapsulated ones (2020)
improved color properties and overall acceptability of the product Sarabandi et al.
(2019)
7
N.-N. Lazăr et al.
In addition to food products with added value, anthocyanin extracts
from eggplant were also used by researchers to create active packaging
since these protect food from environmental, physical, and microbial
contamination, also extending the shelf-life. Wang et al. (2023) suc­
cessfully developed a novel active food film packaging based on chito­
san, chitin, and eggplant peel extract for monitoring pork meat spoilage.
They observed that due to the large amounts of anthocyanins and
polyphenols from the eggplant peel extract, the obtained films showed
high antioxidant and antimicrobial capacities.
Eggplant peel can be a valuable source of natural food dyes and
antioxidants. Even though there are not many studies in the specialist
literature, the existing ones show that food products may be functionally
enhanced by encapsulated anthocyanin extracts from plants such as
eggplant peels. However, more ongoing research is necessary in terms of
purity analysis, safety evaluation, functionality, and sensory proprieties.
Furthermore, regulatory considerations must be considered, as well as
the possible challenges that must be faced.
7. Regulatory considerations
The use of anthocyanins in the food industry is subject to regulatory
considerations and standards that ensure the safety and quality of food
products. Regulatory requirements may vary by country or region, so
food manufacturers and producers need to comply with local regula­
tions. In general, before introducing to the market food products
enriched with anthocyanins, a thorough safety assessment is typically
required. This assessment includes toxicological studies for instance to
evaluate the safety of the anthocyanin extracts (EFSA, 2013).
In 1982, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
(JECFA) recognized anthocyanins as natural food colorants. Later, in
2006, they approved an acceptable daily intake of 2.5 mg/kg/day for
anthocyanins from grape skin (Food Safety and Quality: Detail, 2006).
Afterward, EFSA granted permission for the incorporation of anthocy­
anins under the E163 classification as additives in the EU, aimed at
enhancing the aesthetic qualities of food and beverages or addressing
color deterioration resulting from processing (EFSA, 2013). However,
the EU regulations do not specify the particular fruits or vegetables that
can be employed to derive anthocyanins as a food additive. Further­
more, the composition and specific identity of the anthocyanins that
may be present in the food additive E163 remain undefined (EFSA,
2013).
In the United States, substances that are Generally Recognized as
Safe (GRAS) are exempt from the need for pre-market approval as food
additives. Beetroot, carrots, black/purple carrot, chokeberry, Aronia,
elderberry, grape skin, purple sweet potato, red cabbage, red radish, and
saffron extracts were already included in The US National List of
Allowed and Prohibited Substances as nonorganically produced agri­
cultural products allowed as ingredients in or on processed products
labeled as “organic” (eCFR). Thus, for the US, it is necessary to
demonstrate that eggplant peel anthocyanins fall under GRAS status by
ensuring they meet the quality standards for purity, composition, and
identity. Analytical methods may be required to verify the content and
authenticity of the anthocyanins.
Food products containing eggplant peel anthocyanins must comply
with labeling regulations. This includes accurate ingredient listing,
declaration of the color additive’s presence, and adherence to any la­
beling guidelines specific to natural colorants (Regulation (EU) No
1169/2011). Since eggplants belong to the Solanaceae family, allergen
labeling requirements also must be followed to inform consumers about
potential allergenicity.
Thus, eggplant peel anthocyanins may be used as natural colorants
but following the guidelines of the regulatory authorities on their usage,
including maximum allowable concentrations and permitted color
ranges and labeling.
8
Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104414
8. Challenges and future research Directions
Working with eggplant peel anthocyanins, while promising, presents
several challenges that need to be addressed to maximize their utiliza­
tion in food products and other applications. Anthocyanin extraction
from eggplant peels can be inefficient due to their complex cell wall
structures and matrix (Kaderides et al., 2019). Developing optimized
extraction methods to achieve high yields while preserving anthocyanin
stability is a challenge. Moreover, anthocyanins are sensitive to factors
like pH, temperature, light, and oxygen, which can lead to degradation
and loss of color and bioactivity (Tarone et al., 2020).
Anthocyanin-derived pigments are prone to fading or color changes
during food processing and storage. Preventing color loss and ensuring
consistent color in food products is a challenge, particularly in products
with extended shelf lives. Developing effective stabilization techniques
to maintain anthocyanin stability in food products is crucial. In addition,
determining the optimal dosage of eggplant peel anthocyanins in food
products to achieve desired health benefits without negatively impact­
ing taste, texture, or appearance requires careful formulation and testing
(Alongi & Anese, 2021; Roberfroid, 2000).
