BIOCHEMISTRY2

How sucrose und starch biosynthesis is regulated in plants?

Sucrose and starch biosynthesis in plants are regulated through a

combination of transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational mechanisms. The
activity of enzymes involved in these processes is regulated by factors such as light, circadian
rhythm, nutrient availability, hormone signaling, and gene expression. For sucrose biosynthesis,
key enzymes such as sucrose phosphate synthase and sucrose synthase are regulated by
reversible phosphorylation, allosteric regulation, and expression levels. Starch biosynthesis is
regulated by the activity of enzymes like ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, starch synthase, and
starch branching enzyme, which are influenced by hormones, sucrose levels, and other
metabolic signals.

Question b:Terpenes are defensive tools of plants, Explain?

Terpenes are organic compounds synthesized by plants and serve as defensive tools against
herbivores, pathogens, and environmental stressors. They are produced in response to various
stimuli, including damage to the plant, herbivore feeding, and changes in light or temperature.
Terpenes can act as antifeedants, repellents, or toxins to deter herbivores. Additionally, some
terpenes possess antimicrobial, antifungal, or antiviral properties, providing protection against
pathogens. Terpenes may also play a role in communication between plants and other
organisms, such as attracting beneficial insects for pollination or repelling pests.

Vitamin A and D play important roles in metabolism:

1. Vitamin A, in the form of retinol, is essential for vision, growth, immune function, and cell
differentiation. It acts as a cofactor for several enzymes involved in metabolism, including those
responsible for the synthesis of glycoproteins and glycolipids. Vitamin A is also involved in gene
regulation, particularly in the differentiation and maturation of cells.

2. Vitamin D, primarily obtained through sunlight exposure, is critical for calcium and
phosphorus absorption, bone health, and immune function. It acts as a hormone and regulates
the expression of genes involved in calcium metabolism, cell growth, and differentiation.
Vitamin D is also important for maintaining adequate levels of blood calcium and bone
mineralization.

Define Bioenergetics. Explain first and second law of thermodynamics.

Bioenergetics is the study of energy flow and transformation in living organisms. It
encompasses the processes of energy capture, conversion, and utilization within cells. The first
law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that energy
cannot be created or destroyed but can only be converted from one form to another. In the
context of bioenergetics, this means that the total amount of energy within a biological system
remains constant, and any energy gained or lost must be accounted for.

The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy, or disorder, of a system tends to
increase over time. In bioenergetics, this law explains why energy transformations are not 100%
efficient and why energy is often lost as heat during metabolic processes. Organisms must
continually acquire and convert energy to maintain their cellular structures and perform
necessary activities.

Write note on breakdown of fats/fatty acids in plant cell.

In plant cells, the breakdown of fats, also known as lipolysis, occurs in specialized organelles
called peroxisomes. Fatty acids are released from stored lipids through enzymatic hydrolysis
and are subsequently transported into peroxisomes. Within peroxisomes, fatty acids undergo
beta-oxidation, a series of reactions that sequentially remove two-carbon units from the fatty
acid chain. This produces acetyl-CoA, which can enter the citric acid cycle for energy production.
The breakdown of fats is essential for energy metabolism, especially during prolonged periods
of nutrient deprivation or high energy demands.

Write the biosynthesis and defensive role of Phenolic compounds in

plants.
Phenolic compounds are a diverse group of secondary metabolites synthesized by plants. They
play important roles in plant defense against pathogens, herbivores, and abiotic stressors.
Phenolic compounds can have antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral properties, inhibiting the
growth and reproduction of pathogens. They can also act as antioxidants, scavenging reactive
oxygen species and protecting plant cells from oxidative damage. Additionally, phenolic
compounds may regulate plant growth and development, including seed germination, root
elongation, and flower pigmentation.

Q. 4: Define Oxidation and reduction, Explain these with an example in living tissues.

Oxidation and reduction are chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons. Oxidation
refers to the loss of electrons, while reduction refers to the gain of electrons.

An example of oxidation and reduction in living tissues is cellular respiration. In this process,
glucose is oxidized to produce ATP, the main energy currency of cells. Glucose undergoes a
series of reactions in which it is gradually broken down, releasing electrons. These electrons are
transferred to electron carriers, such as NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), which
becomes reduced to NADH. The electrons are then passed along the electron transport chain,
generating ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. At the end of the chain, electrons are
accepted by oxygen, which becomes reduced to water.

