pathogens, and environmental stressors.
They are produced in response to various
BIOCHEMISTRY2
2021
How sucrose und starch
biosynthesis is regulated in
plants?
Sucrose and starch
biosynthesis in plants are
regulated through a combination of
transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and
post-translational mechanisms. The activity
of enzymes involved in these processes is
regulated by factors such as light, circadian
rhythm, nutrient availability, hormone
signaling, and gene expression. For sucrose
biosynthesis, key enzymes such as sucrose
phosphate synthase and sucrose synthase
are regulated by reversible phosphorylation,
allosteric regulation, and expression levels.
Starch biosynthesis is regulated by the
activity of enzymes like ADP-glucose
pyrophosphorylase, starch synthase, and
starch branching enzyme, which are
influenced by hormones, sucrose levels, and
other metabolic signals.
Question b:Terpenes are
defensive tools of plants, Explain?
Terpenes are organic compounds
synthesized by plants and serve as
defensive tools against herbivores,
stimuli, including damage to the plant,
herbivore feeding, and changes in light or
temperature. Terpenes can act as
antifeedants, repellents, or toxins to deter
herbivores. Additionally, some terpenes
possess antimicrobial, antifungal, or
antiviral properties, providing protection
against pathogens. Terpenes may also play
a role in communication between plants and
other organisms, such as attracting
beneficial insects for pollination or repelling
pests.
Vitamin A and D play important
roles in metabolism:
1. Vitamin A, in the form of retinol, is
essential for vision, growth, immune
function, and cell differentiation. It acts as a
cofactor for several enzymes involved in
metabolism, including those responsible for
the synthesis of glycoproteins and
glycolipids. Vitamin A is also involved in
gene regulation, particularly in the
differentiation and maturation of cells.
2. Vitamin D, primarily obtained through
sunlight exposure, is critical for calcium and
phosphorus absorption, bone health, and
immune function. It acts as a hormone and
regulates the expression of genes involved
in calcium metabolism, cell growth, and
differentiation. Vitamin D is also important
for maintaining adequate levels of blood
calcium and bone mineralization.
Define Bioenergetics. Explain first
and second law of
thermodynamics.
1
Bioenergetics is the study of energy flow
and transformation in living organisms. It
encompasses the processes of energy
capture, conversion, and utilization within
cells. The first law of thermodynamics, also
known as the law of conservation of energy,
states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed but can only be converted from
one form to another. In the context of
bioenergetics, this means that the total
amount of energy within a biological system
remains constant, and any energy gained or
lost must be accounted for.
The second law of thermodynamics states
that the entropy, or disorder, of a system
tends to increase over time. In
bioenergetics, this law explains why energy
transformations are not 100% efficient and
why energy is often lost as heat during
metabolic processes. Organisms must
continually acquire and convert energy to
maintain their cellular structures and
perform necessary activities.
Write note on breakdown of
fats/fatty acids in plant cell.
In plant cells, the breakdown of fats, also
known as lipolysis, occurs in specialized
organelles called peroxisomes. Fatty acids
are released from stored lipids through
enzymatic hydrolysis and are subsequently
transported into peroxisomes. Within
peroxisomes, fatty acids undergo beta-
oxidation, a series of reactions that
sequentially remove two-carbon units from
the fatty acid chain. This produces acetyl-
CoA, which can enter the citric acid cycle for
energy production. The breakdown of fats is
essential for energy metabolism, especially
during prolonged periods of nutrient
deprivation or high energy demands.
Write the biosynthesis and
defensive role of Phenolic
compounds in plants.
Phenolic compounds are a diverse group of
secondary metabolites synthesized by
plants. They play important roles in plant
defense against pathogens, herbivores, and
abiotic stressors. Phenolic compounds can
have antifungal, antibacterial, and antiviral
properties, inhibiting the growth and
reproduction of pathogens. They can also
act as antioxidants, scavenging reactive
oxygen species and protecting plant cells
from oxidative damage. Additionally,
phenolic compounds may regulate plant
growth and development, including seed
germination, root elongation, and flower
pigmentation.
Q. 4: Define Oxidation and reduction,
Explain these with an example in living
tissues.
Oxidation and reduction are chemical
reactions that involve the transfer of
electrons. Oxidation refers to the loss of
electrons, while reduction refers to the gain
of electrons.
An example of oxidation and reduction in
living tissues is cellular respiration. In this
process, glucose is oxidized to produce ATP,
the main energy currency of cells. Glucose
undergoes a series of reactions in which it
is gradually broken down, releasing
electrons. These electrons are transferred
to electron carriers, such as NAD+
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), which
becomes reduced to NADH. The electrons
2
are then passed along the electron
transport chain, generating ATP through
oxidative phosphorylation. At the end of the
chain, electrons are accepted by oxygen,
which becomes reduced to water.
Write the Pathway for the
synthesis of sucrose in plant cell?
The synthesis of sucrose in plant
cells occurs through a pathway known as
the Calvin cycle or the light-independent
reactions of photosynthesis. The key steps
involved in this pathway are as follows:
1. Carboxylation: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is
combined with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
(RuBP), a 5-carbon molecule, in the
presence of the enzyme RuBisCO (ribulose-
1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase).
This reaction yields two molecules of 3-
phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), a 3-carbon
molecule.
2. Reduction: ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate) generated during
the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis provide the energy and
reducing power, respectively, for the
conversion of 3-PGA into glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (G3P). This step requires the
enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
dehydrogenase.
3. Regeneration: Some of the G3P
molecules are converted back into RuBP
through a series of reactions, including
phosphorylation and rearrangements. These
reactions require ATP and are catalyzed by
various enzymes, including
phosphoglycerate kinase.
4. Sucrose synthesis: G3P can be
converted into fructose-6-phosphate, and by
combining fructose-6-phosphate with UDP-
glucose, the enzyme sucrose phosphate
synthase catalyzes the formation of
sucrose-6-phosphate. Sucrose-6-phosphate
is then dephosphorylated to form sucrose,
which can be transported and stored in
different parts of the plant.
b) Explain biosynthesis,
classification and role of nitrogen
containing secondary metabolites?
Nitrogen-containing secondary
metabolites are a diverse group of
compounds synthesized by plants. They
play critical roles in plant growth,
development, and defense against
pathogens and herbivores. Some common
examples of nitrogen-containing secondary
metabolites include alkaloids, cyanogenic
glycosides, glucosinolates, and
phenylpropanoids.
The biosynthesis of nitrogen-containing
secondary metabolites typically involves the
incorporation of nitrogen from amino acids
or other nitrogen sources into specialized
pathways. These pathways are often
regulated by enzyme-catalyzed reactions
and the expression of specific genes.
Classification of nitrogen-containing
secondary metabolites is based on their
chemical structure and can include
alkaloids (e.g., caffeine, nicotine),
cyanogenic glycosides (e.g., amygdalin),
glucosinolates (e.g., sulforaphane), and
phenylpropanoids (e.g., flavonoids). Each
class of metabolites has unique properties
and functions within the plant.
3
The roles of nitrogen-containing secondary
metabolites in plants are diverse. They can
act as defense compounds, deterring
herbivores and pathogens through their
toxic or repellent properties. Some nitrogen-
containing secondary metabolites also play
a role in plant signaling and communication,
such as attracting pollinators or signaling to
neighboring plants about herbivore attacks.
Additionally, certain nitrogen-containing
secondary metabolites have medicinal
properties and are used by humans for
various purposes, such as in traditional
medicine or as pharmaceutical agents.
2019
QNO.2 Define Bioenergetics. Explain
first and second laws of
thermodynamics
Bioenergetics is the study of how living
organisms convert and utilize energy. It
encompasses the processes of energy
capture, conversion, and consumption
within biological systems.
The first law of thermodynamics, also
known as the law of conservation of energy,
states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed in an isolated system. In
biological systems, this means that the total
amount of energy remains constant, but it
can be converted from one form to another.
The second law of thermodynamics states
that in any energy conversion process, the
total entropy (disorder) of a closed system
always increases. This means that energy
transformations are not 100% efficient and
some energy is lost as waste heat.
How sucrose and starch synthesis is
regulated in plants?
QNO.03: The synthesis of sucrose and
starch in plants is regulated through a
complex network of enzymes and
regulatory molecules. Sucrose synthesis
occurs in the cytoplasm of plants cells,
primarily in the leaves. It involves the
conversion of glucose and fructose into
sucrose through the action of enzymes
such as sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS).
Starch synthesis takes place in the
chloroplasts of plant cells, mainly in the
leaves and storage organs. It is regulated by
enzymes involved in the conversion of
glucose-1-phosphate to starch, such as ADP
-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) and
starch synthase.
The regulation of sucrose and starch
synthesis is influenced by various factors
including light, temperature, hormones, and
metabolites. Photosynthesis, which is the
primary source of glucose for sucrose and
starch synthesis, is also a major regulator of
these processes.
QNO.04: Terpenes are defensive
tools of plants, Explain?
Terpenes are a diverse group of compounds
synthesized by plants. They serve as
defensive tools to protect plants against
herbivores, pathogens, and abiotic stresses.
