Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 14: Ecosystem

CHAPTER 14. ECOSYSTEM

NOTES

An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact each other and with the physical
environment.
ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
Types of ecosystems
• Terrestrial ecosystem: Forest, grassland, desert etc.
• Aquatic ecosystem: Pond, lake, wetland, river & estuary.
• Man-made ecosystem: Crop fields and aquarium.
Entire biosphere is regarded as global ecosystem.
In an ecosystem, biotic and abiotic components interact and function as a unit.
Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called stratification. E.g. in a forest, trees
occupy top strata (layer), shrubs the second and herbs & grasses the bottom layers.
Pond (Aquatic ecosystem)
A pond is a shallow, simple, self-sustainable water body that exhibits all basic components of an ecosystem.
• Abiotic components: Water and soil deposit.
• Climatic conditions: Solar input, cycle of temperature, day-length etc.
• Autotrophic components: Phytoplankton, some algae and the floating, submerged and marginal plants.
• Consumers (heterotrophs): Zooplankton, free swimming and bottom dwelling forms.
• Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria and flagellates.
Pond performs all the functions of an ecosystem. E.g.
• Autotrophs convert inorganic into organic material using solar radiant energy.
• Heterotrophs consume the autotrophs.
• Decomposition and mineralization of the dead matter to release them back for reuse by the autotrophs.
4 basic components of functioning of an ecosystem:
1. Productivity
2. Decomposition
3. Energy flow
4. Nutrient cycling
1. PRODUCTIVITY
Solar energy is the basic requirement for an ecosystem to function and sustain.
Amount of biomass (organic matter) produced per unit area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis is
called primary production. It is expressed in weight (g–2) or energy (kcal m–2).
The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is expressed in g yr or (kcal m ) yr–1.
–2 –1 –2

It is divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).
• Gross primary productivity (GPP): It is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
A considerable amount of GPP is used by plants in respiration.
• Net primary productivity (NPP): It is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs
(herbivores & decomposers). i.e., NPP is the Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R). NPP = GPP
–R
Secondary productivity: It is the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
Primary productivity varies in different ecosystems because it depends on
• The plant species inhabiting an area.
• Environmental factors.
• Availability of nutrients.
• Photosynthetic capacity of plants.
Annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere is about 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter.
Of this, despite occupying about 70 % of the surface, the productivity of the oceans is only 55 billion tons.
2. DECOMPOSITION

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Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 14: Ecosystem

It is the breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers into inorganic substances like CO2, water and
nutrients. It is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
Raw material for decomposition is called Detritus. E.g. dead plant remains (leaves, bark, flowers etc.), dead
remains of animals, fecal matter etc.
Steps of decomposition
• Fragmentation: It is the breakdown of detritus into smaller particles by detritivores (e.g. earthworm).
• Leaching: Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into soil horizon and precipitate as unavailable salts.
• Catabolism: Degradation of detritus into simpler inorganic substances by bacterial and fungal enzymes.
The above three processes occur simultaneously.
• Humification: Accumulation of humus (dark amorphous substance) in soil. Humus is resistant to
microbial action and so decomposes very slowly. Being colloidal, it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
• Mineralization: It is the release of inorganic nutrients due to the degradation of humus by some microbes.
Factors influencing decomposition
1. Chemical composition of detritus:
• Decomposition is slow in detritus rich in lignin & chitin.
• It is quicker in detritus rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars.
2. Climatic factors (temperature & soil moisture):
• Warm and moist environment favour decomposition.
• Low temperature & anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in buildup of organic materials.
3. ENERGY FLOW
Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems (except deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem).
Of the incident solar radiation, less than 50% is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
Plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs), fix solar radiant energy to make food.
Plants capture only 2-10% of the PAR. This energy sustains the entire living world.
Ecosystems obey 2nd Law of thermodynamics. They need a constant supply of energy to synthesize the molecules.
It helps to counteract the entropy.
Producers (Autotrophs):
These are organisms that synthesize food.
In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody plants. Primary producers in an aquatic
ecosystem are phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.
The energy trapped by the producer is passed on to a consumer or the organism dies.
Consumers (heterotrophs):
These are animals that directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They include:
• Primary consumers (herbivores): Feed on plants. E.g. insects, birds, mammals, molluscs etc.
• Secondary consumers (primary carnivores): Feed on herbivores. E.g. frog, fox, man etc.
• Tertiary consumers (secondary carnivores): Feed on primary carnivores. E.g. tiger, lion etc.
The chain of feeding relationship between different organisms is called a food chain. It is 2 types:
• Grazing Food Chain (GFC): Here, primary consumer feeds on living plants (producer). E.g.