Write the Pathway for the synthesis of sucrose in plant cell?

The synthesis of sucrose in plant cells occurs through a pathway known as the
Calvin cycle or the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. The key steps involved in this
pathway are as follows:

1. Carboxylation: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is combined with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), a

5-carbon molecule, in the presence of the enzyme RuBisCO (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase). This reaction yields two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), a 3
-carbon molecule.

2. Reduction: ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

phosphate) generated during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis provide the
energy and reducing power, respectively, for the conversion of 3-PGA into glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (G3P). This step requires the enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.

3. Regeneration: Some of the G3P molecules are converted back into RuBP through a series of
reactions, including phosphorylation and rearrangements. These reactions require ATP and are
catalyzed by various enzymes, including phosphoglycerate kinase.

4. Sucrose synthesis: G3P can be converted into fructose-6-phosphate, and by combining

fructose-6-phosphate with UDP-glucose, the enzyme sucrose phosphate synthase catalyzes the
formation of sucrose-6-phosphate. Sucrose-6-phosphate is then dephosphorylated to form
sucrose, which can be transported and stored in different parts of the plant.

b) Explain biosynthesis, classification and role of nitrogen containing

secondary metabolites?

Nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites are a diverse group of compounds

synthesized by plants. They play critical roles in plant growth, development, and defense against
pathogens and herbivores. Some common examples of nitrogen-containing secondary
metabolites include alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates, and phenylpropanoids.

The biosynthesis of nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites typically involves the

incorporation of nitrogen from amino acids or other nitrogen sources into specialized pathways.
These pathways are often regulated by enzyme-catalyzed reactions and the expression of
specific genes.

Classification of nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites is based on their chemical structure

and can include alkaloids (e.g., caffeine, nicotine), cyanogenic glycosides (e.g., amygdalin),
glucosinolates (e.g., sulforaphane), and phenylpropanoids (e.g., flavonoids). Each class of
metabolites has unique properties and functions within the plant.

The roles of nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites in plants are diverse. They can act as
defense compounds, deterring herbivores and pathogens through their toxic or repellent
properties. Some nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites also play a role in plant signaling
and communication, such as attracting pollinators or signaling to neighboring plants about
herbivore attacks. Additionally, certain nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites have
medicinal properties and are used by humans for various purposes, such as in traditional
medicine or as pharmaceutical agents.

QNO.2 Define Bioenergetics. Explain first and second laws of thermodynamics

Bioenergetics is the study of how living organisms convert and utilize energy. It encompasses
the processes of energy capture, conversion, and consumption within biological systems.

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system. In biological systems, this means
that the total amount of energy remains constant, but it can be converted from one form to
another.

The second law of thermodynamics states that in any energy conversion process, the total
entropy (disorder) of a closed system always increases. This means that energy
transformations are not 100% efficient and some energy is lost as waste heat.

How sucrose and starch synthesis is regulated in plants?

QNO.03: The synthesis of sucrose and starch in plants is regulated through a complex network
of enzymes and regulatory molecules. Sucrose synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm of plants cells,
primarily in the leaves. It involves the conversion of glucose and fructose into sucrose through
the action of enzymes such as sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS).

Starch synthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of plant cells, mainly in the leaves and storage
organs. It is regulated by enzymes involved in the conversion of glucose-1-phosphate to starch,
such as ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) and starch synthase.

The regulation of sucrose and starch synthesis is influenced by various factors including light,
temperature, hormones, and metabolites. Photosynthesis, which is the primary source of
glucose for sucrose and starch synthesis, is also a major regulator of these processes.

QNO.04: Terpenes are defensive tools of plants, Explain?

Terpenes are a diverse group of compounds synthesized by plants. They serve as defensive
tools to protect plants against herbivores, pathogens, and abiotic stresses. Terpenes can act as
repellents, toxic deterrents, or attractants for beneficial organisms.

Plants produce terpenes in specialized structures such as resin canals, glandular trichomes,
and oil glands. These compounds can have different modes of action, including disrupting the
feeding or reproduction of herbivores, inhibiting microbial growth, or attracting predators or
parasites of herbivores.