Terpenes can act as repellents, toxic
deterrents, or attractants for beneficial
organisms.
Plants produce terpenes in specialized
4
structures such as resin canals, glandular
trichomes, and oil glands. These
compounds can have different modes of
action, including disrupting the feeding or
reproduction of herbivores, inhibiting
microbial growth, or attracting predators or
parasites of herbivores.
The specific types and quantities of
terpenes produced by plants can vary
depending on various factors such as plant
species, environmental conditions, and
interactions with other organisms. Some
examples of terpenes include menthol,
limonene, and carotenoids.
QNO.05: 5. Write the biosynthesis and
role of Phenolic compounds in plants.
Phenolic compounds are a diverse group of
secondary metabolites synthesized by
plants. They have various roles in plant
physiology, including defense against
pathogens, UV protection, and regulation of
plant development.
The biosynthesis of phenolic compounds
involves a series of enzymatic reactions,
starting from primary metabolites such as
phenylalanine or tyrosine. These reactions
are catalyzed by enzymes such as
phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), which
converts phenylalanine into cinnamic acid.
The different classes of phenolic
compounds include flavonoids, lignans, and
tannins. These compounds can have
antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-
inflammatory properties, and are also
involved in plant signaling and
communication with other organisms.
QNO.06:. Write note on
breakdown of fats in plant cell
In plant cells, the breakdown of fats, or
lipids, primarily occurs through the process
of β-oxidation. This process takes place in
the mitochondria and peroxisomes of plant
cells.
During β-oxidation, fatty acids are broken
down into acetyl-CoA molecules. This
process involves a series of steps, including
the removal of two-carbon units from the
fatty acid chain, which are converted into
acetyl-CoA through oxidation and hydration
reactions.
Once converted into acetyl-CoA, it can enter
the citric acid cycle (also known as the
Krebs cycle) to generate energy through the
oxidation of the acetyl groups.
The breakdown of fats is an important
source of energy for plant cells, especially
during periods of nutrient deprivation or
stress.
QNO.07: Define Vitamins. What is the
role of Vitamins in plant metabolism.
Vitamins are organic compounds that are
required in small amounts by organisms for
various metabolic processes. In plant
metabolism, vitamins play essential roles as
coenzymes or cofactors for enzymes
involved in various biochemical reactions.
Vitamins are involved in processes such as
photosynthesis, respiration, and the
synthesis of various molecules in plants.
They are required for the proper functioning
of enzymes, which catalyze these reactions.
5
Plants can synthesize some vitamins
themselves, while others must be obtained
from the environment through nutrient
uptake. Examples of vitamins in plants
include vitamin C (ascorbic acid), vitamin E
(tocopherol), and various B vitamins such
as thiamine (B1) and riboflavin (B2).
Deficiencies or imbalances in vitamin
concentrations can have detrimental effects
on plant growth and development, leading
to disorders such as leaf yellowing or
reduced photosynthetic activity.
QNO.08: Explain redox reactions
in living system with example?
Redox reactions, also known as oxidation-
reduction reactions, involve the transfer of
electrons between chemical species. These
reactions play a crucial role in living
systems, as they are involved in energy
production, cellular respiration, and many
other metabolic processes.
In a redox reaction, one molecule or atom
loses electrons (oxidation) while another
molecule or atom gains the electrons
(reduction). The molecule that loses
electrons is called the reducing agent, while
the molecule that gains electrons is called
the oxidizing agent.
An example of a redox reaction in living
systems is cellular respiration, where
glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide, and
oxygen is reduced to water. In this process,
glucose acts as the reducing agent,
donating electrons, while oxygen acts as the
oxidizing agent, accepting the electrons.
Redox reactions are essential for the
transfer and storage of energy in living
systems and are involved in maintaining
redox balance and regulating cellular
processes.
QNO.09: Write the Pathway for
the synthesis of sucrose in plant
cell?
The synthesis of sucrose in plant cells
involves a series of enzymatic steps.
Sucrose is synthesized in the cytoplasm of
plant cells, primarily in the leaves, and is
then transported to different parts of the
plant for storage or utilization.
The pathway for the synthesis of sucrose
starts with the conversion of glucose-6-
phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate by the
enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI).
Fructose-6-phosphate is then converted to
fructose-1,6-bisphosphate by the enzyme
phosphofructokinase (PFK).
Next, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved
into two three-carbon molecules:
dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP) by the
enzyme fructose bisphosphate aldolase.
GAP is then converted to fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate by several enzymatic steps.
The final steps involve the synthesis of
sucrose from fructose-6-phosphate and
UDP-glucose, catalyzed by the enzyme
sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS).
Overall, the synthesis of sucrose in plant
cells is a complex process that requires the
coordination of multiple enzymes and
regulatory factors to ensure the production
and transport of sucrose to meet the
metabolic needs of the plant.
6

2018
QNO.2 Define Bioenergeties.
Explain Energy laws with
examples.
: Bioenergetics refers to the study of energy
flow and transformation in living organisms.
It involves understanding how organisms
acquire, store, and use energy for various
biological processes. Bioenergetics is
crucial for understanding the metabolic
pathways and physiological functions of
living organisms.
Energy laws are principles that govern the
transfer and transformation of energy in
various systems. The two fundamental
energy laws are:
1. The First Law of Thermodynamics, also
known as the law of energy conservation,
states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed in an isolated system. It can only
be transformed from one form to another or
transferred from one system to another. For
example, when a plant undergoes
photosynthesis, it converts light energy into
chemical energy in the form of glucose.
2. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
states that the entropy (disorder) of a
closed system tends to increase over time.
This law implies that energy conversions
are not 100% efficient, and some energy is
always lost as heat. For example, during
cellular respiration, the energy stored in
glucose is not fully converted to usable
energy (ATP), and some is lost as heat.
QNO.03: QNO.03 Starch and Sucrose
biosynthesis is competing reaction
How?
Starch and sucrose biosynthesis are
competing reactions in plants. Starch is a
polymer of glucose and is mainly
synthesized in leaves for storage purposes.
On the other hand, sucrose is a disaccharide
formed by the condensation of glucose and
fructose. It is primarily synthesized in
photosynthetic tissues and serves as the
main transport carbohydrate in plants.
During periods of high photosynthetic
activity, when there is an excess of glucose,
it is converted into sucrose and transported
to other parts of the plant for storage or
utilization. This process allows for efficient
distribution of energy to different tissues.
When photosynthetic activity decreases, or
there is a demand for energy, stored starch
is broken down into glucose, which can be
further metabolized for energy production.
Overall, starch and sucrose biosynthesis are
tightly regulated to ensure the proper
allocation and utilization of energy in plants.
QNO.04 Define Secondary
metabolites? How these are
important for plants?
: Secondary metabolites are organic
compounds produced by plants that are not
directly involved in growth, development, or
reproduction. These compounds are
typically synthesized in specific plant
tissues and are responsible for various
ecological functions such as defense
against herbivores, attraction of pollinators,
and interaction with other organisms.
Secondary metabolites can have a wide
range of chemical structures, including
7
alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics, and
flavonoids. They play important roles in
plant adaptation and defense mechanisms.
For example, alkaloids such as nicotine and
caffeine act as chemical deterrents against
herbivores. Terpenoids, such as essential
oils, can protect plants from pathogens and
predators.
Secondary metabolites also have significant
economic importance as they are used in
the production of medicines, pesticides,
food additives, and other industrial products.
QNO.05 Write note on biosynthesis of
fatty acids and glycerolipids in plant
cell.
The biosynthesis of fatty acids and
glycerolipids in plant cells occurs through a
series of enzymatic reactions in the plastids
(specifically, the chloroplasts and the
endoplasmic reticulum).
1. Fatty Acid Biosynthesis: It takes place
in the plastids, primarily in the chloroplasts,
and involves several enzymatic steps.
Acetyl-CoA, derived from the breakdown of
carbohydrates or fatty acids, is converted
into malonyl-CoA through the action of
acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Malonyl-CoA is
then further processed by fatty acid
synthase (FAS) enzyme complex to produce
the fatty acid chains. The fatty acids are
initially attached to an acyl-carrier protein
(ACP) and undergo elongation and
desaturation reactions to form various
types of fatty acids.
2. Glycerolipid Biosynthesis:
Glycerolipids include triglycerides (storage
lipids) and phospholipids (structural lipids).
In the endoplasmic reticulum, fatty acids are
esterified to the glycerol backbone to form
monoacylglycerols. Then,
monoacylglycerols are further esterified
with other fatty acids to produce
diacylglycerols (DAGs). Finally, the addition
of another fatty acid to DAGs results in the
formation of triglycerides.
Overall, the biosynthesis of fatty acids and
glycerolipids is essential for energy storage,
cell membrane formation, and various
metabolic processes in plant cells.
QNO.06 Write structure and
functions of Phenolic polymers in
plants.
Phenolic polymers are complex organic
compounds found in plants. They are
composed of phenolic compounds, which
are characterized by the presence of one or
more phenol rings. The structure and
functions of phenolic polymers vary
depending on the specific compounds
involved.