• Detritus Food Chain (DFC): Here, primary consumer feeds on dead organic matter (detritus). Death of
organism is the beginning of the DFC.
Detritus is made up of decomposers (saprotrophs) such as fungi & bacteria. They secrete digestive enzymes that
breakdown detritus into simple, inorganic materials, which are absorbed by them. Thus, they get energy &
nutrients.
In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much amount of energy flows through the DFC than through the GFC.
DFC may be connected with GFC at some levels. Some organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals. Some
animals (cockroaches, crows, human etc.) are omnivores. Such interconnections of food chains are called food
web.
A specific place of organisms in the food chain is known as their trophic level.

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Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 14: Ecosystem

The amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. When an organism dies it becomes dead biomass
(detritus). It is an energy source for decomposers.
Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level for their energy.
The amount of living material in a trophic level at a given time is called standing crop. It is measured as
the biomass (mass of living organisms) or the number in a unit area.
Biomass of a species is measured in terms of fresh or dry weight. Dry weight is more accurate because it is the
exact mass of body which remains constant.
Number of trophic levels in GFC is restricted as it follows 10% law (only 10% of energy is transferred to each
trophic level from the lower trophic level).

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
The representation of a food chain in the form of a pyramid is called ecological pyramid.
The base of a pyramid represents producers (first trophic level). The apex represents tertiary or top-level consumer.
Ecological pyramids are 3 types: Pyramid of number, Pyramid of biomass and Pyramid of energy.
a) Pyramid of number:
E.g. grassland ecosystem.

b) Pyramid of biomass:
It shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels.

c) Pyramid of energy:
Primary producers convert only 1% of the energy in the sunlight available to them into NPP.

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Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 14: Ecosystem

Any calculations of energy content, biomass, or numbers has to include all organisms at that trophic level.
A trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such. A species may occupy more than one trophic
level in the same ecosystem at the same time. E.g. A sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, peas.
It is a secondary consumer when it eats insects & worms.
In most ecosystems, all the pyramids are upright, i.e., producers are higher in number, biomass and energy than
the herbivores, and herbivores are higher in number, biomass and energy than the carnivores.
But in some cases, inverted pyramids for number and biomass are present.
Inverted pyramid of number: E.g. Insects feeding on a tree.
Inverted pyramid of biomass: E.g.
• Small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large standing crop of zooplankton.
• Pyramid of biomass in sea is inverted because the biomass of fishes far exceeds that of phytoplankton.

Pyramid of energy is always upright because some energy is always lost as heat at each trophic level. So energy at
a lower trophic level is always more than at a higher level.
Limitations of ecological pyramids
• It does not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
• It assumes a simple food chain that never exists in nature. It does not accommodate a food web.
• Saprophytes are not included.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

It is a gradual, slow and predictable change in the species composition of an area leading to a climax
community (community that is in equilibrium with the environment).
In this, some species colonize an area and increase in number, whereas other species decline and disappear.
The entire sequences of communities that successively change in an area are called sere. Individual transitional
communities are termed seral stages (seral communities).
The species invading a bare area are called pioneer species.
During succession, there is a change in species diversity, increase in number of species and organisms and an
increase in total biomass.
Present-day communities are due to succession of millions of years. Succession and evolution were parallel
processes.
Succession is 2 types:
• Primary: The succession taking place in areas where no living organisms ever existed. E.g. newly cooled
lava, bare rock, newly created pond or reservoir.
To establish a biotic community, fertile soil must be formed. So primary succession is a very slow process.
• Secondary: The succession taking place in an area after the existed organisms are lost. E.g. abandoned
farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that are flooded.

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Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 14: Ecosystem

Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession.
The species that invade depend on the nature of the soil, availability of water etc.
In succession, changes in vegetation affect food & shelter of animals. Thus, succession leads to change in number
and types of animals & decomposers.
Natural or human induced disturbances (deforestation, fire etc.) convert a particular seral stage to an earlier stage.
They create new conditions that encourage some species and discourage or eliminate other species.
Succession of Plants
Based on the nature of the habitat, succession of plants is 2 types: hydrarch and xerarch.
• Hydrarch succession: It takes place in wetter areas. It progresses from hydric to mesic conditions.
• Xerarch succession: It takes place in dry areas. It progresses from xeric to mesic conditions.
Hence, both hydrarch & xerarch successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic, the climax community).
Primary succession on rocks (xerophytic habitat):
Lichens (pioneer species. They secrete acids to dissolve rock, helping in weathering & soil formation) → small
plants like bryophytes (they need only small amount of soil) → bigger plants → forest (mesophytic).
The climax community (forest) remains stable if the environment remains unchanged.
Primary succession in water:
Phytoplankton (pioneers) → rooted-submerged plants → rooted-floating angiosperms → free-floating plants →
reed-swamp → marsh-meadow → scrub → trees (climax community is a forest).
With time, the water body is converted into land.