The specific types and quantities of terpenes produced by plants can vary depending on various
factors such as plant species, environmental conditions, and interactions with other organisms.
Some examples of terpenes include menthol, limonene, and carotenoids.

QNO.05: 5. Write the biosynthesis and role of Phenolic compounds in plants.

Phenolic compounds are a diverse group of secondary metabolites synthesized by plants. They
have various roles in plant physiology, including defense against pathogens, UV protection, and
regulation of plant development.

The biosynthesis of phenolic compounds involves a series of enzymatic reactions, starting from
primary metabolites such as phenylalanine or tyrosine. These reactions are catalyzed by
enzymes such as phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), which converts phenylalanine into
cinnamic acid.

The different classes of phenolic compounds include flavonoids, lignans, and tannins. These
compounds can have antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties, and are also
involved in plant signaling and communication with other organisms.

QNO.06:. Write note on breakdown of fats in plant cell

In plant cells, the breakdown of fats, or lipids, primarily occurs through the process of β-
oxidation. This process takes place in the mitochondria and peroxisomes of plant cells.

During β-oxidation, fatty acids are broken down into acetyl-CoA molecules. This process
involves a series of steps, including the removal of two-carbon units from the fatty acid chain,
which are converted into acetyl-CoA through oxidation and hydration reactions.

Once converted into acetyl-CoA, it can enter the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle)
to generate energy through the oxidation of the acetyl groups.

The breakdown of fats is an important source of energy for plant cells, especially during periods
of nutrient deprivation or stress.

QNO.07: Define Vitamins. What is the role of Vitamins in plant metabolism.

Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts by organisms for various
metabolic processes. In plant metabolism, vitamins play essential roles as coenzymes or
cofactors for enzymes involved in various biochemical reactions.

Vitamins are involved in processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, and the synthesis of
various molecules in plants. They are required for the proper functioning of enzymes, which
catalyze these reactions.

Plants can synthesize some vitamins themselves, while others must be obtained from the
environment through nutrient uptake. Examples of vitamins in plants include vitamin C (ascorbic
acid), vitamin E (tocopherol), and various B vitamins such as thiamine (B1) and riboflavin (B2).

Deficiencies or imbalances in vitamin concentrations can have detrimental effects on plant

growth and development, leading to disorders such as leaf yellowing or reduced photosynthetic
activity.

QNO.08: Explain redox reactions in living system with example?

Redox reactions, also known as oxidation-reduction reactions, involve the transfer of electrons
between chemical species. These reactions play a crucial role in living systems, as they are
involved in energy production, cellular respiration, and many other metabolic processes.

In a redox reaction, one molecule or atom loses electrons (oxidation) while another molecule or
atom gains the electrons (reduction). The molecule that loses electrons is called the reducing
agent, while the molecule that gains electrons is called the oxidizing agent.

An example of a redox reaction in living systems is cellular respiration, where glucose is

oxidized to carbon dioxide, and oxygen is reduced to water. In this process, glucose acts as the
reducing agent, donating electrons, while oxygen acts as the oxidizing agent, accepting the
electrons.

Redox reactions are essential for the transfer and storage of energy in living systems and are
involved in maintaining redox balance and regulating cellular processes.

QNO.09: Write the Pathway for the synthesis of sucrose in plant cell?
The synthesis of sucrose in plant cells involves a series of enzymatic steps. Sucrose is
synthesized in the cytoplasm of plant cells, primarily in the leaves, and is then transported to
different parts of the plant for storage or utilization.

The pathway for the synthesis of sucrose starts with the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to
fructose-6-phosphate by the enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI). Fructose-6-phosphate is
then converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate by the enzyme phosphofructokinase (PFK).
Next, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved into two three-carbon molecules: dihydroxyacetone
phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP) by the enzyme fructose
bisphosphate aldolase. GAP is then converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate by several
enzymatic steps.

The final steps involve the synthesis of sucrose from fructose-6-phosphate and UDP-glucose,
catalyzed by the enzyme sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS).

Overall, the synthesis of sucrose in plant cells is a complex process that requires the
coordination of multiple enzymes and regulatory factors to ensure the production and transport
of sucrose to meet the metabolic needs of the plant.

QNO.2 Define Bioenergeties. Explain Energy laws with examples.