Structure: Phenolic polymers have a diverse
range of structures, including lignins,
tannins, and flavonoids. Lignins, for
instance, are composed of phenylpropanoid
units joined together through complex
interactions such as β-O-4, β-5, and β-β
linkages. Flavonoids contain two aromatic
rings connected by a three-carbon bridge.
Functions: Phenolic polymers fulfill various
functions in plants, including:
1. Structural support: Lignins provide
strength and rigidity to plant tissues,
particularly in woody tissues. They help in
the formation of cell walls and contribute to
the overall stability of the plant.
8
2. Defense against pathogens and
herbivores: Phenolic polymers, such as
tannins, can act as a defense mechanism
against herbivores and pathogens. They can
inhibit the feeding of herbivores and
interfere with the growth and development
of pathogens.
3. UV protection: Some phenolic polymers,
such as flavonoids, have UV-absorbing
properties. They protect plant tissues from
harmful UV radiation.
4. Pigmentation: Phenolic polymers are
responsible for the pigmentation of flowers,
fruits, and leaves. They contribute to the
attractiveness of plants to pollinators and
seed dispersers.
QNO.07 Differentiate between
Vitamin and hormones. What are
the deficiency symptoms for C&D.
Vitamins and hormones are two distinct
types of organic compounds with different
functions and roles in living organisms.
Vitamins:
- Vitamins are organic compounds required
in small amounts for the normal
physiological functioning of an organism.
- They are essential nutrients that cannot be
synthesized by the body and must be
obtained from the diet.
- Vitamins play important roles as
coenzymes or cofactors in various
metabolic reactions and biochemical
processes.
- Deficiency symptoms for vitamins vary
depending on the specific vitamin. For
example, vitamin C deficiency can lead to
scurvy, characterized by bleeding gums and
impaired wound healing. Vitamin D
deficiency can cause rickets in children,
leading to bone deformities.
Hormones:
- Hormones are chemical messengers
produced by specific glands or tissues in
the body.
- They regulate and coordinate various
physiological processes, including growth,
development, metabolism, reproduction,
and response to environmental stimuli.
- Hormones are transported through the
bloodstream to their target tissues or
organs, where they elicit specific biological
responses.
- Deficiency symptoms for hormones can
vary widely, depending on the specific
hormone. For example, deficiency of thyroid
hormones can cause hypothyroidism,
characterized by fatigue, weight gain, and
impaired cognitive function.
In summary, vitamins are essential nutrients
that are not produced by the body and are
required in small amounts for normal
physiological functioning, while hormones
are chemical messengers that regulate
various physiological processes.
QNO.08 Write the Pathway for the
degradation of starch in plant cell?
The degradation of starch in plant cells
occurs through a series of enzymatic
reactions.
1. Starch hydrolysis: Starch is first
9
hydrolyzed by the enzyme α-amylase, which
breaks down the starch molecules into
smaller fragments, such as
oligosaccharides and maltose.
2. Conversion of oligosaccharides: The
oligosaccharides produced from starch
hydrolysis are further hydrolyzed by the
enzyme β-amylase, which progressively
removes glucose units from the non-
reducing ends of the oligosaccharide chains.
This process continues until maltose is
formed.
3. Maltose hydrolysis: Maltose is then
hydrolyzed by the enzyme α-glucosidase
(also known as maltase) into two molecules
of glucose.
4. Glucose metabolism: The resulting
glucose molecules can be metabolized
through various pathways to provide energy
for the plant. They can enter glycolysis, the
citric acid cycle, or be stored as glycogen or
converted to other carbohydrates for energy
storage or biosynthesis.
Overall, the degradation of starch provides a
source of glucose for energy production and
other metabolic processes in plant cells.
QNO.09 Define High energy
Compounds? Explain structure and
function of ATP.
High-energy compounds are molecules that
store and release considerable amounts of
energy. One of the most important high-
energy compounds in living organisms is
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
ATP Structure:
- ATP is composed of an adenine base, a
ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.
- The three phosphate groups are connected
by high-energy bonds known as
phosphoanhydride bonds.
- The bond between the second and third
phosphate groups (γ-phosphate) is
particularly high in energy.
ATP Function:
- ATP serves as the primary energy currency
of cells, providing energy for various cellular
processes.
- The energy stored in ATP is released when
the terminal phosphate group is
enzymatically removed, resulting in the
formation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
and inorganic phosphate (Pi). This process
is called hydrolysis.
- The energy released during ATP hydrolysis
is utilized by cells to perform work, such as
muscle contraction, active transport,
synthesis of macromolecules, and other
cellular processes.
- ATP can be regenerated through
processes like cellular respiration or
photosynthesis, where energy from food
molecules or light is used to reattach a
phosphate group to ADP, restoring it to ATP.
In summary, ATP is a high-energy
compound that plays a central role in
cellular energy metabolism, acting as a
universal energy carrier and providing
energy for various biological processes.
QNO.02 How sucrose and
starch synthesis is regulated
10
in plant cells?
QNO.02: The synthesis of sucrose and
starch in plant cells is regulated through
various mechanisms. Sucrose synthesis
is primarily regulated by the enzyme
sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS),
which catalyzes the conversion of
fructose-6-phosphate and UDP-glucose
into sucrose-6-phosphate. The activity
of SPS is regulated by factors such as
light, hormones, and metabolites. Starch
synthesis, on the other hand, is
regulated by enzymes involved in its
biosynthesis, such as ADP-glucose
pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) and starch
synthases. These enzymes are
regulated by factors like light,
temperature, and sugar levels in the
plant cell.
QNO,03 What is the role of
Terpenes in plant defense?
QNO.03: Terpenes play a crucial role in
plant defense mechanisms. They are a
diverse group of organic compounds
that are synthesized by plants and are
involved in various physiological
processes. In terms of plant defense,
terpenes can act as repellents,
deterrents, or toxins against herbivores
and pathogens. They can also attract
beneficial insects that help in pollination
or act as predators of herbivores.
Terpenes can be produced constitutively
or induced in response to herbivory or
pathogen attack. They can also interact
with other defense compounds to
enhance the overall defense response of
the plant.
2013
(a) Draw the scheme for
breakdown of starch in plants?
(a) Scheme for breakdown of
starch in plants:
Starch --(Amylase enzyme)--> Maltose --
(Maltase enzyme)--> Glucose
(b) What is the role of mitochondrial
cytochromes in biological system?
The role of mitochondrial cytochromes in
biological systems is to facilitate oxidative
phosphorylation, which is the process of
generating ATP (adenosine triphosphate) in
the mitochondria. Cytochromes are proteins
that are part of the electron transport chain
in the inner mitochondrial membrane. They
transfer electrons from one molecule to
another, ultimately leading to the production
of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
c) Define Alleopathy?
(c) Alleopathy is a biological phenomenon in
which one plant species produces
biochemical compounds called
allelochemicals that inhibit the growth or
development of other nearby plants. These
allelochemicals can be released into the
environment through root exudates, leaf
leachates, or volatilization, and they can
have various effects on neighboring plants,
such as inhibiting seed germination, root
growth, or nutrient uptake.
11
(d) Cycle of fatty acid
synthesis in plastids of plant
cells:
1. Acetyl-CoA is converted into malonyl-CoA
by the enzyme acetyl-CoA carboxylase.
2. Malonyl-CoA combines with acetyl-CoA to
form a four-carbon intermediate called 3-
ketoacyl-ACP (acyl carrier protein),
catalyzed by the enzyme β-ketoacyl-ACP
synthase.
3. The four-carbon intermediate undergoes
a series of reactions involving reduction,
dehydration, and reduction again to
elongate the carbon chain.
4. This process is repeated multiple times
until the desired length of the fatty acid
chain is synthesized.
5. The final step involves the release of the
fatty acid from the acyl carrier protein by the
enzyme thioesterase.
(e) Cardenolides have dramatic
effects human heart muscles why?
(e) Cardenolides have dramatic effects on
human heart muscles because they act as
potent inhibitors of the sodium-potassium
ATPase pump, also known as the Na+/K+-
ATPase pump. This pump is responsible for
maintaining the balance of sodium and
potassium ions across the cell membrane,
which is crucial for normal cardiac function.
Inhibition of this pump by cardenolides
leads to an increase in intracellular sodium
levels and a decrease in potassium levels,
disrupting the normal electrical signaling
and contractility of the heart muscle. This
can result in various cardiac effects,
including increased contractile force, altered
heart rate, and potentially cardiac
arrhythmias or even cardiac arrest.
2015
(a) Mention the name of enzymes and
complexes involved in respiratory chain
(a) The enzymes and complexes involved in
the respiratory chain are:
1. Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase or
NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase)
2. Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase or
succinate: ubiquinone oxidoreductase)
3. Complex III (Cytochrome c reductase or
ubiquinol: cytochrome c oxidoreductase)
4. Complex IV (Cytochrome c oxidase or
cytochrome c: oxygen oxidoreductase)
5. ATP synthase (F0F1 ATP synthase)
(b) The synthesis of starch and sucrose
are competing reactions. Justify it.