4. NUTRIENT CYCLING

Amount of nutrients (C, N, P, Ca etc.) present in the soil in a given time is called the standing state. It varies in
different kinds of ecosystems and also on a seasonal basis.
Nutrients are never lost from the ecosystems. They are recycled again and again.
The movement of nutrient elements through various components of an ecosystem is called nutrient cycling
(biogeochemical cycles).
Nutrient cycles are 2 types:
1. Gaseous cycle: For this, the reservoir exists in the atmosphere. E.g. Nitrogen & Carbon cycles.
2. Sedimentary cycle: For this, the reservoir is located in Earth’s crust. E.g. Sulphur & Phosphorus cycles.
Environmental factors (soil, moisture, pH, temperature, etc.) regulate the rate of release of nutrients into the
atmosphere. The reservoir meets with the deficit of nutrients due to imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux.
Carbon Cycle

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Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 14: Ecosystem

Reservoir of carbon: Atmosphere (about 1%), organisms (49% of dry weight), oceans (71% dissolved carbon. It
regulates the amount of atmospheric CO2), fossil fuel etc.
Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead organisms.
4×10^13 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere through photosynthesis annually.
A major amount of carbon returns to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiration.
Processing of wastes & dead organic matter by decomposers also release CO2.
Some amount of the fixed carbon is lost to sediments and removed from circulation.
Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion of organic matter, fossil fuel and volcanic activity are other sources
for releasing CO2 in the atmosphere.
Role of human activities in carbon cycle: Deforestation, burning of fossil fuel etc. has increased the rate of
release of CO2 into the atmosphere.

Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is a constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids & cellular energy transfer systems. Many
animals use phosphorus to make shells, bones and teeth.
The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock (in the form of phosphates).
When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by the plants.
Herbivores and other animals obtain this from plants. The waste products and the dead organisms are decomposed
by phosphate-solubilising bacteria releasing phosphorus.

Differences between carbon & phosphorous cycles

Carbon cycle Phosphorous cycle
Atmospheric input is
Much smaller
higher
There is gaseous exchange
Gaseous exchange is
between organism &
negligible
environment

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

The products of ecosystem processes are called ecosystem services.

E.g. forest ecosystems purify air and water, mitigate droughts and floods, cycle nutrients, generate fertile soils,
provide wildlife habitat, maintain biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide storage site for carbon and provide
aesthetic, cultural & spiritual values.
Robert Costanza and his colleagues have tried to put price tags on nature’s life-support services.
Researchers have put an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion a year on fundamental ecosystems services. This is
nearly twice the value of the global gross national product GNP (US $ 18 trillion).
Out of this total cost, soil formation accounts for about 50%.
Contributions of other services like recreation & nutrient cycling are less than 10% each.
The cost of climate regulation and habitat for wildlife are about 6 % each.
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Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 14: Ecosystem

NCERT SOLUTIONS
Question 1: Fill in the blanks.
(a) Plants are called as_________ because they fix carbon dioxide.
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid (of numbers) is _________ type.
(c) In aquatic ecosystems, the limiting factor for the productivity is _________.
(d) Common detritivores in our ecosystem are_________.
(e) The major reservoir of carbon on earth is_________.
ANSWER:
(a) Plants are called as because they fix carbon dioxide.
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid (of numbers) is of type.
(c) In aquatic ecosystems, the limiting factor for productivity is .
(d) Common detritivores in our ecosystem are .
(e) A major reservoir of carbon on Earth is .
Question 2: Which one of the following has the largest population in a food chain?
(a) Producers
(b) Primary consumers
(c) Secondary consumers
(d) Decomposers
ANSWER: (d) Decomposers. Decomposers include micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi. They form the
largest population in a food chain and obtain nutrients by breaking down the remains of dead plants and animals.
Question 3: The second trophic level in a lake is-
(a) Phytoplankton
(b) Zooplankton
(c) Benthos
(d) Fishes
ANSWER: (b) Zooplankton. Zooplankton are primary consumers in aquatic food chains that feed upon
phytoplankton. Therefore, they are present at the second trophic level in a lake.
Question 4: Secondary producers are
(a) Herbivores
(b) Producers
(c) Carnivores
(d) None of the above
ANSWER: (d) None of the above. Plants are the only producers. Thus, they are called primary producers. There
are no other producers in a food chain.
Question 5: What is the percentage of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), in the incident solar
radiation.
(a) 100%
(b) 50 %
(c) 1-5%
(d) 2-10%
ANSWER: (b) 50%. Out of total incident solar radiation, about fifty percent of it forms photosynthetically active
radiation or PAR.
Question 6: Distinguish between
(a)Grazing food chain and detritus food chain
(b)Production and decomposition
(c)’Upright and inverted pyramid
(d)Food chain and food web
(e)Litter and detritus
(f)Primary and secondary productivity
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Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 14: Ecosystem