: Bioenergetics refers to the study of energy flow and transformation in living organisms. It
involves understanding how organisms acquire, store, and use energy for various biological
processes. Bioenergetics is crucial for understanding the metabolic pathways and physiological
functions of living organisms.

Energy laws are principles that govern the transfer and transformation of energy in various
systems. The two fundamental energy laws are:

1. The First Law of Thermodynamics, also known as the law of energy conservation, states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system. It can only be transformed from
one form to another or transferred from one system to another. For example, when a plant
undergoes photosynthesis, it converts light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose.

2. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the entropy (disorder) of a closed system
tends to increase over time. This law implies that energy conversions are not 100% efficient,
and some energy is always lost as heat. For example, during cellular respiration, the energy
stored in glucose is not fully converted to usable energy (ATP), and some is lost as heat.

QNO.03: QNO.03 Starch and Sucrose biosynthesis is competing reaction How?

Starch and sucrose biosynthesis are competing reactions in plants. Starch is a polymer of
glucose and is mainly synthesized in leaves for storage purposes. On the other hand, sucrose is
a disaccharide formed by the condensation of glucose and fructose. It is primarily synthesized
in photosynthetic tissues and serves as the main transport carbohydrate in plants.

During periods of high photosynthetic activity, when there is an excess of glucose, it is

converted into sucrose and transported to other parts of the plant for storage or utilization. This
process allows for efficient distribution of energy to different tissues. When photosynthetic
activity decreases, or there is a demand for energy, stored starch is broken down into glucose,
which can be further metabolized for energy production.
Overall, starch and sucrose biosynthesis are tightly regulated to ensure the proper allocation
and utilization of energy in plants.

QNO.04 Define Secondary metabolites? How these are important for

plants?
: Secondary metabolites are organic compounds produced by plants that are not directly
involved in growth, development, or reproduction. These compounds are typically synthesized in
specific plant tissues and are responsible for various ecological functions such as defense
against herbivores, attraction of pollinators, and interaction with other organisms.

Secondary metabolites can have a wide range of chemical structures, including alkaloids,
terpenoids, phenolics, and flavonoids. They play important roles in plant adaptation and defense
mechanisms. For example, alkaloids such as nicotine and caffeine act as chemical deterrents
against herbivores. Terpenoids, such as essential oils, can protect plants from pathogens and
predators.

Secondary metabolites also have significant economic importance as they are used in the
production of medicines, pesticides, food additives, and other industrial products.

QNO.05 Write note on biosynthesis of fatty acids and glycerolipids in plant cell.

The biosynthesis of fatty acids and glycerolipids in plant cells occurs through a series of
enzymatic reactions in the plastids (specifically, the chloroplasts and the endoplasmic
reticulum).

1. Fatty Acid Biosynthesis: It takes place in the plastids, primarily in the chloroplasts, and
involves several enzymatic steps. Acetyl-CoA, derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates or
fatty acids, is converted into malonyl-CoA through the action of acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Malonyl
-CoA is then further processed by fatty acid synthase (FAS) enzyme complex to produce the
fatty acid chains. The fatty acids are initially attached to an acyl-carrier protein (ACP) and
undergo elongation and desaturation reactions to form various types of fatty acids.

2. Glycerolipid Biosynthesis: Glycerolipids include triglycerides (storage lipids) and

phospholipids (structural lipids). In the endoplasmic reticulum, fatty acids are esterified to the
glycerol backbone to form monoacylglycerols. Then, monoacylglycerols are further esterified
with other fatty acids to produce diacylglycerols (DAGs). Finally, the addition of another fatty
acid to DAGs results in the formation of triglycerides.

Overall, the biosynthesis of fatty acids and glycerolipids is essential for energy storage, cell
membrane formation, and various metabolic processes in plant cells.

QNO.06 Write structure and functions of Phenolic polymers in plants.

Phenolic polymers are complex organic compounds found in plants. They are composed of
phenolic compounds, which are characterized by the presence of one or more phenol rings. The
structure and functions of phenolic polymers vary depending on the specific compounds
involved.

Structure: Phenolic polymers have a diverse range of structures, including lignins, tannins, and
flavonoids. Lignins, for instance, are composed of phenylpropanoid units joined together
through complex interactions such as β-O-4, β-5, and β-β linkages. Flavonoids contain two
aromatic rings connected by a three-carbon bridge.