(b) The synthesis of starch and sucrose are
competing reactions because both
processes involve the conversion of glucose
molecules. Starch is synthesized in the
chloroplasts of plant cells and used for
energy storage. Sucrose is synthesized in
the cytoplasm and transported to other
parts of the plant for energy distribution.
When the plant has excess glucose, it will
synthesize starch for storage. However,
when there is a high demand for energy in
other parts of the plant, the stored starch
will be converted to sucrose and
transported to meet the energy needs of
12
those areas. Thus, starch synthesis and
sucrose synthesis compete for the available
glucose molecules.
(c) Write the role of Vitamin B in
energy producing metabolism?
(c) Vitamin B (which consists of several
different B vitamins) plays a crucial role in
energy-producing metabolism. Some of the
specific roles are:
1. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): It is essential for
the conversion of glucose into energy by
facilitating the metabolism of
carbohydrates. It is a coenzyme for several
enzymes involved in the Krebs cycle.
2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): It is a component
of coenzymes that play a role in the
metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins. It is involved in the electron
transport chain of cellular respiration.
3. Vitamin B3 (Niacin): It is important for the
metabolism of glucose, fatty acids, and
amino acids. It is a component of
coenzymes involved in electron transfer
reactions in the respiratory chain.
4. Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid): It is a
component of coenzyme A, which is
involved in various energy-producing
metabolic reactions, including the Krebs
cycle and fatty acid synthesis.
5. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): It is involved in
the metabolism of amino acids and the
synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate
sources.
Overall, Vitamin B helps in the efficient
conversion of food into energy and
facilitates various metabolic reactions that
produce ATP.
(d) How creatine phosphate is
helpful during muscle contraction?
(d) Creatine phosphate is helpful during
muscle contraction because it serves as a
rapid and readily available source of high-
energy phosphate groups. During muscle
contraction, ATP is rapidly consumed and
converted into ADP (adenosine
diphosphate). Creatine phosphate can
quickly donate its phosphate group to ADP,
regenerating ATP. This ATP can then be
used for further muscle contractions. The
regeneration of ATP from ADP by creatine
phosphate helps provide immediate energy
for short bursts of intense muscle activity.
(e) Draw the cycle of fatty acid
biosynthesis in plastids?
(e) The cycle of fatty acid biosynthesis in
plastids is a complex process involving
multiple enzymes and reactions. The basic
steps of the cycle are as follows:
1. Acetyl-CoA, produced in the mitochondria,
is transported into the plastids.
2. Acetyl-CoA is converted into malonyl-CoA
by the enzyme acetyl-CoA carboxylase.
3. Malonyl-CoA is then activated and joined
with acetyl-CoA by the enzyme fatty acid
synthase.
4. The resulting molecule is a 4-carbon fatty
acid.
5. This 4-carbon fatty acid undergoes a
series of reactions, including reduction,
dehydration, and reduction again, to
elongate the fatty acid chain.
13
6. The cycle repeats, with the growing fatty
acid chain being attached to acetyl-CoA and
elongated in a stepwise manner.
7. Once the desired length of the fatty acid
chain is achieved, it can be further modified
and incorporated into various cellular
structures, such as membranes or stored as
triglycerides.
Note: The specific enzymes and steps
involved in fatty acid biosynthesis may vary
depending on the organism.
QNO.02: Biosynthesis of
GGPP
GGPP, or geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, is a
key intermediate molecule in the
biosynthesis of various isoprenoids, which
are essential compounds involved in a wide
range of biological processes. GGPP is
mainly synthesized through the mevalonate
pathway, a metabolic pathway that takes
place in the cytoplasm of cells.
The biosynthesis of GGPP starts with the
condensation of acetyl-CoA, a small
molecule derived from glucose metabolism,
into a four-carbon compound called
mevalonate. This reaction is catalyzed by
the enzyme acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase.
Mevalonate then undergoes a series of
enzymatic reactions, including
phosphorylation, decarboxylation, and
reduction, to form isopentenyl
pyrophosphate (IPP).
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate, along with its
isomer dimethylallyl pyrophosphate
(DMAPP), is then converted into geranyl
pyrophosphate (GPP) through the action of
the enzyme geranyl pyrophosphate
synthase. Finally, another molecule of
isopentenyl pyrophosphate is added to GPP
by the enzyme geranylgeranyl
pyrophosphate synthase, leading to the
formation of GGPP.
GGPP serves as a precursor molecule for
the biosynthesis of various isoprenoids,
including carotenoids, chlorophylls, prenyl
side chains of proteins, and plant hormones
such as abscisic acid and gibberellins.
These molecules play important roles in
photosynthesis, pigment synthesis,
signaling pathways, and hormone regulation
in plants and other organisms.
QNO.03: Degradation of
Triacylglycerols into
Carbohydrates
Triacylglycerols, also known as triglycerides,
are a major form of stored energy in
organisms, especially in adipose tissues.
When the body requires energy,
triacylglycerols can be degraded into their
component molecules, fatty acids, and
glycerol, through a process called lipolysis.
These molecules can then be further
metabolized to produce carbohydrates to
meet the energy demands of the body.
The degradation of triacylglycerols begins
with the activation of lipases, enzymes that
hydrolyze the ester bonds between the fatty
acids and glycerol backbone of
triacylglycerols. Hormones such as
epinephrine, glucagon, and cortisol can
stimulate the release of lipases from
adipose tissues. The activated lipases
cleave the ester bonds, resulting in the
release of three fatty acid molecules and
one molecule of glycerol.
14
The fatty acids released from
triacylglycerols are transported to various
tissues, where they undergo beta-oxidation,
a series of enzymatic reactions that break
down the fatty acids into acetyl-CoA
molecules. Acetyl-CoA can enter the citric
acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle or
TCA cycle), a metabolic pathway that
produces energy in the form of ATP and
generates reducing equivalents in the form
of NADH and FADH2.
Glycerol, on the other hand, is converted
into glucose through a process known as
gluconeogenesis. Glycerol is first
phosphorylated and then converted into
dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), an
intermediate molecule in the glycolysis
pathway. DHAP is further transformed into
glucose via several enzymatic steps.
Overall, the degradation of triacylglycerols
into carbohydrates provides a means for the
body to utilize stored energy reserves to
meet its energy needs when glucose
availability is limited, such as during fasting
or periods of increased physical activity.
QNO.04: Synthesis of Starch in
Plant Cell
Starch is a complex carbohydrate that
serves as a major form of energy storage in
plants. It is synthesized within plant cells in
a process called starch biosynthesis. The
synthesis of starch involves several
enzymes and metabolic pathways, primarily
occurring in two main compartments of
plant cells: the chloroplasts and the
amyloplasts.
1. Chloroplasts:
Within the chloroplasts, glucose-6-
phosphate (G6P) is converted into glucose-
1-phosphate (G1P) by the action of the
enzyme phosphoglucomutase (PGM). G1P
is then converted into ADP-glucose by the
enzyme ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase
(AGPase). ADP-glucose serves as the
activated sugar donor for the synthesis of
starch.
2. Amyloplasts:
ADP-glucose is transported from the
chloroplasts to the amyloplasts, specialized
organelles responsible for starch storage.
Within the amyloplasts, ADP-glucose is
polymerized by the enzyme starch synthase
into amylose and amylopectin, the two
major components of starch. Amylose is a
linear chain of glucose molecules, while
amylopectin is highly branched.
The branching of amylopectin is controlled
by the enzyme branching enzyme (BE). It
catalyzes the transfer of a block of glucan
from one side of a growing chain to another,
creating a branch point. These branch
points are crucial for the solubilization and
granule formation of starch molecules.
Several other enzymes, including
debranching enzymes, phosphorylases, and
branching enzymes, are involved in the fine-
tuning and regulation of starch synthesis.
These enzymes play a role in determining
the structure and composition of starch
molecules, which influence their
physicochemical properties and biological
functions in plants.
Overall, the synthesis of starch in plant cells
is a tightly regulated process that requires
precise coordination between different
15
cellular compartments and enzymatic
activities to produce starch granules with
appropriate structures for optimal energy
storage and use in plants.
QNO.05: Biosynthesis and
Physiological Effects of Phenolic
Compounds
Phenolic compounds are a diverse group of
secondary metabolites found in plants. They
are derived from the aromatic amino acid
phenylalanine and are synthesized through
the phenylpropanoid pathway. Phenolic
compounds have numerous physiological
effects in plants, acting as defensive agents
against pathogens, UV radiation protectors,
antioxidants, and signaling molecules.
The biosynthesis of phenolic compounds
starts with the deamination of
phenylalanine to cinnamic acid by the
enzyme phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL).
Cinnamic acid is then converted into p-
coumaric acid, which is further metabolized
into various phenolic compounds, such as
flavonoids, lignins, tannins, and stilbenes.
The enzymes involved in these conversions
include cinnamate 4-hydroxylase, 4-
coumarate:CoA ligase, chalcone synthase,
and various other pathway-specific
enzymes.