Sourcing a consistent supply of high-quality eggplants with desirable
anthocyanin profiles can be challenging, especially for large-scale pro­
duction. While using eggplant peels can reduce food waste, ensuring
sustainable sourcing and processing practices to minimize environ­
mental impact is an ongoing challenge. Processing eggplant peels and
extracting anthocyanins can be cost-intensive, particularly when opti­
mizing extraction methods and implementing encapsulation techniques.
Balancing the costs with the potential benefits is a consideration for
product developers.
Addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary collaboration
among food scientists, agricultural experts, biochemists, and regulatory
authorities. Overcoming these obstacles can unlock the full potential of
eggplant peel anthocyanins, making them a valuable resource for
enhancing the nutritional, sensory, and functional attributes of food
products while promoting sustainability and health.
Additionally, within the context of waste management, it’s essential
to address the generation of residual biomass during the extraction of
bioactive compounds from food waste, as this is a prevalent concern.
Implementing integrated biorefinery processes offers a sustainable
approach to utilize this residual biomass by converting it into other
value-added products like biofuels, biochar, and biogas. Alternatively,
another method for managing residual biomass is composting, where it
can be converted into organic fertilizer to enhance soil quality or utilized
as animal feed. The adoption of continuous extraction systems, which
tend to be more efficient compared to batch processes, or integrating the
extraction process into a broader biorefinery framework can lead to
reduced waste generation and improved resource utilization. This
approach presents a viable solution worth exploring further (Casau
et al., 2022; Gupta et al., 2022; Treichel et al., 2020).
Certainly, here are some areas for future research regarding eggplant
peel anthocyanins, with a focus on optimization of encapsulation tech­
niques and exploring novel food applications: develop and optimize
encapsulation methods for eggplant peel anthocyanins to enhance sta­
bility, bioavailability, and controlled release;
• investigate the synergistic effects of eggplant peel anthocyanins
when encapsulated with other bioactive compounds (e.g., probiotics,
prebiotics, vitamins) in food products for enhanced health benefits;
• assess the impact of encapsulated eggplant peel anthocyanins on the
taste, aroma, and texture of food products, aiming to ensure con­
sumer acceptance;
• assess the shelf-life of food products containing encapsulated an­
thocyanins, considering variations in temperature, light exposure,
and packaging;
N.-N. Lazăr et al.
• investigate the bioavailability and absorption of encapsulated an­
thocyanins in the human body, including their release kinetics in the
gastrointestinal tract and potential in vivo health effects;
• develop clean-label encapsulation techniques that meet consumer
demand for natural and minimally processed food products;
• explore innovative food applications for encapsulated eggplant peel
anthocyanins, such as functional beverages, confectionery, dairy
products, and meat alternatives.
These areas of research hold significant potential for advancing the
utilization of eggplant peel anthocyanins in the food industry, fostering
innovation, promoting health, and addressing sustainability challenges
in food production and processing.
9. Conclusions
Eggplant peel anthocyanins, mostly comprised of delphinidin gly­
cosides, offer health-promoting benefits. These bioactive compounds
have valuable functional properties and could be significantly useful in
the food and pharmaceutical industries. Moreover, eggplant peel an­
thocyanins have been successfully employed for the fortification of a few
model foods as an alternative to artificial preservatives and colorants.
Although an expensive process from a financial standpoint, anthocyanin
encapsulation is recommended since they demonstrated improved sta­
bility when encapsulated extracts were compared to their non-
encapsulated counterpart. It would deliver unique food products with
enhanced qualities that might boost human health and also help with
waste management. Foods like fermented beverages, dairy items, con­
fectionery, breakfast cereals, and sauces and dressings are among the
suitable products for fortification with anthocyanin-enriched in­
gredients. However, further research is needed concerning the applica­
tion and health-promoting effects of anthocyanins from eggplant peel.
Author contributions
Nina-Nicoleta Lazar: Conceptualization, Investigation, Wri­
ting–original draft. Gabriela Rapeanu: Visualization, Supervision.
Cătălina Iticescu: Visualization, Supervision. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgment
The Integrated Center for Research, Expertise, and Technological
Transfer in the Food Industry is acknowledged for providing technical
support.
The present article was supported by the project An Integrated Sys­
tem for the Complex Environmental Research and Monitoring in the
Danube River Area, REXDAN, SMIS code 127065, co-financed by the
European Regional Development Fund through the Competitiveness
Operational Programme 2014–2020, contract no. 309/10.07.2021.
9
Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104414
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