Functions: Phenolic polymers fulfill various functions in plants, including:

1. Structural support: Lignins provide strength and rigidity to plant tissues, particularly in woody
tissues. They help in the formation of cell walls and contribute to the overall stability of the plant.

2. Defense against pathogens and herbivores: Phenolic polymers, such as tannins, can act as a
defense mechanism against herbivores and pathogens. They can inhibit the feeding of
herbivores and interfere with the growth and development of pathogens.

3. UV protection: Some phenolic polymers, such as flavonoids, have UV-absorbing properties.

They protect plant tissues from harmful UV radiation.

4. Pigmentation: Phenolic polymers are responsible for the pigmentation of flowers, fruits, and
leaves. They contribute to the attractiveness of plants to pollinators and seed dispersers.

QNO.07 Differentiate between Vitamin and hormones. What are the

deficiency symptoms for C&D.
Vitamins and hormones are two distinct types of organic compounds with different functions
and roles in living organisms.

Vitamins:

- Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for the normal physiological
functioning of an organism.

- They are essential nutrients that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained
from the diet.

- Vitamins play important roles as coenzymes or cofactors in various metabolic reactions and
biochemical processes.

- Deficiency symptoms for vitamins vary depending on the specific vitamin. For example,
vitamin C deficiency can lead to scurvy, characterized by bleeding gums and impaired wound
healing. Vitamin D deficiency can cause rickets in children, leading to bone deformities.

Hormones:
- Hormones are chemical messengers produced by specific glands or tissues in the body.

- They regulate and coordinate various physiological processes, including growth, development,
metabolism, reproduction, and response to environmental stimuli.

- Hormones are transported through the bloodstream to their target tissues or organs, where
they elicit specific biological responses.

- Deficiency symptoms for hormones can vary widely, depending on the specific hormone. For
example, deficiency of thyroid hormones can cause hypothyroidism, characterized by fatigue,
weight gain, and impaired cognitive function.

In summary, vitamins are essential nutrients that are not produced by the body and are required
in small amounts for normal physiological functioning, while hormones are chemical
messengers that regulate various physiological processes.

QNO.08 Write the Pathway for the degradation of starch in plant cell?
The degradation of starch in plant cells occurs through a series of enzymatic reactions.

1. Starch hydrolysis: Starch is first hydrolyzed by the enzyme α-amylase, which breaks down the
starch molecules into smaller fragments, such as oligosaccharides and maltose.

2. Conversion of oligosaccharides: The oligosaccharides produced from starch hydrolysis are

further hydrolyzed by the enzyme β-amylase, which progressively removes glucose units from
the non-reducing ends of the oligosaccharide chains. This process continues until maltose is
formed.

3. Maltose hydrolysis: Maltose is then hydrolyzed by the enzyme α-glucosidase (also known as
maltase) into two molecules of glucose.

4. Glucose metabolism: The resulting glucose molecules can be metabolized through various
pathways to provide energy for the plant. They can enter glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or be
stored as glycogen or converted to other carbohydrates for energy storage or biosynthesis.

Overall, the degradation of starch provides a source of glucose for energy production and other
metabolic processes in plant cells.

QNO.09 Define High energy Compounds? Explain structure and function of ATP.

High-energy compounds are molecules that store and release considerable amounts of energy.
One of the most important high-energy compounds in living organisms is adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).

ATP Structure:
- ATP is composed of an adenine base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.

- The three phosphate groups are connected by high-energy bonds known as phosphoanhydride
bonds.

- The bond between the second and third phosphate groups (γ-phosphate) is particularly high in
energy.

ATP Function:

- ATP serves as the primary energy currency of cells, providing energy for various cellular
processes.

- The energy stored in ATP is released when the terminal phosphate group is enzymatically
removed, resulting in the formation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate
(Pi). This process is called hydrolysis.

- The energy released during ATP hydrolysis is utilized by cells to perform work, such as muscle
contraction, active transport, synthesis of macromolecules, and other cellular processes.

- ATP can be regenerated through processes like cellular respiration or photosynthesis, where
energy from food molecules or light is used to reattach a phosphate group to ADP, restoring it
to ATP.

In summary, ATP is a high-energy compound that plays a central role in cellular energy
metabolism, acting as a universal energy carrier and providing energy for various biological
processes.