Phenolic compounds play important roles in
plants' defense mechanisms against
pathogens and herbivores. They act as
antimicrobial agents, inhibiting the growth
of bacteria, fungi, and other
microorganisms. They also have
insecticidal properties, deterring herbivores
from feeding on plants. Additionally,
phenolic compounds contribute to the
structural integrity of plant cell walls
through the synthesis of lignin, a complex
phenolic polymer.
Phenolic compounds are also involved in
plant responses to environmental stresses,
particularly UV radiation. They absorb UV
light, protecting plant tissues from damage.
Additionally, phenolic compounds have
antioxidant properties, helping plants to
scavenge reactive oxygen species and
prevent oxidative damage.
Furthermore, phenolic compounds have
signaling roles in plant development and
defense. They are involved in regulating
plant growth, flowering, and fruit ripening.
Phenolic compounds can also act as signal
molecules in response to biotic and abiotic
stresses, triggering the expression of
defense-related genes and the synthesis of
other defense compounds.
The diverse physiological effects of
phenolic compounds make them important
for the adaptation, survival, and defense
mechanisms of plants in their natural
environments. They contribute to the health
benefits associated with a diet rich in fruits,
vegetables, and plant-derived products in
humans as well.
2017
QNO.2 Write Structure & function of
four complexes in Mitochondrial
membrane?
QNO.2: Mitochondrial membrane contains
four complexes that are involved in the
16
process of oxidative phosphorylation, which
produces ATP. The complexes are:
Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase): This
complex accepts electrons from NADH and
transfers them to coenzyme Q (CoQ). It also
pumps protons across the inner
mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton
gradient.
Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase): This
complex oxidizes succinate, generating
FADH2, which then donates electrons to
CoQ. It does not pump protons.
Complex III (Cytochrome bc1 complex):
This complex transfers electrons from CoQ
to cytochrome c, while also pumping
protons across the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
Complex IV (Cytochrome c oxidase): This
complex receives electrons from
cytochrome c and transfers them to oxygen,
generating water. It also pumps protons.
These complexes work together to transfer
electrons from NADH and FADH2,
generated during cellular respiration, to
oxygen, producing ATP through oxidative
phosphorylation.
ONO-03 How Sucrose is degraded
in Plant cell?
ONO-03: Sucrose is degraded in plant cells
through a process called sucrose cleavage.
This process involves the action of two
enzymes:
Sucrose synthase: This enzyme breaks
down sucrose into glucose and fructose.
Glucose-1-phosphate is also produced as a
by-product.
Invertase: This enzyme cleaves sucrose into
glucose and fructose directly.
The resulting glucose and fructose can then
be used in various metabolic pathways in
plant cells, such as glycolysis for energy
production or the synthesis of other
carbohydrates like starch or cellulose.
QNO.04 What is the role of Vitamin A &
D in metabolism?
QNO-04: Vitamin A and Vitamin D play
important roles in metabolism.
Vitamin A: Vitamin A is involved in various
metabolic processes, including vision, gene
expression, cell differentiation, and immune
function. It is needed for the synthesis of
visual pigments in the retina, the regulation
of gene transcription, and the maintenance
of healthy epithelial tissues.
Vitamin D: Vitamin D plays a crucial role in
calcium and phosphorus metabolism. It
helps in the absorption of calcium and
phosphorus from the intestine and their
deposition in bones, thus promoting bone
health. Vitamin D also plays a role in cell
growth, immune function, and modulation of
inflammation.
QNO.05 How fats are converted into
sugars in plants.
QNO-05: Fats are not directly converted into
sugars in plants. However, during the
process of photosynthesis, plants use
carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to
produce glucose, which can be converted
into other sugars if needed. Fats, on the
other hand, are stored energy molecules in
plants and are broken down during cellular
respiration to produce ATP.
17
QNO.06 Discuss the classification,
Biosynthesis & role of Terpenes in plant
Defense✓
QNO-06: Terpenes are a large and diverse
class of organic compounds found in plants.
They play important roles in plant defense
against pathogens and herbivores.
Terpenes are classified based on the
number of isoprene units they contain:
Hemiterpenes: Contain one isoprene unit.
Monoterpenes: Contain two isoprene units.
Sesquiterpenes: Contain three isoprene
units.
Diterpenes: Contain four isoprene units.
Triterpenes: Contain six isoprene units.
Tetraterpenes: Contain eight isoprene units.
Terpenes are biosynthesized through the
assembly of isoprene units. They are
synthesized in various plant tissues,
including the leaves, flowers, and roots.
Terpenes play important roles in plant
defense by acting as repellents, toxins, or
attractants for beneficial insects. They also
contribute to the aroma and flavor of many
plants.
QNO.07 Define Oxidation and reduction.
Explain these with an example in living
tissues.
QNO-07: Oxidation and reduction are
chemical processes that involve the transfer
of electrons.
Oxidation: It refers to the loss of electrons
by a molecule, atom, or ion. In biological
systems, oxidation often involves the loss
of hydrogen atoms. Example: The oxidation
of glucose during cellular respiration, where
glucose is broken down to produce carbon
dioxide and water, releasing energy.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O
Reduction: It refers to the gain of electrons
by a molecule, atom, or ion. In biological
systems, reduction often involves the gain
of hydrogen atoms. Example: The reduction
of oxygen during cellular respiration, where
oxygen accepts electrons to form water.
2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O
QNO.08 Write the Pathway for the
synthesis of Starch in plant cell?
QNO-08: Starch synthesis in plant cells
occurs through the following pathway:
Glucose-1-phosphate is converted to ADP-
glucose by the enzyme ADP-glucose
pyrophosphorylase.
ADP-glucose is polymerized by the enzyme
starch synthase, forming a linear chain of
glucose molecules called amylose.
Amylose is further branched by the enzyme
branching enzyme, forming amylopectin.
The newly synthesized starch is then stored
in plastids, such as chloroplasts or
amyloplasts, as granules.
QNO.09 Explain the biosynthesis of
Phenolic compounds in cell?
QNO-09: Phenolic compounds are a class of
secondary metabolites found in cells. They
are biosynthesized through a series of
enzymatic reactions:
18
Shikimate pathway: The biosynthesis of
phenolic compounds starts with the
conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate and
erythrose-4-phosphate into chorismate
through the shikimate pathway. Chorismate
is an important intermediate in the
biosynthesis of various phenolic
compounds.
Phenylpropanoid pathway: Chorismate is
then converted into p-coumaroyl-CoA by
several enzymatic steps. This p-coumaroyl-
CoA serves as a precursor for the
biosynthesis of various phenolic
compounds, including flavonoids, lignin, and
tannins.
Phenolic compounds play important roles in
plant defense against pathogens, UV
radiation, and oxidative stress. They also
contribute to the color, taste, and aroma of
many fruits and vegetables.
2016
QNO.2 How sucrose and starch
synthesis is regulated in plants?
QNO.2: The synthesis of sucrose and starch
in plants is regulated by several factors. One
of the key factors is the availability of
substrates, such as glucose and fructose,
which are necessary for the synthesis of
sucrose. The enzyme sucrose phosphate
synthase plays a crucial role in catalyzing
the formation of sucrose by combining
glucose and fructose.
The activity of enzymes involved in starch
synthesis, such as ADP-glucose
pyrophosphorylase, also plays a role in
regulating starch synthesis. This enzyme
catalyzes the conversion of glucose-1-
phosphate and ATP to ADP-glucose, which
is a precursor for starch synthesis.
Additionally, the levels of signaling
molecules, such as sucrose and glucose-6-
phosphate, can regulate the synthesis of
sucrose and starch. These signaling
molecules can act as feedback inhibitors,
controlling the activity of enzymes involved
in the synthesis pathways.
Environmental factors, such as light and
temperature, also regulate the synthesis of
sucrose and starch in plants. Light
stimulates photosynthesis, which provides
the necessary energy and substrates for
sucrose and starch synthesis. Temperature
affects the activity of enzymes involved in
these processes, and extreme temperatures
can alter the synthesis pathways.
Overall, the synthesis of sucrose and starch
in plants is regulated by a combination of
substrate availability, enzyme activity,
signaling molecules, and environmental
factors.
QNO.03 Define Bioenergetics. Explain
first and second laws of
thermodynamics.
QNO.03: Bioenergetics is the study of how
living organisms acquire, transform, and
utilize energy. It focuses on the flow of
energy through biological systems and the
conversion of energy from one form to
another.
The first law of thermodynamics, also
known as the law of conservation of energy,
states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed in an isolated system. It can only
19
be converted from one form to another. In
biological systems, energy is constantly
being transformed from chemical potential
energy in food molecules to various forms,
such as heat, mechanical work, or storage.
The second law of thermodynamics states
that the entropy of an isolated system tends
to increase over time. Entropy can be
understood as a measure of the disorder or
randomness in a system. In biological
systems, this means that energy
transformations are accompanied by an
increase in entropy. For example, during
cellular respiration, energy is released from
glucose molecules to form ATP, but some
energy is always lost as heat, leading to an
overall increase in entropy.
In summary, the first law of
thermodynamics states that energy is
conserved in biological systems, while the
second law states that energy
transformations are accompanied by an
increase in entropy.
QNO.04 Terpenes are defensive tools
of plants, Explain.
QNO.04: Terpenes are defensive tools of
plants that play a crucial role in protecting
them against herbivores, pathogens, and
other stresses. They are a diverse group of
organic compounds synthesized from the
basic building block called isoprene.
Terpenes can act as repellents, deterring
herbivores from feeding on plants. They can
also act as toxic compounds, inhibiting the
growth and survival of pathogens. Some
terpenes have antimicrobial properties and
can inhibit the growth of bacteria, fungi, and
other microorganisms.
In addition to their defensive role, terpenes
also contribute to the aroma and flavor of
fruits, flowers, and spices. They attract
pollinators and seed dispersers, helping in
the reproduction and survival of plants.
Overall, terpenes are a crucial part of plant
defense mechanisms, providing protection
against various threats and contributing to
the overall fitness and survival of plants.
QNO.05 Write note on breakdown of
fats in plant.cell.
QNO.05: The breakdown of fats in plant
cells occurs through a process called β-
oxidation. This process takes place in the
mitochondria of plant cells and is similar to
the breakdown of fats in animal cells.
During β-oxidation, the fatty acids are first
activated by attaching coenzyme A (CoA),
forming fatty acyl-CoA. The fatty acyl-CoA is
then transported into the mitochondria,
where it undergoes a series of four
reactions:
1. Oxidation: The fatty acyl-CoA is oxidized
by removing two hydrogen atoms, resulting
in the formation of trans-delta 2-enoyl-CoA.
2. Hydration: The trans-delta 2-enoyl-CoA
is hydrated by adding a water molecule,
which converts it to L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA.
3. Oxidation: The L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA is
oxidized by removing another hydrogen
atom, resulting in the formation of 3-
ketoacyl-CoA.
4. Thiolysis: The 3-ketoacyl-CoA is cleaved
by the enzyme thiolase, breaking it down
20
into acetyl-CoA and a shorter chain fatty
acyl-CoA.
These reactions are repeated until the entire
fatty acid molecule is broken down into
multiple acetyl-CoA molecules. The acetyl-
CoA can then enter the citric acid cycle
(Krebs cycle) to generate ATP and other
metabolites.
The breakdown of fats in plant cells is an
important process for energy production
and the utilization of stored fats for growth
and development. It also plays a role in the
synthesis of various compounds, such as
hormones and signaling molecules, in
plants.
QNO.06 Write the biosynthesis and role
of Phenolic compounds in plants.
QNO.06: Phenolic compounds are a diverse
group of secondary metabolites
synthesized by plants. They are derived
from the amino acid phenylalanine and have
various roles in plant biology.
Biosynthesis of phenolic compounds starts
with the conversion of phenylalanine to
cinnamic acid by the enzyme phenylalanine
ammonia-lyase (PAL). Cinnamic acid can
then be further transformed into a wide
range of phenolic compounds through
different enzymatic reactions, such as
hydroxylation, methylation, and
glycosylation.
Phenolic compounds have multiple
functions in plants. They can act as
antioxidants, protecting plant cells against
oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen
species. They also have antimicrobial
properties and can inhibit the growth of
pathogens.
Furthermore, phenolic compounds are
involved in plant defense mechanisms. They
can function as allelochemicals, inhibiting
the growth of competing plants. They can
also act as repellents or toxins against
herbivores, deterring them from feeding on
plants.
Phenolic compounds also play a role in
plant pigmentation. They contribute to the
coloration of flowers, fruits, and leaves,
attracting pollinators and seed dispersers.
Overall, phenolic compounds are important
for plant adaptation and survival. They
contribute to defense against pathogens
and herbivores, provide protection against
oxidative stress, and play a role in
pollination and reproduction.
QNO.07 Deline Vitamins. What is the
role of Vitamins in plant metabolism.
QNO.07: Vitamins are organic compounds
that are required in small amounts for the
normal growth and development of plants.
They are essential for various metabolic
processes and act as coenzymes or
cofactors in enzymatic reactions.
Vitamins participate in plant metabolism by
assisting enzymes in catalyzing
biochemical reactions. For example,
thiamine (vitamin B1) is a coenzyme for
enzymes involved in carbohydrate
metabolism. Niacin (vitamin B3) is a key
component of the coenzymes NAD and
NADP, which play a crucial role in redox
reactions in plants. Vitamin C acts as a
cofactor for enzymes involved in the
synthesis of proteins and other metabolites.
Vitamins also have antioxidant properties
and can protect plants against oxidative
21
stress caused by reactive oxygen species.
They can scavenge free radicals and
prevent damage to cellular components.
In addition to their metabolic roles, vitamins
are important for the overall health and
vigor of plants. They are involved in the
regulation of plant growth, development,
and defense mechanisms.
While plants can synthesize some vitamins
de novo, others need to be obtained from
external sources, such as the soil or
surrounding environment. The availability of
vitamins can vary depending on factors
such as soil composition, nutrient
availability, and environmental conditions.
In summary, vitamins play a crucial role in
plant metabolism by acting as coenzymes
or cofactors in enzymatic reactions. They
contribute to the overall health and vigor of
plants and are essential for growth,
development, and defense mechanisms.
QNO.08 Write the Pathway for the
synthesis of sucrose in plant cell?
QNO.08: The synthesis of sucrose in plant
cells occurs through a series of enzymatic
reactions in the cytoplasm. The pathway for
sucrose synthesis involves the integration
of carbon from various sources, including
photosynthesis and respiration.
The major steps in the synthesis of sucrose
in plant cells are as follows:
1. Photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide is fixed
by the enzyme ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) during
photosynthesis. This results in the
production of phosphoglycerate (PGA), a
three-carbon compound.
2. Conversion of PGA to triose phosphates:
PGA is phosphorylated and converted into 3
-phosphoglycerate (3-PG). This compound
is then reduced to glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (G3P) through a series of
enzymatic reactions.
3. Triose phosphate utilization: G3P is
subsequently converted into fructose-6-
phosphate (F6P) and glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (GA3P).
4. Sucrossynthase phosphate synthesis:
G3P and F6P are combined by the enzyme
sucrose phosphate e (SPS), resulting in the
formation of sucrose-6-phosphate. Sucrose-
6-phosphate is then dephosphorylated to
form sucrose, which is transported
throughout the plant via the phloem.
Overall, the synthesis of sucrose in plant
cells involves the integration of carbon from
photosynthesis and respiration, utilizing
carbon fixation, glycolysis, and other
metabolic pathways. The enzymes involved
in these reactions are crucial for the
efficient production and transport of
sucrose within plants.
QNO.09 Explain redox reactions in
living system with example?
QNO.09: Redox reactions, also known as
oxidation-reduction reactions, are chemical
reactions that involve the transfer of
electrons from one molecule to another.
They are essential for cellular metabolism
and energy production in living systems.
In redox reactions, one molecule loses
electrons and is oxidized, while another
molecule gains electrons and is reduced.
The molecule that donates electrons is
called the reducing agent, while the
22
molecule that accepts electrons is called
the oxidizing agent.
An example of a redox reaction in living
systems is cellular respiration, specifically
the oxidation of glucose:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
In this reaction, glucose is oxidized (loses
electrons) to form carbon dioxide, while
oxygen is reduced (gains electrons) to form
water. The transfer of electrons from
glucose to oxygen releases energy, which is
used to produce ATP, the energy currency
of the cell.
Another example of a redox reaction in
living systems is photosynthesis, where the
reduction of carbon dioxide to glucose
occurs:
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
In this reaction, carbon dioxide is reduced
(gains electrons) to form glucose, while
water is oxidized (loses electrons) to
produce oxygen. The energy required for
this reaction comes from sunlight, which is
captured during the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis.
Redox reactions are fundamental to the
functioning of living systems. They are
involved in energy production, metabolism,
and the synthesis of various biomolecules.
The electron transfer in these reactions
plays a crucial role in maintaining the
balance of energy and redox potentials
within cells and organisms.
2022
Qa. What is the difference hetween
plant alkaloids and terpenoids?
A. Plant alkaloids and terpenoids are both
natural compounds found in plants, but they
have some distinct differences.
1. Composition: Plant alkaloids are derived
from amino acids and contain a nitrogen
atom, while terpenoids are derived from
isoprene units and do not contain nitrogen.
2. Structure: Alkaloids often have a complex
and diverse structure, consisting of a
heterocyclic ring system with nitrogen
atoms. Terpenoids, on the other hand, are
composed of repeating isoprene units and
can have a linear, cyclic, or polycyclic
structure.
3. Function: Plant alkaloids generally have a
defense or signaling role in plants. They can
function as toxins to deter herbivores or as
chemical signals to attract pollinators.
Some alkaloids also have medicinal
properties. Terpenoids, on the other hand,
have a wide range of functions including
defense against herbivores, attraction of
pollinators, and involvement in plant growth
and development.
4. Examples: Examples of plant alkaloids
include caffeine, morphine, and nicotine.
Examples of terpenoids include essential
oils, such as menthol and limonene, and
pigments, such as carotenoids.
23
Qb. Differentiate between reducing and
non-reducing sugars with examples
B. Reducing sugars and non-reducing
sugars are two types of carbohydrates with
different properties.
1. Reducing sugars: These are sugars that
have a free aldehyde or ketone functional
group and can undergo oxidation reactions.
They can reduce certain chemicals, such as
Benedict's solution or Fehling's solution,
resulting in color changes. Examples of
reducing sugars include glucose and
fructose.
2. Non-reducing sugars: These are sugars
that do not have a free aldehyde or ketone
functional group and cannot undergo
oxidation reactions. They cannot reduce
Benedict's solution or Fehling's solution.
However, they can be converted into
reducing sugars through hydrolysis.
Examples of non-reducing sugars include
sucrose and lactose.
Qc. Describe structure of D-fructose.
C. D-Fructose is a monosaccharide,
specifically a ketohexose sugar. It has the
chemical formula C6H12O6 and the
structural formula:
H
| biological systems. They play a crucial role
HO-CH2-CHOH-CHOH-CHOH-COH
|
H
Qd .What are these functional groups (-
OH), (-CHO), (CO) groups. In which
plant molecules are they present?
D. The functional groups mentioned are:
- (-OH): This is the hydroxyl group, which
consists of an oxygen atom bonded to a
hydrogen atom. It is present in alcohols and
carbohydrates.
- (-CHO): This is the aldehyde group, which
consists of a carbonyl group bonded to a
hydrogen atom. It is present in aldehydes.
- (CO): This is the carbonyl group, which
consists of a carbon atom double-bonded
to an oxygen atom. It is present in ketones
and carboxylic acids.
These functional groups are present in
various plant molecules. For example, the
hydroxyl group is present in sugars,
alcohols, and phenols. The aldehyde group
is present in some sugars, such as glucose
and ribose. The carbonyl group is present in
ketones, such as fructose, and carboxylic
acids, such as citric acid.
Q.2:Q. 2:- Deseribe the bioenergetic
compounds. How energy change takes
place in biological system, explain with
example.
Bioenergetic compounds are molecules
involved in energy storage and transfer in
in various metabolic processes, such as
24
cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
One example of energy change in a
biological system is the conversion of
glucose to ATP during cellular respiration.
Glucose, a carbohydrate, is broken down in
a series of enzymatic reactions, ultimately
yielding ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The
energy released during this process is used
to perform various cellular functions.
In this example, glucose acts as the energy
source and is oxidized to produce ATP. The
energy released is captured and stored in
the high-energy phosphate bonds of ATP,
which can then be used for cellular work.
The overall reaction can be represented as:
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide +
Water + ATP
Q.3:Q.3:- In which plant part, the
oxidation and reduction mechanism
operate? Elaborate with reference to
breakdown of carbohydrates
Oxidation and reduction mechanisms
operate in various plant parts, including
leaves, stems, and roots. However, the
specific breakdown of carbohydrates
primarily occurs in the leaves through a
process called photosynthesis.
During photosynthesis, plants convert
carbon dioxide and water into glucose and
oxygen, using the energy from sunlight. This
process involves a series of redox reactions,
where carbon dioxide is reduced to glucose
(oxidation reaction), and water is oxidized to
produce oxygen (reduction reaction).
The overall reaction of photosynthesis can
be represented as:
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 +
6O2
In this reaction, carbon dioxide is reduced to
glucose, gaining electrons and hydrogen
atoms, while water is oxidized, losing
electrons and hydrogen atoms. This
process allows plants to store energy in the
form of glucose, which can be utilized in
various metabolic pathways.
Q.4:Q. 4:- Write a comprehensive note
on protein metabolism in plants. Draw
the diagram of relevant cycles with
equations.
Protein metabolism in plants involves the
synthesis, breakdown, and recycling of
proteins. It plays a crucial role in various
physiological processes, including plant
growth and development, stress response,
and defense mechanisms.
Key cycles and pathways involved in protein
metabolism include:
1. Protein synthesis: This involves the
transcription of DNA into messenger RNA
(mRNA) and translation of mRNA into
proteins. It occurs in the ribosomes and
involves various enzymes and cofactors.
2. Protein degradation: This includes the
breakdown of proteins into amino acids
through processes like proteolysis. The
resulting amino acids can be used for new
protein synthesis or other metabolic
pathways.
3. Protein recycling: This involves the
reutilization of amino acids from degraded
proteins. The amino acids can undergo
deamination, where the amino group is
removed and converted into ammonia,
25
which is then utilized in the synthesis of
new amino acids or other nitrogenous
compounds.
4. Post-translational modifications:
Proteins can undergo various modifications
after translation, including phosphorylation,
glycosylation, and acetylation. These
modifications can alter protein function,
stability, and localization.
The diagram of relevant cycles and
equations in protein metabolism would
depend on the specific pathway or aspect
that needs to be illustrated. However, a
general diagram could include the following
components:
- DNA → mRNA (transcription)
- mRNA → protein (translation)
- Protein degradation (proteolysis)
- Amino acids → new protein synthesis
- Amino acids → ammonia (deamination)
- Ammonia → new amino acids or
nitrogenous compounds
Q. 5:- Draw and explain the pathway of
sucrose to starch conversion in plants.
The pathway of sucrose to starch
conversion in plants involves several
enzymatic steps. Here is a simplified
explanation of the process:
1. Sucrose is transported from
photosynthetic tissues, such as leaves, to
storage organs, such as roots or seeds.
2. In the storage organs, sucrose is
hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose by the
enzyme invertase.
3. Glucose molecules are then converted
into glucose-6-phosphate in a reaction
catalyzed by the enzyme hexokinase.
4. Glucose-6-phosphate is converted into
glucose-1-phosphate by the enzyme
phosphoglucomutase.
5. Glucose-1-phosphate is converted into
UDP-glucose by the enzyme UDP-glucose
pyrophosphorylase.
6. UDP-glucose serves as the activated form
of glucose and is used as a substrate for
starch synthesis.
7. Starch synthesis occurs through the
catalytic action of the enzyme starch
synthase, which adds glucose molecules to
the growing starch chain.
8. The final product of this pathway is
starch, which is composed of glucose units
linked by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in amylose
and α-1,4-glycosidic bonds with α-1,6-
glycosidic branch points in amylopectin.
Q.6:Q. 6:- Differentiate between
vitamins and fats. Write in detail the
classification and role of vitamins and
their deficiency symptoms.
Vitamins and fats are two distinct types of
nutrients with different structures and
functions.
1. Vitamins: Vitamins are organic
compounds that are essential for normal
physiological functions but are required in
small amounts. They are classified into two
categories:
- Fat-soluble vitamins: These can be
dissolved and stored in fat. They include
26
vitamins A, D, E, and K. Fat-soluble vitamins
are involved in various cellular functions,
including vision, bone health, antioxidant
activity, and blood clotting regulation.
- Water-soluble vitamins: These are soluble
in water and are not easily stored in the
body. They include vitamins B and C. Water-
soluble vitamins play important roles in
energy metabolism, nerve function, immune
function, and collagen synthesis.
Deficiency symptoms of vitamins include
night blindness (vitamin A deficiency),
rickets or osteomalacia (vitamin D
deficiency), anemia (vitamin B12 and folate
deficiency), scurvy (vitamin C deficiency),
and impaired blood clotting (vitamin K
deficiency).
2. Fats: Fats, also known as lipids, are a
class of biomolecules that include
triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols.
They are composed of fatty acids and
glycerol.
Fats serve multiple functions in the body,
including energy storage, insulation,
cushioning of organs, and absorption of fat-
soluble vitamins. They are also essential in
the production of hormones and cell
membranes.
Fats are classified based on their chemical
structure into saturated fats (no double
bonds), monounsaturated fats (one double
bond), and polyunsaturated fats (multiple
double bonds). Consumption of excessive
saturated and trans fats is associated with
an increased risk of cardiovascular
diseases.
In summary, vitamins are essential organic
compounds required in small amounts for
proper physiological functions, while fats
are lipids that serve as an energy source
and have various structural and functional
roles in the body. Deficiency of vitamins can
lead to specific deficiency symptoms, while
excessive consumption of certain fats can
negatively affect health.
2023
Qa. Differentiare between plant cell
respiration and plant food
manufacturing with example.
Qa. Plant cell respiration and plant food
manufacturing are two different processes
that occur in plant cells.
Plant cell respiration is the process by
which plants break down organic molecules,
such as glucose, to release energy for
cellular activities. This process involves a
series of metabolic reactions that take
place in the mitochondria of the cells. The
glucose molecules are oxidized to produce
ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the
main energy currency of the cell. The
equation for plant cell respiration is:
Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon Dioxide +
Water + ATP
Example: During aerobic respiration,
glucose is broken down in the presence of
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water,
and ATP. This process occurs in all plant
cells and is essential for the survival and
growth of plants.
Plant food manufacturing, also known as
photosynthesis, is the process by which
plants convert light energy into chemical
energy in the form of glucose. This process
27
occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells,
specifically in the green pigment called
chlorophyll. The equation for
photosynthesis is:
Carbon Dioxide + Water + Light Energy ->
Glucose + Oxygen
Example: In the presence of light energy,
plants use carbon dioxide and water to
produce glucose and oxygen. This glucose
serves as a source of energy for the plant
and is used for various metabolic processes,
including growth and reproduction.
Qb. Write examples for four, five and
six carbon sugar with example
formulas.
Qb. Four carbon sugar: An example of a four
carbon sugar is erythrose. Its chemical
formula is C4H8O4.
Five carbon sugar: An example of a five
carbon sugar is ribose. Its chemical formula
is C5H10O5.
Six carbon sugar: An example of a six
carbon sugar is glucose. Its chemical
formula is C6H12O6.
Qc. In plant cell metabolism, which are
endergonic and exerganic reactions.
Qc. In plant cell metabolism, both
endergonic and exergonic reactions occur.
Endergonic reactions are energy-requiring
reactions in which the products have more
energy than the reactants. These reactions
are not spontaneous and require an input of
energy. Examples of endergonic reactions in
plant cell metabolism include
photosynthesis, protein synthesis, and
active transport.
Exergonic reactions, on the other hand, are
energy-releasing reactions in which the
products have less energy than the
reactants. These reactions are spontaneous
and release energy. Examples of exergonic
reactions in plant cell metabolism include
cellular respiration, degradation of complex
molecules, and ATP hydrolysis.
Qd. In What is the significance of first
and second law of thermodynamics for
living organisms.
Qd. The first and second laws of
thermodynamics have significant
implications for living organisms.
The first law of thermodynamics, also
known as the law of conservation of energy,
states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed, but it can be converted from one
form to another. Living organisms rely on
the constant flow of energy and the ability
to convert it into usable forms. For example,
plants capture sunlight energy during
photosynthesis and convert it into chemical
energy in the form of glucose. This energy is
then used by the plant for growth and other
metabolic processes.
The second law of thermodynamics states
that the entropy, or disorder, of a closed
system tends to increase over time. In living
organisms, this means that energy
transformations are not 100% efficient, and
some energy is lost as heat in each transfer.
This is why organisms need a constant
supply of energy to maintain their biological
processes and to counteract the increase in
entropy.
28
Q2. Explain vitamin in plants. Describe
their bio synthesis and explain their
significance.
Q2. Vitamins in plants are organic
compounds that are required in small
quantities for the growth and development
of plants. They are essential for various
physiological processes and play a crucial
role in plant metabolism.
Bio synthesis of vitamins in plants occurs
through two main pathways: de novo
synthesis and salvage pathways. In the de
novo synthesis pathway, plants can
synthesize vitamins from simple precursor
molecules through a series of enzymatic
reactions. For example, plants can
synthesize vitamins such as vitamin C
(ascorbic acid), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), and
some forms of vitamin E (tocopherols and
tocotrienols) through de novo synthesis
pathways.
On the other hand, salvage pathways in
plants involve the recycling or reactivation
of vitamins from their inactive forms. Plants
can take up inactive forms of vitamins from
the environment and convert them into
active forms through various enzymatic
reactions. This allows plants to efficiently
utilize the available vitamin resources.
Vitamins in plants have significant
biological significance. They serve as
crucial co-factors for many enzymes
involved in various metabolic reactions. For
example, vitamin B6 is involved in amino
acid metabolism, vitamin C acts as an
antioxidant, and vitamin E is involved in lipid
metabolism. Additionally, vitamins also play
a role in plant defense mechanisms, stress
tolerance, and signal transduction pathways.
Overall, vitamins in plants are essential for
the growth, development, and overall health
of plants.
Q3. Explain in details the carbohydrate
metabolism. How breakdown of six
carbon sugar given energy to biological
system? Explain with diagram.
Q3. Carbohydrate metabolism refers to the
biochemical processes through which
carbohydrates are converted and utilized by
organisms to produce energy. The
breakdown of a six-carbon sugar molecule,
such as glucose, provides energy to the
biological system through a series of steps
known as glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and
oxidative phosphorylation.
1. Glycolysis: In glycolysis, glucose is
converted into two molecules of pyruvate
through a series of enzymatic reactions.
This process occurs in the cytoplasm and
produces a small amount of ATP and NADH.
2. Krebs cycle: Pyruvate molecules are
transported into the mitochondria where
they undergo further metabolism in the
Krebs cycle. The pyruvate is oxidized to
produce carbon dioxide, while generating
ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
3. Oxidative phosphorylation: The NADH and
FADH2 molecules produced in the Krebs
cycle are used in oxidative phosphorylation,
which occurs in the inner membrane of
mitochondria. During this process, the
electron transport chain generates a proton
gradient, which is used to synthesize ATP
through ATP synthase.
This energy produced through the
29
breakdown of glucose in carbohydrate
metabolism can be utilized by the organism
for various biological processes, such as
muscle contraction, cellular respiration, and
synthesis of complex molecules.
Diagram:
Q4. Discuss chemical nature,
physiological effects and types of
alkaloids. What benefits they provide to
humans.
Q4. Alkaloids are a class of naturally
occurring organic compounds that contain a
nitrogen atom in a cyclic structure. They are
found in various plant species and exhibit
diverse chemical structures and
physiological effects.
Chemical nature: Alkaloids are
characterized by their basic and nitrogen-
containing structure. They can be classified
into various groups based on their chemical
structures, such as indole alkaloids, tropane
alkaloids, and isoquinoline alkaloids.
Physiological effects: Alkaloids have a
wide range of physiological effects in
humans. Some alkaloids, such as morphine
and codeine, have analgesic properties and
can act as painkillers. Others, like caffeine
and nicotine, have stimulant effects on the
nervous system. Alkaloids can also have
toxic effects, with some being poisonous in
high doses.
Types of alkaloids: Alkaloids can be
classified into several groups based on their
chemical structures. Some common types
of alkaloids include pyridine alkaloids
(nicotine), quinoline alkaloids (quinine),
isoquinoline alkaloids (morphine), and
indole alkaloids (strychnine).
Benefits to humans: Alkaloids have been
utilized by humans for various purposes.
Some alkaloids, like morphine and codeine,
are used for their pain-relieving properties in
medicine. Other alkaloids, such as quinine,
have been used to treat malaria.
Additionally, alkaloids like caffeine and
nicotine have stimulatory effects and are
consumed in various forms, such as coffee
and tobacco.
Q5. What are Phytochromes? Elaborate
their role in plant growth.
Q5. Phytochromes are a class of
photoreceptor proteins found in plants.
They play a crucial role in regulating various
aspects of plant growth and development in
response to light.
Phytochromes have two main forms: Pr
(red light absorbing) and Pfr (far-red light
30
absorbing). The Pr form absorbs red light
(around 660 nm), converting it to the Pfr
form, while Pfr absorbs far-red light (around
730 nm), converting it back to the Pr form.
The role of phytochromes in plant growth is
diverse and includes the regulation of seed
germination, stem elongation, flowering,
and photoperiodic responses. For example,
phytochromes can promote seed
germination when exposed to red light, and
inhibit it when exposed to far-red light.
Phytochromes also play a role in
photoperiodic responses, where they
regulate the timing of flowering in response
to the length of daylight.
Phytochromes achieve these effects by
interacting with various signaling pathways
and transcription factors. Upon absorption
of light, phytochromes undergo
conformational changes that allow them to
translocate into the nucleus and interact
with target proteins, influencing gene
expression and ultimately leading to
changes in plant physiology.
Q6. What benefits plants get by inter-
conversion
of sucrose to starch. Describe in details
the bio synthesis of starch.
Q6. The inter-conversion of sucrose to
starch provides several benefits to plants.
Sucrose is a transport sugar that is
produced in the leaves through
photosynthesis and transported to other
parts of the plant for growth and storage.
Starch, on the other hand, is a storage form
of glucose that can be broken down and
utilized as an energy source when needed.
The conversion of sucrose to starch allows
plants to efficiently store excess sugars
produced during photosynthesis. This is
particularly important for plants that
experience fluctuating environmental
conditions or seasonal changes in resource
availability. By converting excess sucrose
into starch, plants can store energy for
periods when photosynthesis is limited,
such as during winter or drought.
The process of starch biosynthesis starts
with the breakdown of sucrose into glucose
and fructose by the enzyme invertase.
Glucose molecules are then phosphorylated
by the enzyme hexokinase to form glucose-
6-phosphate. Further enzymatic reactions
convert glucose-6-phosphate into glucose-1
-phosphate, which is then added to a
growing chain of glucose molecules by the
enzyme starch synthase, resulting in the
formation of amylose or amylopectin.
Starch biosynthesis also involves other
enzymes, such as branching enzymes and
debranching enzymes, which determine the
structure and properties of the starch. The
final product, starch, is stored in specialized
structures called amyloplasts or plastids,
primarily in the roots, tubers, and seeds of
plants.
Overall, the inter-conversion of sucrose to
starch allows plants to efficiently store and
utilize energy, ensuring their survival and
growth even under adverse environmental
conditions.
31