ANSWER: (a) Grazing Food Chain (GFC) begins with primary producers or plants and ends in carnivores (tertiary
or top carnivores) whereas Detritus Food Chain (DFC) begins with detritus or dead organic matter and it ends in
carnivores. In GFC, energy for the food chain comes from sun whereas in DFC, energy for the food chain comes
from organic remains or detritus.
(b)Production is the phenomenon in which the energy is produced by the process of synthesis of organic compound
from inorganic substances (such as C02, H20 & minerals) utilizing generally the sunlight. It traps energy.
Decomposition refers to the breakdown of complex organic matter into simpler ones. It releases energy.
(c)In upright pyramid (e.g., grassland & cropland ecosystem), biomass or number of organisms or
amount of energy decreases on moving to upper trophic levels while in an inverted pyramid (eg. tree ecosystem)
these quantities tend to increase on going to successive trophic levels.
(d)A food chain is a sequence of different types of organisms by which the flow of energy occurs from one trophic
level to another whereas food web is the network of various food chains inter-connected to each other. Food webs
increase adaptability and competitiveness of the organisms.
(e)Litter is the dead organic material fallen on the surface of the soil like leaves, remains of animals and excreta.
Detritus is the dead organic matter found below the soil surface which is eaten up by the detritivores or broken
down by decomposers.
(f)Primary productivity is the rate of synthesis of biomass or energy fixation by the plants. It is comparatively quite
high. Secondary productivity is the rate of synthesis of biomass by consumers (herbivores and carnivores). It is
small and decreases with rise of trophic level.
Question 7: Describe the components of an ecosystem.
ANSWER: An ecosystem is defined as an interacting unit that includes both the biological community as well as
the non-living components of an area. The living and the non-living components of an ecosystem interact amongst
themselves and function as a unit, which gets evident during the processes of nutrient cycling, energy flow,
decomposition, and productivity. There are many ecosystems such as ponds, forests, grasslands, etc.
The two components of an ecosystem are:
(a) Biotic component: It is the living component of an ecosystem that includes biotic factors such as producers,
consumers, decomposers, etc. Producers include plants and algae. They contain chlorophyll pigment, which helps
them carry out the process of photosynthesis in the presence of light. Thus, they are also called converters or
transducers. Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that are directly (primary consumers) or indirectly
(secondary and tertiary consumers) dependent on producers for their food.
Decomposers include micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi. They form the largest population in a food chain
and obtain nutrients by breaking down the remains of dead plants and animals.
(b) Abiotic component: They are the non-living component of an ecosystem such as light, temperature, water, soil,
air, inorganic nutrients, etc.
Question 8: Define ecological pyramids and describe with examples, pyramids of number and biomass.
ANSWER: An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of various ecological parameters such as the
number of individuals present at each trophic level, the amount of energy, or the biomass present at each trophic
level. Ecological pyramids represent producers at the base, while the apex represents the top level consumers
present in the ecosystem. There are three types of pyramids:
(a) Pyramid of numbers
(b) Pyramid of energy
(c) Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of numbers:
It is a graphical representation of the number of individuals present at each trophic level in a food chain of an
ecosystem. The pyramid of numbers can be upright or inverted depending on the number of producers. For
example, in a grassland ecosystem, the pyramid of numbers is upright. In this type of a food chain, the number of
producers (plants) is followed by the number of herbivores (mice), which in turn is followed by the number of
secondary consumers (snakes) and tertiary carnivores (eagles). Hence, the number of individuals at the producer
level will be the maximum, while the number of individuals present at top carnivores will be least.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 14: Ecosystem

On the other hand, in a parasitic food chain, the pyramid of numbers is inverted. In this type of a food chain, a
single tree (producer) provides food to several fruit eating birds, which in turn support several insect species.
Pyramid of biomass:
A pyramid of biomass is a graphical representation of the total amount of living matter present at each trophic level
of an ecosystem. It can be upright or inverted. It is upright in grasslands and forest ecosystems as the amount of
biomass present at the producer level is higher than at the top carnivore level. The pyramid of biomass is inverted
in a pond ecosystem as the biomass of fishes far exceeds the biomass of zooplankton (upon which they feed).