QNO.02 How sucrose and starch synthesis is regulated in plant

cells?

QNO,03 What is the role of Terpenes in plant defense?

(a) Draw the scheme for breakdown of starch in plants?

(a) Scheme for breakdown of starch in plants:

Starch --(Amylase enzyme)--> Maltose --(Maltase enzyme)--> Glucose
(b) What is the role of mitochondrial cytochromes in biological system?

The role of mitochondrial cytochromes in biological systems is to facilitate oxidative

phosphorylation, which is the process of generating ATP (adenosine triphosphate) in the
mitochondria. Cytochromes are proteins that are part of the electron transport chain in the inner
mitochondrial membrane. They transfer electrons from one molecule to another, ultimately
leading to the production of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.

c) Define Alleopathy?
(c) Alleopathy is a biological phenomenon in which one plant species produces biochemical
compounds called allelochemicals that inhibit the growth or development of other nearby plants.
These allelochemicals can be released into the environment through root exudates, leaf
leachates, or volatilization, and they can have various effects on neighboring plants, such as
inhibiting seed germination, root growth, or nutrient uptake.

(d) Cycle of fatty acid synthesis in plastids of plant cells:

1. Acetyl-CoA is converted into malonyl-CoA by the enzyme acetyl-CoA carboxylase.

2. Malonyl-CoA combines with acetyl-CoA to form a four-carbon intermediate called 3-ketoacyl-

ACP (acyl carrier protein), catalyzed by the enzyme β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase.

3. The four-carbon intermediate undergoes a series of reactions involving reduction, dehydration,

and reduction again to elongate the carbon chain.

4. This process is repeated multiple times until the desired length of the fatty acid chain is
synthesized.

5. The final step involves the release of the fatty acid from the acyl carrier protein by the enzyme
thioesterase.

(e) Cardenolides have dramatic effects human heart muscles why?

(e) Cardenolides have dramatic effects on human heart muscles because they act as potent
inhibitors of the sodium-potassium ATPase pump, also known as the Na+/K+-ATPase pump.
This pump is responsible for maintaining the balance of sodium and potassium ions across the
cell membrane, which is crucial for normal cardiac function. Inhibition of this pump by
cardenolides leads to an increase in intracellular sodium levels and a decrease in potassium
levels, disrupting the normal electrical signaling and contractility of the heart muscle. This can
result in various cardiac effects, including increased contractile force, altered heart rate, and
potentially cardiac arrhythmias or even cardiac arrest.

(a) Mention the name of enzymes and complexes involved in respiratory chain
(a) The enzymes and complexes involved in the respiratory chain are:

1. Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase or NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase)

2. Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase or succinate: ubiquinone oxidoreductase)

3. Complex III (Cytochrome c reductase or ubiquinol: cytochrome c oxidoreductase)

4. Complex IV (Cytochrome c oxidase or cytochrome c: oxygen oxidoreductase)

5. ATP synthase (F0F1 ATP synthase)

(b) The synthesis of starch and sucrose are competing reactions. Justify it.

(b) The synthesis of starch and sucrose are competing reactions because both processes
involve the conversion of glucose molecules. Starch is synthesized in the chloroplasts of plant
cells and used for energy storage. Sucrose is synthesized in the cytoplasm and transported to
other parts of the plant for energy distribution. When the plant has excess glucose, it will
synthesize starch for storage. However, when there is a high demand for energy in other parts
of the plant, the stored starch will be converted to sucrose and transported to meet the energy
needs of those areas. Thus, starch synthesis and sucrose synthesis compete for the available
glucose molecules.

(c) Write the role of Vitamin B in energy producing metabolism?

(c) Vitamin B (which consists of several different B vitamins) plays a crucial role in energy-
producing metabolism. Some of the specific roles are:

1. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): It is essential for the conversion of glucose into energy by facilitating
the metabolism of carbohydrates. It is a coenzyme for several enzymes involved in the Krebs
cycle.

2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): It is a component of coenzymes that play a role in the metabolism of

carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. It is involved in the electron transport chain of cellular
respiration.

3. Vitamin B3 (Niacin): It is important for the metabolism of glucose, fatty acids, and amino
acids. It is a component of coenzymes involved in electron transfer reactions in the respiratory
chain.

4. Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid): It is a component of coenzyme A, which is involved in various

energy-producing metabolic reactions, including the Krebs cycle and fatty acid synthesis.

5. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): It is involved in the metabolism of amino acids and the synthesis of
glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.

Overall, Vitamin B helps in the efficient conversion of food into energy and facilitates various
metabolic reactions that produce ATP.

(d) How creatine phosphate is helpful during muscle contraction?

(d) Creatine phosphate is helpful during muscle contraction because it serves as a rapid and
readily available source of high-energy phosphate groups. During muscle contraction, ATP is
rapidly consumed and converted into ADP (adenosine diphosphate). Creatine phosphate can
quickly donate its phosphate group to ADP, regenerating ATP. This ATP can then be used for
further muscle contractions. The regeneration of ATP from ADP by creatine phosphate helps
provide immediate energy for short bursts of intense muscle activity.

(e) Draw the cycle of fatty acid biosynthesis in plastids?

(e) The cycle of fatty acid biosynthesis in plastids is a complex process involving multiple
enzymes and reactions. The basic steps of the cycle are as follows:

1. Acetyl-CoA, produced in the mitochondria, is transported into the plastids.

2. Acetyl-CoA is converted into malonyl-CoA by the enzyme acetyl-CoA carboxylase.

3. Malonyl-CoA is then activated and joined with acetyl-CoA by the enzyme fatty acid synthase.

4. The resulting molecule is a 4-carbon fatty acid.

5. This 4-carbon fatty acid undergoes a series of reactions, including reduction, dehydration, and
reduction again, to elongate the fatty acid chain.

6. The cycle repeats, with the growing fatty acid chain being attached to acetyl-CoA and
elongated in a stepwise manner.

7. Once the desired length of the fatty acid chain is achieved, it can be further modified and
incorporated into various cellular structures, such as membranes or stored as triglycerides.

Note: The specific enzymes and steps involved in fatty acid biosynthesis may vary depending on
the organism.

QNO.02: Biosynthesis of GGPP

GGPP, or geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, is a key intermediate molecule in the biosynthesis of
various isoprenoids, which are essential compounds involved in a wide range of biological
processes. GGPP is mainly synthesized through the mevalonate pathway, a metabolic pathway
that takes place in the cytoplasm of cells.

The biosynthesis of GGPP starts with the condensation of acetyl-CoA, a small molecule derived
from glucose metabolism, into a four-carbon compound called mevalonate. This reaction is
catalyzed by the enzyme acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase. Mevalonate then undergoes a series of
enzymatic reactions, including phosphorylation, decarboxylation, and reduction, to form
isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP).

Isopentenyl pyrophosphate, along with its isomer dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), is then
converted into geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) through the action of the enzyme geranyl
pyrophosphate synthase. Finally, another molecule of isopentenyl pyrophosphate is added to
GPP by the enzyme geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase, leading to the formation of GGPP.

GGPP serves as a precursor molecule for the biosynthesis of various isoprenoids, including
carotenoids, chlorophylls, prenyl side chains of proteins, and plant hormones such as abscisic
acid and gibberellins. These molecules play important roles in photosynthesis, pigment
synthesis, signaling pathways, and hormone regulation in plants and other organisms.

QNO.03: Degradation of Triacylglycerols into Carbohydrates

Triacylglycerols, also known as triglycerides, are a major form of stored energy in organisms,
especially in adipose tissues. When the body requires energy, triacylglycerols can be degraded
into their component molecules, fatty acids, and glycerol, through a process called lipolysis.
These molecules can then be further metabolized to produce carbohydrates to meet the energy
demands of the body.

The degradation of triacylglycerols begins with the activation of lipases, enzymes that hydrolyze
the ester bonds between the fatty acids and glycerol backbone of triacylglycerols. Hormones
such as epinephrine, glucagon, and cortisol can stimulate the release of lipases from adipose
tissues. The activated lipases cleave the ester bonds, resulting in the release of three fatty acid
molecules and one molecule of glycerol.

The fatty acids released from triacylglycerols are transported to various tissues, where they
undergo beta-oxidation, a series of enzymatic reactions that break down the fatty acids into
acetyl-CoA molecules. Acetyl-CoA can enter the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle
or TCA cycle), a metabolic pathway that produces energy in the form of ATP and generates
reducing equivalents in the form of NADH and FADH2.

Glycerol, on the other hand, is converted into glucose through a process known as
gluconeogenesis. Glycerol is first phosphorylated and then converted into dihydroxyacetone
phosphate (DHAP), an intermediate molecule in the glycolysis pathway. DHAP is further
transformed into glucose via several enzymatic steps.

Overall, the degradation of triacylglycerols into carbohydrates provides a means for the body to
utilize stored energy reserves to meet its energy needs when glucose availability is limited, such
as during fasting or periods of increased physical activity.

QNO.04: Synthesis of Starch in Plant Cell

Starch is a complex carbohydrate that serves as a major form of energy storage in plants. It is
synthesized within plant cells in a process called starch biosynthesis. The synthesis of starch
involves several enzymes and metabolic pathways, primarily occurring in two main
compartments of plant cells: the chloroplasts and the amyloplasts.

1. Chloroplasts:

Within the chloroplasts, glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) is converted into glucose-1-phosphate (G1P)

by the action of the enzyme phosphoglucomutase (PGM). G1P is then converted into ADP-
glucose by the enzyme ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase). ADP-glucose serves as the
activated sugar donor for the synthesis of starch.

2. Amyloplasts:

ADP-glucose is transported from the chloroplasts to the amyloplasts, specialized organelles

responsible for starch storage. Within the amyloplasts, ADP-glucose is polymerized by the
enzyme starch synthase into amylose and amylopectin, the two major components of starch.
Amylose is a linear chain of glucose molecules, while amylopectin is highly branched.

The branching of amylopectin is controlled by the enzyme branching enzyme (BE). It catalyzes
the transfer of a block of glucan from one side of a growing chain to another, creating a branch
point. These branch points are crucial for the solubilization and granule formation of starch
molecules.

Several other enzymes, including debranching enzymes, phosphorylases, and branching

enzymes, are involved in the fine-tuning and regulation of starch synthesis. These enzymes play
a role in determining the structure and composition of starch molecules, which influence their
physicochemical properties and biological functions in plants.

Overall, the synthesis of starch in plant cells is a tightly regulated process that requires precise
coordination between different cellular compartments and enzymatic activities to produce
starch granules with appropriate structures for optimal energy storage and use in plants.

QNO.05: Biosynthesis and Physiological Effects of Phenolic Compounds

Phenolic compounds are a diverse group of secondary metabolites found in plants. They are
derived from the aromatic amino acid phenylalanine and are synthesized through the
phenylpropanoid pathway. Phenolic compounds have numerous physiological effects in plants,
acting as defensive agents against pathogens, UV radiation protectors, antioxidants, and
signaling molecules.

The biosynthesis of phenolic compounds starts with the deamination of phenylalanine to

cinnamic acid by the enzyme phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL). Cinnamic acid is then
converted into p-coumaric acid, which is further metabolized into various phenolic compounds,
such as flavonoids, lignins, tannins, and stilbenes. The enzymes involved in these conversions
include cinnamate 4-hydroxylase, 4-coumarate:CoA ligase, chalcone synthase, and various other
pathway-specific enzymes.

Phenolic compounds play important roles in plants' defense mechanisms against pathogens
and herbivores. They act as antimicrobial agents, inhibiting the growth of bacteria, fungi, and
other microorganisms. They also have insecticidal properties, deterring herbivores from feeding
on plants. Additionally, phenolic compounds contribute to the structural integrity of plant cell
walls through the synthesis of lignin, a complex phenolic polymer.

Phenolic compounds are also involved in plant responses to environmental stresses,

particularly UV radiation. They absorb UV light, protecting plant tissues from damage.
Additionally, phenolic compounds have antioxidant properties, helping plants to scavenge
reactive oxygen species and prevent oxidative damage.

Furthermore, phenolic compounds have signaling roles in plant development and defense. They
are involved in regulating plant growth, flowering, and fruit ripening. Phenolic compounds can
also act as signal molecules in response to biotic and abiotic stresses, triggering the expression
of defense-related genes and the synthesis of other defense compounds.

The diverse physiological effects of phenolic compounds make them important for the
adaptation, survival, and defense mechanisms of plants in their natural environments. They
contribute to the health benefits associated with a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and plant-
derived products in humans as well.