Question 9: What is primary productivity? Give brief description of factors that affect primary
productivity.
ANSWER: It is defined as the amount of organic matter or biomass produced by producers per unit area over a
period of time.
Primary productivity of an ecosystem depends on the variety of environmental factors such as light, temperature,
water, precipitation, etc. It also depends on the availability of nutrients and the availability of plants to carry out
photosynthesis.

Question 10: Define decomposition and describe the processes and products of decomposition.
ANSWER: Decomposition is the process that involves the breakdown of complex organic matter or biomass from
the body of dead plants and animals with the help of decomposers into inorganic raw materials such as carbon
dioxide, water, and other nutrients. The various processes involved in decomposition are as follows:
(1) Fragmentation: It is the first step in the process of decomposition. It involves the breakdown of detritus into
smaller pieces by the action of detritivores such as earthworms.
(2) Leaching: It is a process where the water soluble nutrients go down into the soil layers and get locked as
unavailable salts.
(3) Catabolism: It is a process in which bacteria and fungi degrade detritus through various enzymes into smaller
pieces.
(4) Humification: The next step is humification which leads to the formation of a dark-coloured colloidal substance
called humus, which acts as reservoir of nutrients for plants.
(5) Mineralization: The humus is further degraded by the action of microbes, which finally leads to the release of
inorganic nutrients into the soil. This process of releasing inorganic nutrients from the humus is known as
mineralization.
Decomposition produces a dark coloured, nutrient-rich substance called humus. Humus finally degrades and
releases inorganic raw materials such as CO2, water, and other nutrient in the soil.

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Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 14: Ecosystem

Question 11: Give an account of energy flow in an ecosystem.

ANSWER: Energy enters an ecosystem from the Sun. Solar radiations pass through the atmosphere and are
absorbed by the Earth’s surface. These radiations help plants in carrying out the process of photosynthesis. Also,
they help maintain the Earth’s temperature for the survival of living organisms. Some solar radiations are reflected
by the Earth’s surface. Only 2-10 percent of solar energy is captured by green plants (producers) during
photosynthesis to be converted into food. The rate at which the biomass is produced by plants during
photosynthesis is termed as ‘gross primary productivity’. When these green plants are consumed by herbivores,
only 10% of the stored energy from producers is transferred to herbivores. The remaining 90 % of this energy is
used by plants for various processes such as respiration, growth, and reproduction. Similarly, only 10% of the
energy of herbivores is transferred to carnivores. This is known as ten percent law of energy flow.

Question 12: Write important features of a sedimentary cycle in an ecosystem.

ANSWER: Sedimentary cycles have their reservoirs in the Earth’s crust or rocks. Nutrient elements are found in
the sediments of the Earth. Elements such as sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium have sedimentary cycles.
Sedimentary cycles are very slow. They take a long time to complete their circulation and are considered as less
perfect cycles. This is because during recycling, nutrient elements may get locked in the reservoir pool, thereby
taking a very long time to come out and continue circulation. Thus, it usually goes out of circulation for a long
time.
Question 13: Outline salient features of carbon cycling in an ecosystem.
ANSWER: The carbon cycle is an important gaseous cycle which has its reservoir pool in the atmosphere. All
living organisms contain carbon as a major body constituent. Carbon is a fundamental element found in all living
forms. All biomolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins required for life processes are made of carbon.
Carbon is incorporated into living forms through a fundamental process called ‘photosynthesis’. Photosynthesis
uses sunlight and atmospheric carbon dioxide to produce a carbon compound called ‘glucose’. This glucose
molecule is utilized by other living organisms. Thus, atmospheric carbon is incorporated in living forms. Now, it
is necessary to recycle this absorbed carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere to complete the cycle. There are
various processes by which carbon is recycled back into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide gas. The
process of respiration breaks down glucose molecules to produce carbon dioxide gas. The process of decomposition
also releases carbon dioxide from dead bodies of plants and animals into the atmosphere. Combustion of fuels,
industrialization, deforestation, volcanic eruptions, and forest fires act as other major sources of carbon dioxide.

__________________________

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone