PHYSICS - FORM 2 NOTES by BM

/,.
2017
COMPLETE PHYSICS BOOK 2
By Ben O. Mutalemwa
B.Sc. (Ed.)
1/1/2017
Table of Content
 Table of content ……………………………………………………..……….…..Page 1

 Preface …………………………………………………………………………...Page 2
1. Introduction to Electrostatic …………………………….……………….…….... Page 3
1.1. Concept and types of charge ……………………..………... Page 3
1.2. Fundamental law of static electricity ………..………..…… Page 4
1.3. Methods of charging and discharging …………….…….. Page 5
1.4. Capacitors, types, charging and discharging ………….….. Page 10
1.5. Arrangement of capacitors and related calculations ……… Page 18
1.6. Coulombs law and charge distribution …………………… Page 20
1.7. Application of static electricity in our daily life ………….. Page 27
2. Current Electricity …………………………………….……….……..………… Page 29
2.1. Electric symbols………………………….. ………............. Page 30
2.2. Factors affecting the resistance of a solid conductor .……...Page 33
2.3. Construction of a simple circuit and resistors ……………... Page 34
2.4. Resistors and their combinations …………..…………….... Page 35
2.5. Practical sample questions ………………………………… Page 43
3. Magnetism..………………………………….…….……………………..……... Page 44
3.1. Magnetic substances …………..………………………….. Page 44
3.2. Laws of magnetism ………….....………………………….. Page 46
3.3. Earth’s Magnetic field ………….…………………………. Page 53
3.4. Test for Magnets …………………………………………... Page 55
4. Equilibrium ………………………………………………………………………Page 57
4.1. Moment of force and principle of moment …………….…. Page 52
4.2. Centre of gravity and Equilibrium …………..……….…… Page 61
4.3. Practical sample questions …………………………..……. Page 67
5. Simple machines……………………………………………………………….... Page 69
5.1. Efficiency of a simple machine …………………………….Page 71
5.2. Forms and related calculations of simple machines …….….Page 72
6. Motion in straight Line ………………………………………………….………. Page 92
6.1. Distance, displacement, speed and velocity……...…………Page 93
6.2. Velocity – time graph …………………………..……..……Page 96
6.3. Equations of motion ………………………………………. Page 98
6.4. Acceleration due to gravity …………..………………….... Page 107
6.5. Projectile motion ………………………………………….. Page 110
6.6. Practical sample questions ………………..…………..…….Page 123
7. Newton’s Laws of motion …………………………………...……………..……. Page 124
7.1. Newton’s 1st law of motion, inertia and momentum……….Page 124
7.2. Newton’s 2nd law of motion ……………………..……...…Page 125
7.3. Newton’s 3rd law of motion …..…………………………….Page 128
7.4. Conservation of linear momentum ………..………….……Page 129
8. Temperature ………………………………………………………………..……. Page 139
8.1. Differences between heat and temperature………….…….. Page 139
8.2. Thermometers and their types ………………………...…... Page 140
9. Sustainable energy sources ………………………….……………………….….. Page 144
9.1. Transformation of Energy ………………………………... Page 144
9.2. Types of sources of energy………………..…………..….. Page 144
Canossa High School Physics Form 2 Prepared by Mr. Ben. O._0713 575 000 Page 1
Preface
Complete Physics notes form 2 is the second writing in the exciting series written specifically
for the Form Two Secondary learners in accordance to Tanzania systems of education.
First and foremost in the minds of the author has been a desire to write a text that will support
form two students learning physics while making the subject interesting, enjoyable and
meaningful.
The manuscript has been written using clear and concise language throughout, and all
concepts have been fully explored first in general and then illustrated in context. Much care
has been taken to use illustrative material that is fresh, varied and appealing to a wide range
of students of both sexes.
The manuscript boasts many features that will help students and teachers find it easy to use.
Each of the manuscript’s nine chapters has been divided into a number of self-contained
sections. At the end of each section is a set of homework-style questions that are designed to
reinforce the main points.
Furthermore, demanding questions are included at the end of the chapter. These could be
used for assignment or interactive tutorial works. A further set of challenging questions is
included to cover each area of study. These could be used for revision. There are over 1000
questions in the manuscript and most answers are supplied.
Within each section, the concept development and worked examples occupy the main three
quarters column. The remaining quarter column has been set aside for some of the diagrams
and graphs. Each detailed study is a self-contained unit of work, structured to ensure efficient
and effective coverage of the chosen topic.
This manuscript is a result of team work done by professional teachers from different schools
in East Africa but mostly in Tanzania and experienced editors, who have worked efficiently
in order to give out a better product to all learners and educators who are the main target of
this manuscript.
I could see far only because I was able to stand on the shoulders of the giants. This is to thank
the folks who paved the way for this manuscript to be completed. Mr. Richard Mwakyanjala,
Mr. Yusuph Jabir, Mr. M. Luchagula for their detailed analysis of the various parts of
Tanzania syllabus. Thanks are also due to Mr. Lemigius Kyarwenda and Mr. Innocent Simon
for advice on certain matters relating to how the book should be set.
Acknowledgement is made to my wife Magdalene for typing and again undertaking the re-
type after several advises offered by my colleagues.
My children Bertha, Benson, Beatrice and Brighton are also not forgotten for offering their
ample time to me so as to accomplish the task of preparing this wholesome manuscript.
© 2017 Ben Omulangira Mutalemwa

This work is protected by United Republic of Tanzania copyright laws and is provided solely for
the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or
sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the
work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to
students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this
work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honour the intended pedagogical
purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.
01. ELECTROSTATICS
 Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest. The charge at rest simply mean the electric
charges stored on a conductor.
The Concept of Static Electricity

 Have you ever stuck a balloon to the wall after rubbing it on your head?
 Has your jumper ever made crackling noises when you took it off?
 Have you ever got an electric shock off your door knob?
 Have you ever seen lightening?
All these things happen because of Static Electricity
 Static electricity occurs when there is a build-up of electric charge on the surface of a
material. It is called static electricity because the charges don’t move.
 The electricity we use every day involves moving charges.
The Origin of Charges

 When a body is rubbed, it causes the atoms to loose or gain electrons which are revolving
around the atomic structure and causing the body to become charged.
The two Types of Charges

Positive charge
This is a charge acquired when an object loose electrons from its atomic structure
Negative charge
This is a charge acquired when an object gain electrons from its atomic structure
Identification of charge
Procedure
Suspend a polythene rod A rubbed with fur. Bring another polythene rod B rubbed with fur up
to the rod A. Take a plastic rod and rub it with fur. Bring the plastic rod to up to the suspended
rod A. Repeat the exercise with acetate and glass rod rubbed with silk cloth.
Observation
An electrified polythene rod repels another electrified polythene rod. An acetate rod rubbed
with silk repels another acetate rod rubbed with silk cloth but it attracts a plastic rod rubbed
with fur.
Explanation
Polythene and plastic when rubbed with fur becomes electrified with the same kind of
electricity known as negative electricity (charge).
Acetate and glass when rubbed with silk cloth becomes electrified with the same kind of
electricity called positive electricity (charge).
Charge acquired after rubbing

Materials Rubbed with Charge acquire
Ebonite Fur/cloth Negative
Glass Silk Positive
Polythene Cloth/fur Negative
Polystyrene Cloth/fur Negative
Perspex Woolen cloth Positive
Cellulose Woolen cloth Positive
The Fundamental Law of Static Electricity.
The Fundamental law of electrostatic charges states that:- “Like charges repel each other
while unlike charges attract each other”
Polarization:
 Polarization is the process of separating opposite charges within an object. The positive
charge becomes separated from the negative charge.
 By inducing the movement of electrons within an object, one side of the object is left with
an excess of positive charge and the other side of the object is left with an excess of
negative charge. Charge becomes separated into opposites.
 Charged objects attract neutral objects through polarization. Paper bits become polarized
and are attracted to a charged piece of acetate.
Polarization is Not Charging

 Perhaps the biggest misconception that pertains to polarization is the belief that
polarization involves the charging of an object. Polarization is not charging! When an
object becomes polarized, there is simply a redistribution of
the centers of positive and negative charges within the object.
Either by the movement of electrons across the surface of the
object (as is the case in conductors) or through the distortion
of electron clouds (as is the case in insulators), the centers of
positive and negative charges become separated from each
other. The atoms at one location on the object possess more
protons than electrons and the atoms at another location have more electrons than protons.
While there are the same number of protons and electrons within the object, these protons
and electrons are not distributed in the same proportion across the object's surface. Yet,
there are still equal numbers of positive charges (protons) and negative charges
(electrons) within the object. While there is a separation of charge, there is NOT an
imbalance of charge. When neutral objects become polarized, they are still neutral
objects. The process of polarization is often used in many charging methods.
Charging
In order to understand the process of charging we have to understand the structure of objects.
 All bodies are made up of extremely small, indestructible bits of matter called atoms.
 An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus consists of proton
and neutron.
 The protons are positively charged while electrons are negatively charged and the
neutrons are neutral.
 The whole atom is electrically neutral because it contain equal number of protons and
electrons.
 Since the electrons are outside the atom, they are the sub-atomic particles affected by
charging process.
 Charging is the process whereby a material loses or gains electrons. Simply we can say,
charging is the process of electrifying a body.
The following are the methods of charging;

 Rubbing
 Contact
 Induction
Charging by Rubbing/Friction
 Static electricity is caused when certain materials are rubbed against each other.
 Electrons can be rubbed off one material and on to another.
 The material that has got extra electrons is now negatively charged
 The material which has lost electrons is positively charged.
 A polythene rod (plastic) rubbed with fur becomes negatively charged. Rubbing results
in the transfer of electrons from fur to the polythene rod.
 Fur becomes positively charged because some of its electrons are transferred to
the polythene rod.
 The polythene gains excess electrons and hence it becomes negatively charged.
 A glass (acetate) rode rubbed with a cloth, electrons move from the glass to the cloth.
 Glass becomes positively charged because some of its electrons are transferred
to the cloth/silk.
 The silk gains excess electrons and hence it becomes negatively charged.
The law of conservation of electric charge: "The net amount of electric charge produced in any
process is zero." Another way of saying this is that in any process electric charge cannot be
created or destroyed, however, it can be transferred from one object to another.
Note: It is only the electrons in matter which can be transferred by rubbing.
Charging by contact
This is the method where by a charged body is brought in contact with uncharged body.
 Let us say x is positively charged while y is neutral charged. Both plates are then placed
on insulating blocks as shown below
 If the two plates are brought together, then plate x loses electrons while y gains electrons
and become positively charged.
Charging by induction
 The charged object is brought near but not touched to a neutral conducting object.
1. Consider two bodies i.e. charged body x and 2. Place x near y

uncharged body y
Since like charges repel, unlike

attract each other, negative charge
will pull positive and push
negative charges.
3. Touch y to allow movement of electrons to the 4. Now the uncharged body y

ground. The flow of electrons to ground is becomes positively charged.
called Earthing.
Detection of Charges
Electrophorus
An electrophorus consists of a metal disc made of brass conductor fitted with an insulating
handle (mostly ebonite) resting on polythene base used to determine the presence of charge.
Charging an Electrophorus
The polythene is given a negative charge by rubbing it with fur causing positive charge to be
induced on the upper part of the brass plate, and a negative charge on the lower part of the
brass plate will leave the polythene plate charged negatively. The electrophorus is left with
the excess positive charges.
The top of the upper disc is then touched briefly using a finger, hereby carrying away the
negative charge to the earth; this is called Earthing.
There is a force of attraction between the metal disc and the base. To overcome attraction
force between them, a spark (electric energy) is normally produced upon their separation.
This spark can be used for lighting gas burners in laboratory.
The electrophorus can now be used to charge a gold leaf electroscope.
The electrophorus can now be used to charge a gold leaf electroscope.
The Gold-leaf Electroscope
The instrument used to detect the presence of electric charges is called gold leaf electroscope.
Gold leaf electroscope consists of an insulated brass rod with two pieces of thin gold foil at one
end and a brass cap at the other end.
 When the brass cap is touched with a charged object the leaves of the electroscope
spread out. This is because the charge on the object is conducted through the brass cap
and the brass rod to the leaves.
 As they received the same kind of charge, the leaves repel each other and thus spread
apart, this is charging by contact.
If you touch the brass cap with your finger, the charge is transferred through your body to the
earth and the leaves of the electroscope then collapse together.
Steps of Charging of a Gold-leaf Electroscope
(i) The polythene slab is charged negative by rubbing it with fur.
(ii) The brass disc is then placed on top of the slab so that the two charges become induced
onto respective materials.
(iii) The brass disc is touched with a finger, electrons on the upper surface are repelled to
the earth.
(iv) There is a force of attraction between the metal disc and the base. A spark (electric
energy) is normally produced upon their separation. This spark can be used for lighting
gas burners in laboratory.
Charging a Gold-Leaf Electroscope Positively

It can be used to charge a gold leaf electroscope by:
 Contact
 Induction
By contact
Here a positively charged electrophorus is made to touch the brass cap of the gold-leaf
electroscope. The leaf of the gold-leaf electroscope diverges.
When a charged electrophorus is brought into contact with the electroscope, the latter gets
charged and the leaves diverge. It acquires a negative charge. This is determined using the
charged rods. When a positively charged glass rod is brought near the cap. It causes the leaf to
collapse.
By induction
Induction- is the transfer of opposite effects from one body to another without contact.
In order to obtain a charge of a given sign, the inducing charge must be of an opposite charge.
If charge is placed on an insulator at a given location the excess charge will remain at the initial
location. The particles of the insulator do not permit the free flow of electrons. Charge present
in an insulator or conductor.
Discharging a gold leaf electroscope
To discharge an electroscope, the conducting system is connected to earth by a conductor such
as touching with a finger.
Conductors and Insulators

Conductors
 Conductor is a material that permit some electrons to flow freely from atom to atom
within the material examples are copper, steel, iron, silver and gold.
 When there is excess of positive or negative charge on an object made of a conducting
material, the conduction electrons will move to minimize the repulsive force.
Insulator
 Insulator is a material that does not allow electricity to flow through it examples of
insulators are plastic, wood, rubber, mica, ebonite and glass.
 Insulators on the other hand do not allow their electrons to flow freely from at atom to
atom; this is because the electrons in their atoms move around their nuclei in various
equal magnitudes to the charge on the protons. The electrons are also firmly attracted
to the nucleus hence bound to these atoms.
Function of a Gold-Leaf Electroscope

1. Testing for the sign of the charge on the body.
This is done basing on this summary
Charge on the electroscope Charge brought near cap Effect on leaf divergence
+ + Increase
- - Increase
+ - Decrease
- + Decrease
+ or - Uncharged body Decrease
2. Identifying the insulating properties of materials.
 If a conductor is placed near the cap positively charged electroscope, then the
metal leaf will converge and a divergence will mean that the material is an
insulator.
3. Detecting the presence of charge on a body.
 When a charge is induced on the gold leaf and the brass plate of an electroscope,
repulsion occurs between them. When the charged body is removed, the leaf
collapses indicating that the induced charge on the electroscope is temporary.
Capacitors
Capacitor is a device which is used for the storage of charges.
It consists of two conductors, parallel-nearly separated by air or any other dielectric.
 A dielectric material is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied
electric field.
 Potential difference (p.d): This the work done needed to move a charged particle from
one point to another point. Its SI unit is voltage. The earth is always at zero potential
Dielectric is an insulating medium used between plates of a capacitor.

 The ability of a capacitor to store electric charges is known as capacitance.
The SI unit of Capacitance is Farad
 Farad is the capacitance of a capacitor in which one coulomb of charge causes a potential
difference of one volt
 Capacitors are found in all electronic circuits, e.g. television, alarm systems, etc.
 The potential difference, V across the two capacitor plates of the capacitor is directly
proportional to the charge, Q accumulating on its plates
Mathematically Q ∝ 𝑉
Removing the proportionality constant
Q = kV
but: k = C = Capacitance
∴ Q = CV
Mode of Action of a Capacitance

 Consider two unequal metal cans which were made to stand on the caps of two identical
electroscopes. These cans are given equal charges of Q units from an electrophorus disc.
The charged disc is lowered inside a can until it touches the bottom. In this way the whole
of the charge is given up to the can and goes to the outside.
 It will be noticed that the leaf divergence is greater for the small can, showing that it has
acquired higher potential than the larger can. In this case, the larger can is said to have a
larger capacitance while the smaller can has a lower capacitance. When the two cans are
joined by a wire electricity flows from the smaller can to the larger can until potentials are
equalized.
Types of Capacitors
Any arrangement of two conductors separated from one another by an insulator forms a
capacitor.
There are different types of capacitors depending on the dielectric material used and the
application.
 Paper (plastic filled) capacitor
 Waxed papers or plastic forms the insulating material. Polyester films can also
be used as a separating material.
 Ceramic capacitor
 These are constructed by depositing a metal film on each side of a ceramic disc.
Ceramic capacitors are normally connected to the transformer input and output
coils to stabilize the voltage.
 Electrolytic capacitor
 In this capacitors, metal sheets are separated by papers soaked in a chemical. As
the capacitor charges, a thin layer of aluminium oxide is formed on the positive
plate thereby providing a thin insulating layer between the plates. The thinner
the layer, the higher the capacitance. This capacitor is polarized, that means one
terminal is permanently positive and the other negative permanently. Their ends
are for safety purposes labeled positive and negative as a wrong connection can
lead to explosion.
 Mica capacitor
 The sheets of metal foils are separated by strips of mica. Mica is preferred
because it is a natural that splits easily into very thin sheets.
 Variable capacitor ( Air filled Capacitor)

 Also called an air filled capacitor because the semi-circular plates are
separated by air. The capacitance is altered by changing the overlapping area
between the pates. These are mainly used for tuning radio sets.
Charging a Capacitor
A capacitor consists of two metal plates (say plate A and plate B) arranged in parallel with a
dielectric materials between them. The plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery
gets positively charged, and the one connected to the negative terminal becomes negatively
charged.
The electrons tend to accumulate on the plate connected to the negative side. This is partly
due to the attraction of the positive side of the cell or repulsion from the nearby negative
charge. As the plates are charged the potential difference (p.d) between the plates increases
until it equals the electromotive force (e.m.f) of the battery and then the charging stops.
Current flow until the p.d. across the capacitor is equal to the voltage of the charging cells.
Charging of the capacitor then stops.
The Curve of a charging Capacitor
 When the circuit is completed, the capacitor starts to charge
The capacitor continues to charge until it reaches its maximum charge (Q = Cε)
Once the capacitor is fully charged, the current in the circuit is zero
 The charge on the capacitor varies with time
o q = Q(1 – e-t/RC)
o The time constant, =RC
 The time constant represents the time required for the charge to increase from zero to
63.2% of its maximum
 In a circuit with a large time constant, the capacitor charges very slowly
The capacitor charges very quickly if there is a small time constant
After t = 10𝜏, the capacitor is over 99.99% charged
Discharging a Capacitor
 When the two plates of a capacitor are joined, the electrons from the negatively
charged plate will flow around the circuit and neutralize the positive charges on the
positively charged plate.
 This movement of electrons will cause a current to flow for some time and if you are
using a wire to connect the two plates you can draw a spark.
 When the current stop flowing, the capacitor is said to be discharged. A capacitor can
also be discharged by connecting its plates together via a resistor and its p.d decreases
up to zero when the capacitor is fully discharged.
The curve of discharging a Capacitor
 When a charged capacitor is placed in the circuit, it can be discharged
o q = Qe-t/RC
 The charge decreases exponentially
 At t =  = RC, the charge decreases to 0.368 Qmax
In other words, in one time constant, the capacitor loses 63.2% of its initial charge
Check Your Understanding

1. Four capacitors, of capacitance 20μF, 30μF, 30μF, and 40μF are arranged in a
circuit with a switch and a 7.5V battery as shown below. Calculate
(a) The equivalent capacitance of the four capacitors
(b) The quantity of charge in the circuit
2. Calculate the quantity of charge in the following set capacitors
3. Three capacitors, of capacitance 1μF, 5μF and 6μF are arranged in a circuit with a
switch and a 12V battery as shown below. The equivalent capacitance of the three
capacitors is
(a) 2μF
(b) 3μF
(c) 6μF
11
(d) 5 μF
11
(e) μF
12
Ans:- (b)
4. Calculate the total capacitance in the following diagrams

(a) (b)
4. The distribution of electric charge in a H2O molecule is non-uniform. The more

electronegative oxygen atom attracts electrons from the hydrogen atom. Thus, the
oxygen atoms acquire a partial negative charge and the hydrogen atoms acquire a
partial positive charge. The water molecule is "polarized." Which diagram(s)
below correctly portray(s) a pair of H2O molecules? Explain.
5. Upon entering the room, you observe two balloons suspended from the ceiling.
You notice that instead of hanging straight down
vertically, the balloons seems to be repelling each
other. You can conclusively say...
(a) Both balloons have a negative charge.
(b) Both balloons have a positive charge.
(c) One balloon is charge positively and the
other negatively.
(d) Both balloons are charged with the same type of charge. Explain your
answer.
6. Balloons X , Y and Z are suspended from strings as shown at the right. Negatively
charged balloon X attracts balloon Y and balloon Y attracts balloon Z. Balloon Z
____. List all that apply.
(a) may be positively charged
(b) may be negatively charged
(c) may be neutral
(d) must be positively charged
(e) must be negatively charged
(f) must be neutral
7. Which of the diagrams below best represents the charge distribution on a metal
sphere when a positively charged plastic tube is placed nearby?
8. On two occasions, the following charge interactions between balloons A, B and C

are observed. In each case, it is known that balloon B is charged negatively. Based
on these observations, what can you conclusively confirm about the charge on
balloon A and C for each situation?
Equivalence Capacitance of a Combination of Capacitors

Factors affecting the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor.
There are three factors which affect the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor, namely;
1. Area of plates
 An increase in the area of the plate causes a decrease in potential difference
1
between the plates, hence an increase in capacitance. (C ∝ 𝑉 𝒐𝒓 𝑪 ∝ 𝑨)
2. Dielectric between the plates.
 A decrease in the distance between plates causes a decrease in potential
1
difference between the plates, hence an increase in capacitance. (C ∝ 𝑑 )
𝐴
∴C∝𝑑
𝜀𝐴
∴ C=
𝑑
Where by
C = capacitance in Farads
𝜀 = the permittivity of free space
A = Area of plate overlap in square meters
d = The distance between two plates.
3. Distance apart of the plates.

 Dielectric material will cause the capacitance to increase or decrease
depending on the material. Example, capacitance increases if we use dielectric
material such as glass or book or polythene between the plates rather than air
Relative permeability (dielectric constant) of a medium

Relative permeability is the ratio of the capacitance of a given capacitor with the medium as
dielectric to the capacitance of the capacitor with a vacuum as the dielectric.
It has no units since it is a ration of similar quantities. Paraffin wax has a relative permeability
of about 2 while that of mica is about 8.
Example
Two plates of a parallel plate capacitor are1mm apart and each has an area of 6 cm2. Given that
the potential difference between the plates is 90V, calculate the charge stored in the capacitor.
(Take 𝜀 =8.85 × 10-12Fm-1)
Solution
𝜀𝐴
C=
𝑑
8.85 × 10−12 𝐹𝑚−1 𝑥 6 × 10−4 𝑚2
C= = 5.31 × 10−12 𝐹
1 𝑥 103
Q = CV
Q = 5.31 × 10−12 𝐹 x 90
Q = 4.779 × 10−10 𝐶
Arrangement of Capacitors
(a) Capacitors in Series
When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than any one of the
series capacitors' individual capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in
series, the overall effect is that of a single (equivalent) capacitor having the sum total of
the plate spacing of the individual capacitors. As we've just seen, an increase in plate
spacing, with all other factors unchanged, results in decreased capacitance.
Thus, the total capacitance is less than any one of the individual capacitors' capacitances.
The formula for calculating the series total capacitance is the same form as for
calculating parallel resistances:
From the figure above, total voltage V= Vt = V1 + V2 + V3

But: Q = CV ------------- make v the subject
𝑄 𝑄𝑡
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉 = → 𝑉𝑡 =
𝐶 𝐶𝑡
Since Charge stored is the same, i.e. Qt = Q1 = Q2 = Q
𝑄𝑡 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑡 = → = +
𝐶𝑡 𝐶𝑡 𝐶1 𝐶2
Dividing by Q each term,
1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑡 𝐶1 𝐶2
If two capacitors are in series, then their total capacitance, C is given by
1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑡 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
∴ 𝑪𝒕 =
𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐
(b) Capacitors in Parallel
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of the
individual capacitors' capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel,
the overall effect is that of a single equivalent capacitor having the sum total of the plate
areas of the individual capacitors. As we've just seen, an increase in plate area, with all
other factors unchanged, results in increased capacitance.
Thus, the total capacitance is more than any one of the individual capacitors' capacitances.
The formula for calculating the parallel total capacitance is the same form as for calculating
series resistances:
From the diagram above Qt = Q1 + Q2, but: Q = CV
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑄𝑡 = 𝐶𝑡 𝑉𝑡 → 𝐶𝑡 𝑉𝑡 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
But: The voltage across each capacitor is the same i.e. Vt = V1 = V2 = V

𝐶𝑡 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉
Dividing by V each term,
If two capacitors are in series, then their total capacitance, C is given by
∴ 𝑪𝒕 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐

1. Two capacitors of 20 μF and 25 μF are connected in (i) series and (ii) parallel. What is the
effective capacitance for when connecting in
(i) Series (Ans:- 11.11 μF )
(ii) Parallel (Ans:- 45 μF )
2. Determine the effective capacitance obtained when two capacitors each of 10 μF are
connected first in parallel and then in series. (Ans:- parallel 5 μF and 20 μF in series)
3. A certain circuit is required to use an effective capacitance of 3 μF, there are two
capacitors; the first is 12 μF,
(i) What will be the value of the other capacitor? (Ans:- 4 μF )
(ii) State the way it will be connected to the first. (Ans:- connected in series to the first)
Coulomb's Law Equation
The quantitative expression for the effect of these three variables on electric force is known
as Coulomb's law. Coulomb's law states that the electrical force between two charged objects
is directly proportional to the product of the quantity of charge on the objects and inversely
proportional to the square of the separation distance between the two objects. In equation
form, Coulomb's law can be stated as
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑭=𝒌
𝒅𝟐
Where
 Q1 represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs),
 Q2 represents the quantity of charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and
 d represents the distance of separation between the two objects (in meters).
 k is representing a proportionality constant known as the Coulomb's law constant.
The value of this constant is dependent upon the medium that the charged objects are
immersed in. In the case of air, the value is approximately 9.0 x 109 Nm2 /C2
If the charged objects are present in water, the value of k can be reduced by as much as a
factor of 80.
The distance d in the equation is the distance between the centers of charge for both objects
not the distance between their nearest surfaces.
Calculations Using Coulomb's Law
In physics courses, Coulomb's law is often used as a type of algebraic recipe to solve physics
word problems. Three such examples are shown here.
1. Suppose that two point charges, each with a charge of +1.00 Coulomb are separated
by a distance of 1.00 meter. Determine the magnitude of the electrical force of
repulsion between them.
Solution
Given that,
Q1 = 1.00 C, Q2 = 1.00 C and d = 1.00 m
Felect =?
Q1 Q 2
From, F=k
d2
1C x 1C
F = 9 x 109 N ∙ m2 /C2 x
1.0 m2
Felect = 9.0 x 109 N
2. Two balloons are charged with an identical quantity and type of charge: -6.25 nC.
They are held apart at a separation distance of 61.7 cm. Determine the magnitude of
the electrical force of repulsion between them.
Solution
The final step of the strategy involves substituting known values into the Coulomb's
law equation and using proper algebraic steps to solve for the unknown information.
Given that,
Q1 = -6.25 nC = -6.25 x 10-9 C, Q2 = -6.25 nC = -6.25 x 10-9 C and d = 0.617m
Felect =?
Q1 Q 2
From, F=k
d2
−6.25x10−9 𝐶 𝑥 − 6.25x10−9 𝐶
F = 9 x 109 N ∙ m2 /C2 x
0.617 x 0.617 m2
Felect = 9.23 x 10 -7 N
3. Two balloons with charges of +3.37 µC and -8.21 µC attract each other with a force
of 0.0626 Newton. Determine the separation distance between the two balloons.
Solution
Given that,
Q1 = +3.37 µC = +3.37 x 10-6 C
Q2 = -8.21 µC = -8.21 x 10-6 C
Felect = -0.0626 N (use a - force value since it is repulsive)
d=?
Q1 Q 2
From, d2 = k
F
+3.37x10−6 𝐶 𝑥 − 8.21x10−6 𝐶
d = √9 x 109 N ∙ m2 /C 2 x
−0.0626 N
The distance of separation = 1.99 m
4. Two charges Q1 = - 8 μC and Q2 = +12 μC are placed 120 mm apart in the air. What
is the resultant force on a third charge Q3 = - 4 μC placed midway between the two
charges?
Solution
Given that,
Q1 = - 8x10-6 C
Q2 = +12x10-6 C
Q3 = - 4x10-6 C
r = 0. 120 m
- - +
Q1 0.06m Q3 0.06m Q2
Q1 Q 3
From, F1 = k
r2
(8 x 10−6 )(4 x 10−6 )

F1 = 9 𝑥109 = 80𝑁
(0.06)2
Q2 Q3
From, F2 = k
r2
(12 x 10−6 )(4 x 10−6 )

F2 = 9 𝑥109 = 120𝑁
(0.06)2
FR = 80 N + 120 N (to the right)
5. Find the separation distance between two plates if the capacitance between them is 6 ×
10-12F and the enclosed area of 3 cm2. Take 𝜀 =8.85 × 10-12Fm-1 (Ans:- 4.425 × 10-4 m2)
6. It is dangerous to carry a pointed umbrella when it is raining. Explain

Answer
The sharp point of the umbrella attracts charge readily to neutralize the charge in the
cloud which may electrocute the person holding the umbrella
Comparing Electrical and Gravitational Forces
Electrical force and gravitational force are the two non-contact forces discussed in Physics
subject. Coulomb's law equation for electrical force bears a strong resemblance to Newton's
equation for universal gravitation.
𝐐𝟏 𝐐𝟐 𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐
𝐅𝐫𝐨𝐦, 𝑭𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕 = 𝐤 𝟐
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗 = 𝐆
𝐝 𝐝𝟐
( k = 9.0 x 10 N ∙ m /C 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒 6.67 x 10 N ∙ m2 /kg 2
9 2 2 −11
The two equations have a very similar form. Both equations show an inverse square
relationship between force and separation distance. And both equations show that the force is
proportional to the product of the quantity that causes the force - charge in the case of
electrical force and mass in the case of gravitational force.
Yet there are some striking differences between these two forces. First, a comparison of the
proportionality constants - k versus G - reveals that the Coulomb's law constant (k) is
significantly greater than Newton's universal gravitation constant (G).
Subsequently a unit of charge will attract a unit of charge with significantly more force than a
unit of mass will attract a unit of mass. Second, gravitational forces are only attractive;
electrical forces can be either attractive or repulsive.
Solve these Questions

1. Determine the electrical force of attraction between two balloons with separate charges of
+3.5 x 10-8 C and -2.9 x 10-8 C when separated by a distance of 0.65 m.
2. Determine the electrical force of attraction between two balloons that are charged with
the opposite type of charge but the same quantity of charge. The charge on the balloons is
6.0 x 10-7 C and they are separated by a distance of 0.50 m.
3. Joann has rubbed a balloon with wool to give it a charge of -1.0 x 10-6 C. She then
acquires a plastic golf tube with a charge of +4.0 x 10-6 C localized at a given position.
She holds the location of charge on the plastic golf tube a distance of 50.0 cm above the
balloon. Determine the electrical force of attraction between the golf tube and the balloon.
4. A balloon with a charge of 4.0 µC is held a distance of 0.70 m from a second balloon
having the same charge. Calculate the magnitude of the repulsive force.
5. At what distance of separation must two 1.00-microCoulomb charges be positioned in
order for the repulsive force between them to be equivalent to the weight (on Earth) of a
1.00-kg mass?
6. Two charged objects have a repulsive force of 0.080 N. If the charge of one of the objects
is doubled, then what is the new force?
7. Two charged objects have an attractive force of 0.60 N. If the distance separating the
objects is quadrupled, then what is the new force?
8. Two charged objects have a repulsive force of 0.80 N. If the distance separating the
objects is halved, then what is the new force?
9. Two charged objects have a repulsive force of 0.10 N. If the charge of one of the objects
is doubled, and the distance separating the objects is doubled, then what is the new force?
10. Two charged objects have an attractive force of 0.280 N. If the charge of one of the
objects is increased by a factor of four, and the distance separating the objects is doubled,
then what is the new force?
Charge distribution on a conductor
Usually, charges are distributed on the outer surface of conductors of different shapes.
Investigating surface distribution of a charge on conductors
 A proof plane is pressed into contact with the surface at various places of the
conductor.
 The charges on the proof plane are then transferred to the electroscope.
 The divergence of the leaf will give a rough measure of the amount of charge
transferred and hence surface density of the charge.
Observations
 Hollow object only have charges on their outer surface
 Within the solid part of the conductor the net charge is zero
 Charges are normally concentrated on the sharpest points of a conductor
 Excess charges on a non-uniform conductor become concentrated at the sharpest points.
Additionally, excess charge may move on or off the conductor at the sharpest points.
 To see how and why this happens, consider the charged conductor. The electrostatic
repulsion of like charges is most effective in moving them apart on the flattest surface,
and so they become least concentrated there.
Lightning Conductor
Lightning is a gigantic electric spark discharge occurring between two charged clouds or
between a cloud and the earth.
How Lightning Happens

 Occurs when water molecules (clouds) in the sky rubbed each other resulting the lower
portion of clouds become negatively, the upper portion of clouds become positively
while the ground become positively after being induced by lower portion
 The presence of impurities or dust particles in various parts of the air create regions
between clouds and earth that are more conductive than other regions.
 When wind passes across clouds, a few electrons move across the air toward positive
clouds but in zigzag path called Radar, as in the figure below
 See the picture below
Lightning conductor
 This is a long pointed iron rod with its lower end buried in the earth and the other above
the highest part of the building which is used to protect the building from lightning
damage.
 This is a metal rod attached to a building and connected to a thick copper strip that leads
into the ground so as to protect buildings and other structures from lightning strikes.
 This is a device that protects structure from strikes by providing an easier path for
current to flow to earth than through the structure.
Structure of a lightning conductor

It consists of a long thick pointed copper rod with its lower end buried in the earth (earth plate)
and the other end reaching above the highest part of the building and ending in several sharp
spikes. -It is fixed to the side of the building.
Mode of action of lightning conductor
The lightning conductor is placed above the highest point on the building because lightning
tends to hit the highest object within its region or path.
When lightning strikes the conductor, electric flow along the wire and dissipated to the
ground through the path of least resistance there by protecting the building.
Ground (Earth)
 This is a large conductor which acts both as an infinite supplier of electrons or an
infinite receiver for electrons
Earthing (Grounding)
 This is the process of connecting of a material with polarized charges to the ground
 Means to neutralize a charged body
Point of action
 This is the behavior of charges to concentrate at the edges of sharp or pointed objects
Function of Lightning Conductor
 It helps to protect buildings and other structures from lightning strikes.
Thunderstorm
 When the lightning flash happens it heats the air to a temperature 5 times hotter than
the surface of the sun causing bombardment of air molecules. This causes nearby air
to expand and vibrate forming an audible sound called thunder.
Gas Station Fires

 Carol said a static gas pump fire is blamed for burning her daughter so badly she needed
skin grafts on her legs.
 Carol had put the gas pump nozzle on automatic and re-entered her car to write a
check. When her then-12-year-old daughter, wearing a sweater and jacket that may
have created static electricity, reached for the nozzle, flames suddenly ignited her
clothing.
Human with static electricity

 Human body cannot feel less than 2,000 volts of static discharge
Static charge built up by scuffing shoes on a carpet can exceed 20,000 volts?
How does a positively charged rod attract a neutral object?

 When a + charged rod is put near neutral object, negative charge is induced on the
side of the object near the rod and positive charge is induced on the side away from
the rod. The rod can attract the neutral object because attraction between rod and –
induced charge is greater than the repulsion between rod and + induced charge.
Why do gasoline tankers usually have metal chains at the back?

 When cars run, their tires and bodies are usually charged by friction. For gasoline
tankers, if the accumulated charge is large enough, sparks can be produced and
explosion will occur if gasoline vapor is ignited. Those metal chains conduct the
charge on the bodies of tankers to the ground and avoid the danger.
Why does lighting strike in zig – zag pattern?

 This is because: “The propagation of the lighting channel follows a path of the least
resistance which is not a straight but a zig – zag line because impurity (moisture) in the
atmosphere causes the air to be ionized in different directions.
Dangers of Electrostatics
1. When a liquid flows through a pipe its molecules become charged due to rubbing on the
inner surface of the pipe .If the liquid is inflammable it can cause sparks and explode
2. Similarly , explosive fuel carried in plastic cans can get charged due to rubbing which
may result in sparks and even explosion
3. It is therefore advisable to store fuels in metal cans so that any charges generated
continually leak.
Application of static electricity
Static electricity can be dangerous but it can also be useful, as long as it is used carefully.
Examples of uses of static electricity are:
1. Used in printers:
 A printer uses electrostatic charges to direct ink to the correct place on the
page of paper
2. Photocopiers
 A photocopier uses electrostatic charge to produce a copy of any original
document
3. Spray painting
 Used in paint spraying of car bodies by using an electrostatic spry gun. Negatively
charged paint adheres to positively charged metal.
4. Finger prints
 Fine mist of negatively charged gold particles adhere to positively charged
protein on fingerprint.
5. Pollutant remover
 Used in industrial chimneys: Pollution in industries can be reduced using
electrostatic charges
1. Why was Benjamin Franklin’s kite-flying experiment so dangerous? (Ans:-He was
providing lightning with an easy path to him)
2. State what happen in the following conditions.
(a) An ebonite rod is rubbed with fur
(b) A negatively charged electroscope’s cap is touched by a neutral glass rod
(c) A proof plane is inserted in a hollow and tested for charge
3. Match the items in List A with those in List B
List A List B
(a) Stores charge (i) Capacitor
(b) C = C1 + C2 (ii) Repel
(c) Glass (iii) Metal caps
(d) Similar charges (iv) Positive charge
(e) Detect charges (v) Gold – leaf
(vi) Insulator
(vii) Attracts
(viii) Capacitors in parallel
(ix) Capacitors in series
(x) Negative charge
4. Draw the sketch of a large and well labeled gold – leaf electroscope.
5. Define capacitor and capacitance
6. A sharp needle was brought close to the cap of a charged gold – leaf electroscope.
Explain why the leaf collapsed.
7. After walking across a carpeted floor you sometimes get a mild electric shock when you
touch a metal door knob. Explain how this happens
8. List the three types of capacitors that you know and their uses
9. State the factors which affect the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
10. Explain how the factors affect the capacitance of the capacitor
11. Calculate the charge stored in a capacitor of 100 𝜇𝐹 capacitance when connected to a 2 v
d.c supply. (Ans:- Q = 0.2 𝜇c = 0.0002 C)
12. A lighting conductor protects building and other structures from damage in case of
lighting attacks. Describe how it works
13. Four capacitors of capacitance 2.4 𝜇𝐹, 3.6 𝜇𝐹, 4.0 𝜇𝐹 and 2.0 𝜇𝐹 are connected in series
to a potential difference of 15.0 V. Find:-
(a) The effective capacitance (Ans:- 0.69 x 10-6 F)
(b) The total charge (Ans:- 10.35 x 10-6 C)
(c) The charge on each capacitor (Ans:- 10.35 x 10-6 C)
(d) The voltage across each capacitor (Ans:-V = 4.31V, 2.88V, 2.59V, 5.18V resp.)
14. (a) Determine the effective capacitance of the circuit below
(b) What is the value of the stored charge?
15. Two capacitors of capacitance 2 𝜇𝐹 and 4 𝜇𝐹 are connected in series and parallel.
Calculate the effective capacitance when
(a) Connected in series (Ans:- 1.33 𝜇𝐹)
(b) Connected in parallel (Ans:- 6 𝜇𝐹)
16. A capacitor of two parallel plates separated by air has a capacitance of 15 pF. A potential
difference of 18 volts is applied across the plate
(a) Determine the charge on the capacitor.
(b) If the space between is filled with mica, the capacitance now increases to 240 pF.
How much more charge can be put on the capacitor using the 18 volts supply.
17. Two capacitors of capacitance 2.5 𝜇𝐹 and 3.5 𝜇𝐹 connected in series are connected to two
other capacitors each of capacitance 4.0 𝜇𝐹 which are connected in parallel to each other
.If the circuit is supplied by a potential difference of 20.0 v, find:
(a) The effective capacitance (Ans:- 1.23 𝜇𝐹)
(b) The voltage on each capacitor (Ans:- V1 = 9.87V, V2 = 7.05V)
(c) The total charge (Ans:- 24.67 x 10-6 C)
(d) The charge on each capacitor. (Ans:- Q1= Q2= 24.67 x10-6 C, Q3= Q4 =12.33 x10-6C)
18. When a capacitor is connected to a battery of e.m.f 12 v, the charge stored on each plate
is 0.06 𝜇𝐹.Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor in 𝜇𝐹
19. Determine the effective capacitance in each of the following diagram
(Ans:- (a) C = 2 𝜇𝐹 (b) C = 18 𝜇𝐹

20. State the appliances that use capacitors
21. What are some of the ways in which our lives would be different if we did not have
electricity? (Ans:-None of our modern technology would exist!)
22. Plastics strip A, when rubbed, is found to attract strip B. Strip C is found to repeal strip B.
what will happen when strip A and strip C are brought close together? (Ans:-attraction)
23. Why is it not safe to stand under an isolated tree in a thunderstorm? (Ans:- Lightening
seeks the easiest way to ground)
24. Why does a Van de Graaff generator have a smooth round aluminium dome on the top
rather than, say, an aluminium cube which would be easier to make? (Ans:- charge leaks
from sharp points)
25. Explain why:
(a) Nylon cloth crackles as you undress.
(b) Are TV screens dusty after a while?
Laboratory Work
Aim To demonstrate the charging of a capacitor
Materials:- A cell, capacitor, Voltmeter (high resistance), resistor, switch, connecting wires
and milliameter.
Procedures
1. Connect the items in series except a voltmeter must be in parallel with the capacitor.
2. Record the values of current at different time intervals
3. Tabulate your results
Time (s) 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Current (mA)
(a) Plot a graph of current against time
(b) What does the area under the graph represent?
Glossary
 Attraction – The force between two oppositely charged objects which pulls them
together.
 Earthing – Electrically connecting an object to the Earth to prevent charge building
up.
 Induced charge – A temporary charge that forms on a neutral object because it is near
a charged object.
 Repulsion – The force between two objects with the same charge which pushes them
apart.
 Static charge – A charge that builds up on an object but is not moving.
TOPIC 2: CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit
Electric current = Rate of flow of charge
Quantity of charge Q, Coulombs
Electrical current (I), Ampere =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇, 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
Quantity of charge Q = 𝐼𝑡
Ampere (A):
 This is the current through a point in a conductor when a charge of one coulomb passes
through the point after every one second.
Other units and their equivalents to the ampere are as follows:
 1A = 10-3mA
 1A= 10-6μA
 1kA = 1000A
An instrument used to measure electric current is called an Ammeter.
In most DC electric circuits, it can be assumed that the resistance to current flow is a constant
so that the current in the circuit is related to voltage and resistance by Ohm's law.
A coulomb
This is the quantity of electricity, which passes a given point in circuit in 1 second when a
steady current of 1 ampere flows.
The Coulomb: 1 C = 6.25 x 1018 electrons
The charge on a single electron: e- = -1.6 x 10-19 C
In electric current there are flows of electrons through the conductor. The motion of the charge
through the circuit transfers energy from one point to another. This means that the actual
direction of an electric current are opposite to the conventional direction.
Example 1.
An electric current of 0.12A passes a point B along a conducting wire. How much electric
charge is flowing through this point in a minute?
Solution:
Charge = Current, I x time, t
Q = It = 0.12 x 60
= 7.2C
The electric charge flowing is 7.2C
Sources of Current Electricity in Everyday Life
All sources of electric currents work by converting some kind of energy into electrical energy.
The two basic sources are:
(a) Cell/Battery convert chemical energy into electrical energy. e.g. Mobile phone battery
(b) Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Other sources of electric energy include
 Hydroelectric energy is generated from water in dams and waterfalls, which depends
on rainwater. Turbines are used to generate electricity from falling water.
 Solar energy
Solar cells trap and convert solar energy into electric energy. Space ships and satellite
use solar cell to convert sun light into electricity.
 Wind energy.
Air in motion can be reliable in some areas where wind is available especially in desert,
semi-desert and coastal areas
Simple Electric Circuits
Simple Electric Circuit consists of
 Source of moving charge, it may be battery or generator
 Connecting wires made of a conducting material (usually copper metal)
 Electrical devices such as; Bulb, Switches, Resistors, Ammeter, Voltmeters etc.
Voltmeters measure potential difference in volts. While resisters opposes the flow of current.
The circuit may also contain devices for controlling the amount of current. These include:
(a) Rheostat
(b) Fuse
(c) Circuit breakers, as well as devices for measuring current such as ammeters and
galvanometers.
The table below shows list of some common circuit component and their purpose.
Circuit device Symbol Purpose
Connecting wire
Wire joined Carry current from point
to point in a circuit.
Wire crossing (can be

connected)
Cell
Battery (multiple cells) Supplies electrical energy

or
Alternating current (AC)
supply
Direct current (DC) supply
Lamp/bulb Consumes electrical
energy
Resistor Impedes the flow of
current
Switch Open and closes a circuit
Rheostat (variable resistor) Control amount of

current. (For example the
brightness of a lamp)
Galvanometer Detecting the presence of
current
Ammeter
Measures current
Milliammeter
Fuse Breaks the circuit if

excessive current flows
Voltmeter Measures potential
Difference (voltage)
Capacitor Store charges
CURRENT
This is the passage of charge through the material. In metals free electrons carry charge. In
solutions such as sodium chloride it is carried by charged particles known as ions.
Insulators like wood and plastic do not contain charge carriers at all as every electron is
firmly fixed onto their atoms. The electrons are not free to move.
The rate of flow of electrons in a material is called electric current.
It is measured in amperes (A) using an Ammeter. When connecting the ammeter, the red wire
should be connected to the +ve terminal of a battery.
A current of 1A is equivalent to a flow of 6.25 x 1018 electrons per second and 1 electron has
a charge of 1.6 x 10-19C.
If we want to be able to control the brightness of the lamp, we include a rheostat into the circuit.
In a circuit an ammeter is always connected in series with the battery. Current has to pass
through the ammeter if it is to be measured correctly.
Current in simple circuit is the same at all points.

Once the circuit is complete, electric charges inside cells and other sources of electric charge
are forced out into the circuit.
The electric energy is normally given out as light and heat, as energy goes through the bulb.
VOLTAGE
A force that pushes the current through the circuit in falling water on cliff it would be
equivalent to gravity.
Every cell has a voltage, commonly referred to as potential difference (p.d).
Voltage is measured by using a voltmeter. The SI unit for voltage is the volt (V).
Volt, V this is the potential difference between two locations when a charge of one coulomb
will gain a potential energy of one joule when the charge is moved between the two locations.
Potential difference is the work done in moving a unit charge from one point to another
P.d across the battery = sum of p.d around a conducting path, whereas voltage provides the
driving force to an electric current, this force is always opposed.
Potential difference between the +ve and –ve terminals of a battery causes a current to flow
along any conducting path that links them.
 Voltage is measured by using a device known as Voltmeter which is always connected
parallel to the device whereby you want to measure its voltage drop across it
 Wrong connection of an ammeter can damage it, so the red terminal of the ammeter (+ve
terminal of an ammeter) should be connected to the positive terminal of the source
Ohm's Law
The property of conductors that oppose the flow of electric charges depends on the
relationship between current and voltage across their ends as discovered by George Ohm. He
observed that voltage across a conductor was directly proportional to electric current in it.
Ohms law states,
“The potential difference across the ends of a solid conductor is directly proportional to the
current passing through a conductor provided that temperature and other physical factors
are kept constant.”
Mathematically
Hence, V α I
V= IR
Resistance, R is the constant of proportionality.
Ohm’s circuit Diagram
A graphical representation of Ohm's law. The graph of voltage against current
The gradient of the particular graph represents resistance. This is constant for a particular wire
or conductors. Doubling the voltage would double the current; a graph of this kind passes
through the origin.
RESISTANCE
This is the opposition flow to an electric current. Friction that impedes flow of current
through the circuit for water in motion rocks in the river could be thought of being friction.
As current flows through the circuit it encounters some opposing force. This force determines
the amount of current flowing in an electric device.
𝑃. 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅 =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐼
Its SI unit is Ohm (Ω)
Therefore a resistance of 1ohm is obtained when a p.d of 1V cause a current of 1A to flow in

a circuit.
Name Symbol Conversion Example
milli-ohm mΩ 1mΩ = 10-3Ω Ro = 10mΩ
Ohm Ω - R1 = 10Ω
kilo-ohm kΩ 1kΩ = 10 Ω R2 = 2kΩ
3
mega-ohm MΩ 1MΩ = 106Ω R3 = 5MΩ

A resistor
This is a device especially designed to offer resistance to the flow of an electric current,
Resistors include rheostats (variable resistor) and fixed resistors.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

The resistance of a conductor is affected by the following factors:
Length of the conductor
 The longer the wire, the higher the resistance, short lengths of wire produce resistors of
low resistance while long lengths of the same wire are good for high – value resistance.
Temperature
 An increase in temperature of a conductor means an increase in its resistance and vice
versa. This is important in resistance thermometers. The resistance of metal conductor
increases with increase in temperature.
Types of material
 The conducting ability of the material has to be considered. A chrome wire has more
resistance than a copper wire of the same dimension. That is why copper is mostly used
for connecting wire.
Cross – sectional area
 A thin wire has more resistance than a thick conductor. The filament of a bulb is made
of very thin tang stem wire. It therefore has a high melting point.
Note: - A very good conductor will have 0 resistance.
Construction of a simple circuit
The simple circuit needs to have a source of charge like battery, connecting wires, an
ammeter serially connected to other components, a voltmeter normally connected parallel to
the resistor
Example 1
Calculate the reading of the Voltmeter P and the ammeter Q in the electric circuit below.
Solution:
Being a single loop circuit, current is the same at all points, Q = 3A
Sum of p.d in external circuit = p.d across battery
3V + P = 13V
P = 10V
Therefore: Q = 3A and Voltmeter P = 10V
Example 2
A battery of 5V has a resistance wire of 20Ω connected to it. Calculate the current in the circuit.
Solution;
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
5𝑣
𝐼=
20Ω
Therefore, Current in the circuit = 0.25A
Points to Note: for a single loop or simple circuit.

(i) Current is the same at all points around the circuit
(ii) The sum of the potential differences around a conducting path within the circuit is the
same as the p.d across the battery.
Combination of resistors
There are two main methods of connecting circuit components, in series or in parallel. Resistors
can be connected either in series or in parallel depending on the desired output.
Series combination
In series arrangement the resistors are connected end to end.
V = V1 + V2 or V- (V1 + V2) = 0
This means that,
 The sum of the p.d across the resistors is the same as the p.d across the battery.
 Current is the same at all points around the circuit.
From the figure above, Vt = V1 + V2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑡 𝑅𝑡
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑡 𝑅𝑡 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑛 𝑅𝑛
Since the current in the circuit is the same, i.e. It = I1 = I2 = I
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝑅𝑡 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅𝑛

Dividing by I each term,
𝐑𝐭 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝐧
Example
Consider the figure below:
Given that the p.d a cross the cell is 24V, calculate the p.d across the 4Ω
Solution;
Total resistance in the circuit = 4Ω + 6Ω= 10Ω
𝑉 24𝑉
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤, 𝐼 = = = 2.4 𝐴
𝑅 10Ω
This implies the 2.4A passed through the 4Ω resistor.
The pd across it can be obtained through V=IR
p.d = 2.4A x 4 Ω = 9.6V
Note
 If you connect in series when one bulb disconnected (blows out) will cause the other
bulbs not working
Parallel combination
Resistors are connected across two common points in a parallel arrangement.
Note; Potential difference is from a single source and so is the same for all the branches.
However the current is different in each branch.
From Ohm's law;

Note:
From the figure, It = I1 + I2
𝑉 𝑉𝑡
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐼 = → 𝐼𝑡 =
𝑅 𝑅𝑡
𝑉𝑡 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝐢𝐬 𝐫𝐞 − 𝐰𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐧 𝐚𝐬 = +
𝑅𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2
Since the p.d across the resistors is the same, i.e. Vt = V1 = V2 = V
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = +
Dividing by V each term,
1 1 1
= +
If two resistors are in parallel, then their total resistance, Rt is given by
𝑹𝟏 𝑹 𝟐
∴ 𝑹𝒕 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
 When bulbs have to be powered by a single source of electric current, the bulbs are
connected in parallel. This is practiced in car and home lighting system.
The advantage of parallel arrangement over series arrangement is that:

(a) The full p.d of source is applied across each bulb irrespective of the number of bulbs.
(b) Switching one bulb on and off does not affect the others.
(c) It is advisable to connect bulbs in parallel during electrical installation so that when
the bulb blows out or disconnected, the other bulbs will keep working
Example
Two resistors of resistance 4 Ω and 6 Ω respectively are to be connected between two points
A and B. What will be the resistance between A and B if the two resistors are to be connected
in parallel?
Solution
Given :- R1 = 4 Ω, R2 = 6 Ω
Then from parallel combination formula for two resistors being
R1 R 2 4 Ω x 6 Ω 24 Ω
Rt = = = = 2.4 Ω
R1 + R 2 4 Ω + 6 Ω 10 Ω
The total resistance is 2.4 Ω
1. A battery is 5V has a resistance wire of 20Ω connected across it. Calculate the current in
the circuit. (Ans:- I = 0.25A )
2. An Ohmic conductor has a voltage drop of 9V measured across it. The current flowing in
the conductor is 3 mA what is its resistance? (Ans:- R = 3000 Ω = 3 kΩ)
3. Two cells each with a voltage of 1.5V and internal resistance of 2Ω are connected in
(a) Series (Ans:- 0.6A)
(b) Parallel (Ans:- 0.75A)
Find the current in each case when the cells are connected to 1Ω resistor
4. Consider the diagram below
(a) What is the total resistance of the circuit?

(b) What current flows in the circuit?
(c) What is the potential drop across 6 Ω resistor?
Solution:
(a) Total resistance, Rt = ?
Since arrangement is series
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
Rt = 4 + 6 + 5 = 15 Ω
The total resistance of the circuit 15 Ω
(b) Electric current, I = ?
𝑉
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤: − 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 =
𝑅
9
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 =
15
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = 0.6 𝐴
The current flowing in the circuit, I = 0.6A
(c) Potential drop across 6 Ω resistor
From: V = IR
V = 0.6 x 6
V = 3.6 V
Potential drop across 6 Ω resistor is 3.6V
Uses of Current Electricity

Here are those few common uses of electricity in our daily life
 Cooking
 Lighting
 Communication
 Heating
1. State the two conditions which are necessary for charge to flow in a circuit.
2. A p.d of 12 v is applied across two resistors of 10 Ω and 20 Ω connected in series.
Find:
a) The equivalent resistance for the circuit (Ans: - R = 30 Ω)
b) The total current in the circuit (Ans: - I = 0.4 A)
c) The current through each resistor (Ans: - I = 0.4A)
d) The voltage drop across each resistor (Ans: -V1 = 4V, V2 = 8V)
3. Calculate the amount of charge that passes through a point in a circuit in 3 seconds, if
the current in the circuit is 0.5 A (Ans:- Q = 1.5 C)
4. A torch is switched on for 30 minutes .The current in the bulb of the torch is 0.45 A.
Calculate the charge which flowed through the bulb. (Ans:- Q = 810 C)
5. A charge of 4500 coulombs flows through a point in a conductor .It causes the
ammeter to show a reading of 5.0 A .For how long does the charge flow through the
point (in minutes) (Ans: - t = 15 minutes)
6. A charge of 300 coulombs flows through a point in a conductor for two minutes.
What is the ammeter reading for this flow? (Ans: - I = 2.5 A)
7. Calculate the current passing through the circuit below (Ans: - I = 2.5 A)
8. Three resistors of resistances 5.0 Ω, 7 Ω and 12 Ω were arranged in series. Calculate

the equivalent resistance in the circuit (Ans: - Rt = 24 Ω)
9. A parallel circuit consists of two resistors. Calculate the effective resistance of the
circuit (Ans: - Rt = 2.5 Ω)
10. Three resistors of resistances 5 Ω, 7 Ω and 12 Ω were placed in a parallel circuit.
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit (Ans: - Rt = 2.3 Ω)
11. A 12 V battery is connected to two resistors as shown in the fig. below. Find
(a) Total current (Ans: - I = 6 A)
(b) the current through each resistor (Ans: - I1 = 4A , I2 = 2 A)
12. A student conducted an experiment with ten 10 Ω resistors. The student connects all
of the resistors firstly in series, and then in parallel. Calculate the total resistance of
the ten resistors when they are connected in
(a) Series. (Ans: - Rt = 100 Ω)
(b) Parallel (Ans: - Rt = 1.0 Ω)
13. During a flash of lightning, 600 C of charge is transferred in 0.15 s. Calculate the
average current. (Ans: - I = 4000 A)
14. Draw a series circuit containing a battery ,switch ,lamp, a variable resistor and an
ammeter connected so that it can be used to measure the current in the lamp
15. Draw a circuit with a battery and switch in series, two lamps in parallel and a
voltmeter connected so that it can be used to measure the voltage across one of the
lamps
16. In a circuit below, a 12 volt power supply was used. Calculate
(a) The equivalent resistance. (Ans: - 4.0 Ω)
(b) The total current through the circuit. (Ans: - 3A)
(c) The p.d drop across each parallel resistor. (Ans: - 2Ω= 2.25A, 6Ω= 0.75A, )
17. The current through the 6 Ω resistor is 2.5 A. Calculate.
(a) The voltage from the power supply (Ans: - 15V)

(b) The current through the 8 Ω resistor. (Ans: - 1.875A)
(c) The equivalent resistance. (Ans: - 3.43Ω)
(d) The total current. (Ans: - 4.375A)
18. Consider the figure below. Calculate P.d across: (a) 4 Ω (b) 6Ω
(Ans: - (a) 9.6 V (b) 14.4 V)
19. Briefly explain what is wrong in the electrical circuit given below.
20. A voltmeter connected across an electric appliance reads 3 volts and an ammeter in series
with it reads 0.75 amperes:
(a) Draw the circuit to represent the above information.
(b) Calculate the resistance of the appliance.
21. In an experiment to determine the value of resistance, the following results were
obtained
Voltage, V (volts) 2 3 4 6
Current, I (amperes) 1 1.5 2 3
(a) Plot a graph of V against the I
(b) Determine the resistance R of the conductor
22. Which has a greater resistance between the following:-

(a) a long, thin, hot nichrome wire
(b) a short, thick, cool wire
(c) What do you understand by an Ohmic conductor?
23. In the circuit below calculate the value of E and R. (Ans:- E =12.8V, R= 6. 4Ω
R
5.2A 5.2A
3.2A 4.
24. Match the items in list A with those in List B.

List A List B
(i) Ammeter A. Measures p.d
(ii) V𝛼 I B. Measures current
(iii) Rheostat C. Ohm
(iv) Series connection D. Controls current
(v) Charge E. Ohm’s law
F. Controls p.d
G. Coulomb
H. Constant current
I. Galvanometer
J. Constant p.d
25. A table of results were made after allowing current to pass through a solid conductor
as seen in the table below
V(Volts), v 2 4 8 10 12
I (Amperes, A 0.5 1 2 2.5 3
(a) Plot the graph of Current I (A) against Voltage, (v)
(b) Solve for the slope of your graph

 Solve for the slope
∆𝑉 (𝑣)
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑚 =
∆𝐼 (𝐴)
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝟒𝛀
(c) Explain what the slope in (b) above signifies.

 The slope from Ohm’s law, representing the resistance of the solid
conductor
obtained
V(Volts), v 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
I (Amperes, A 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
(a) Plot a graph of Current, I (A) against the Voltage, (v)
(b) Determine the slope S of the graph (Ans:- Slope, S =0.25 Ω-1)
(c) Determine the resistance R of the conductor (Ans:- R = 4Ω)
obtained
I (Amperes, A 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1
V(Volts), V 2.5 5 10 15 25
(a) Plot the graph of Voltage, (v) against Current I (A)
(a) Solve for the slope of your graph

 Solve for the slope
∆𝑉 (𝑣)
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑚 =
∆𝐼 (𝐴)
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝟐𝟓𝛀
(b) Explain what the slope in (b) above signifies.
 The slope from Ohm’s law, representing the resistance of the solid
conductor
28. Values of the current I, passing through a coil for corresponding values V of the
potential difference across the coil as measured on a voltmeter are shown in table
below. The voltmeter has a zero error which has not been allowed for in the reading
given:
A table of results
Current, I (amperes) 0.05 0.20 0.35 0.50 0.65
Voltage, V (volts) 0.85 2.80 4.74 6.70 8.65
(a) Plot a graph to show the relation between V as ordinate (y-axis) and I as
abscissa
(b) Use the graph to determine the resistance of the coil
LABORATORY WORK
In an experiment to verify ohm's law the circuit drawn below can be used
Proceed as follows:-
(i) Connect in series the resistor R of unknown resistance, battery E (3V), a switch K,
a rheostat Rh of a few ohms and an ammeter A of 0 – 1A connect the voltmeter V
of the 0 – 3V across R.
(ii) Check that the +ve side of the ammeter A and the +ve side of the voltmeter V are
both on the +ve side of battery E.
(iii) Adjust the rheostat until the value of the resistance is maximum. Switch on the
current and record the ammeter reading I (Amps) and voltmeter reading V (Volts)
(iv) Adjust the rheostat to obtain five widely different values of V and corresponding
values of current I
(a) Tabulate your results of

P.d (v)
Current, I (A)
(b) Plot the graph of p.d against I
(c) Explain the shape of the graph
(d) Find the slope of the graph
(e) What does the slope of your graph indicate?
(f) Mention two possible sources of errors in this experiment and their precautions.
(g) State ohm’s law
TOPIC 3: MAGNETISM
The Magnetism comes from a region called Magnesia which means mineral.
A magnetite (Fe3O4) called Lodestone was capable of attracting small iron pieces and it was
used as a crude navigation compass by Greeks. This was first recorded by a Greek
philosopher called Thales in the 4th century. Lodestones were the earliest magnets.
 A magnet is a substance which attracts metals or magnetic materials.
 Magnetism is the behaviour shown by a magnet, the behaviour of attracting metals
(magnetic materials).
 Magnetic dipoles: Are the two poles on a magnet which are equal and opposite to each
other
 Magnetic poles
A magnetic pole is a point where a magnetic line of force exits or enters a material. These
are the two ends of a magnet which show the strongest attraction or repulsion power
compared to the other parts of the magnet.ie
 Whereby S is the south seeking pole while N is the north seeking pole
 The gauss is a unit used to measure the strength of a magnetic field.
Magnetic substances
These are the only naturally occurring substances which have a property of being attracted by
a magnet. E.g.; iron, steel, cobalt and nickel.
 Pole strength refers to the ability of a magnet to attract objects.
 Ferromagnetic substances have very high magnetic susceptibility (easily
magnetized). e.g.; iron, nickel and cobalt.
 Electromagnet is the substance which requires electric current to attain magnetism.
 Permanent magnet is a substance which is already a magnet and it doesn’t require
electric current to attain magnetism.
Non-magnetic substances
These are substances which are not attracted by a magnet. E.g.; copper, brass, aluminium,
glass, plastic and wood. These substances have very weak magnetic properties.
The Properties of Magnets

 Magnets have a tendency of attracting magnetic substances and have no action on
non-magnetic materials.
 The magnetic force is strongest near the poles of a magnet
 Magnet possesses two poles northern pole (N) and southern pole(S).
 Like magnetic poles repel but unlike magnetic poles attract
 The magnetic force is an action – at – a distance force
 If a magnet is suspended freely always points in the north– south direction.
Types of magnetic materials
There are three types of magnetic materials:
Diamagnetic materials:
These are substances which have a tendency to repel from a stronger to weaker magnetic
field. Eg; bismuth, water, gold, air, hydrogen, common salt, diamond, silver and copper.
 In diamagnetic materials, the electrons are oriented so their individual magnetic fields
cancel each other out.
Paramagnetic materials
These are substances which become weakly magnetized when placed in magnetic field. Eg;
aluminium, platinum, chromium, oxygen and manganese.
 Individual atoms in paramagnetic materials are magnetic but the atoms themselves are
randomly arranged so the overall magnetism of a sample is zero.
 When paramagnetic materials are placed in a magnetic field, the atoms align so that
the material is weakly magnetic.
Ferromagnetic materials:
These are substances which becomes magnetized when placed in magnetic field. Their
magnetic domain become aligned in one direction when they are placed in magnetic field.
Eg; iron, cobalt and nickel.
 Atoms with similar magnetic orientations line up with neighbouring atoms in groups
called magnetic domains.
Magnetic domain
 Magnetic domains are minute regions in ferromagnetic materials with millions of atomic
dipoles coupled together in a preferred direction.
The direction of magnetic poles varies from one domain to another if the magnet is
unmagnified.
 The strength of a magnet cannot be increased beyond a certain limit because when all
magnetic domains have oriented in the same direction, no further magnetization is
possible and material is said to be saturated
Law of Magnetism
 It states that “Like Poles Repel and Unlike Poles Attract”.
Types of Magnets
Magnets may also be classified according to their shapes. This includes:
Application of Magnets
Magnets are used in:
 Women handbags closing
 Men belts fastener
 Picking up heavy loads
 Electrical appliances like meter and receivers
 Sound and video recording equipment
 Computer memory and disks
 Electrical trains
Magnetisation and Demagnetisation

Magnetisation is the process of making a magnet from a magnetic substance.
Demagnetisation is the process by which a magnet is made to lose its magnetism.
Demonstrating Magnetisation and Demagnetisation
Demonstrate magnetisation and demagnetisation
Methods of magnetisation
There are various ways, including;
(i) Heating
(ii) Induction
(iii) Stroking
(iv) Electrical method
Heating
When magnetic material is heated in presence of external magnetic field, the dipole of magnetic
material aligns, whereby in the presence of external magnetic field the atoms of magnetic
materials start to move and eventually become aligned.
Induction method.
This is done by placing a piece of unmagnetised steel bar near or in contact with a pole of a
magnet and then removing it.
In this case an iron nail placed near a bar magnet will be induced with magnetism.
Electrical method
A cylindrical coil wound with many of insulated copper wire is connected in series with a
battery. A steel bar is placed inside the solenoid and the current switched on and off. When the
steel bar is removed and tested, it is found to be magnetised.
Note:
If the current is switched off for so long, the bar will not be magnetized. The poles of the bar
magnet depends on the direction of flow of current. The end at which the direction of the current
is in clockwise direction will be South Pole and if anticlockwise it will be North Pole.
Stroking method
This is done by rubbing a bar magnet along the unmagnetised steel bar. There are two
stroking methods, namely;
Single touch:
 A magnetised bar magnet is formed by a single stroke. A steel bar is stroked
repeatedly by a very strong bar magnetism the same direction with the North Pole i.e.
from left to right. The bar magnet is lifted from the right and then returned to the left.
After several strokes the steel bar will be magnetised with North Pole at the right and
South Pole at the left hand side.
Double touch:
 Two bar magnets are used to magnetise a single steel bar. The steel bar is magnetised
by two bar magnets from its centre to its ends using left and right hands
simultaneously for several times. Between each stroke the two bar magnets are lifted
up high and returned to the centre for another stroking.
 In this case the steel bar will be magnetized with South Pole at the very left and North
Pole at the right
Note:
(a) In both single and double touch methods, the magnetising magnet none of their
strengths.
(b) Between successive strokes, the pole is lifted high above bar, otherwise the
magnetism already induced in it will tend to be weakened.
(c) Consequent poles will be formed at the centre of the steel bar when the two bar
magnets placed at the centre are of like poles. Same poles will be obtained on both
ends.
Methods of demagnetization
Electrical method
 The magnet is placed inside a solenoid through which an a. c is flowing. The magnet is
withdrawn from the solenoid while the current is flowing pointing in the W-E direction.
When the magnet is held in W-E direction, it doesn’t remain with residue magnetism
due to induction from earth’s magnetic field.
Heating a magnet.
 If a magnet is placed in the East – West direction and heated to a temperature above
its curie temperature, then the magnet loses it magnetism. This is because, the
increase in temperature results in greater atomic vibration which consequently prevent
the domain from being aligned in the same direction
Hammering
 The magnet is placed in an East – West direction and then repeatedly hit or stroked
with a hammer vibrating the domains
Storage of Magnets
In order to maintain the magnetism in magnets for a long period of time, the following
practices have to be observed
 Store away from ferrous materials
 Store magnets in pairs and using magnetic keeper to store them
 Store away from heat
 Store away from strong electric and magnetic field
 Store away from strong vibration or mechanical impacts which may brittle it
Magnetic Fields of a Magnet
Magnetic field is a space surrounding a magnet in which a magnetic force is exerted or
experienced. It consists of magnetic field lines which are imaginary lines of force around a
magnet from North Pole to South Pole.
Magnetic Lines of force (Field Lines)

These are the imaginary lines that conjoin the poles of a magnet indicating the relative
strength of the magnetic field in that area. The lines of force always point away from a
magnetic North Pole of a magnet and towards its own South Pole. The closer the lines are
together, the stronger the field.
The Magnetic Lines of Force around a Magnet using Iron Fillings or Compass Needle
Illustrate the magnetic lines of force around a magnet using iron fillings or compass needle
Experiment.
Aim:- To study the properties of magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.
Materials: Iron fillings, bar magnets and a piece of paper.
Procedures
 Place a sheet of plane paper over a bar magnet.
 Sprinkle iron fillings on the sheet of paper.
 Gently tap the sheet of paper.
Observation
(a) Iron fillings will form a pattern which depends on the magnetic lines of force of the
magnet.
(b) The lines of equal magnetic strength are seen flowing between magnetic poles .The
lines are referred to as lines of magnetic flux or field lines. The pattern magnetic force
is called a magnetic field.
(c) When investigating a magnetic field with iron fillings the field is strongest where the
fillings are crowded.
(d) By investigating a magnetic field lines and a bar magnet using a small compass
needle, the magnetic flux(lines) runs from north pole to south pole.
Two bar magnets, unlike poles facing
Two bar magnets, with their like poles facing each other repels.
Neutral point is a point at which the resultant magnetic flux density is zero. The area
between two identical poles the two magnetic fields cancel or neutralize each other.
Therefore the neutral point is;

(a) an area in a magnetic field where the resultant magnetic field strength is zero.
(b) a point which exists where two magnetic field neutralize each other
 Properties of Magnetic field lines:-

(a) Follow the path of least resistance.
(b) Lines of force are continuous and will always form closed loops start at North Pole
and end at the South Pole
(c) Magnetic force is stronger where the lines are close together and weaker where they
are far apart
(d) Lines of force will Never cross one another and have the same strength through out
(e) Magnetic lines of force pass through all materials (magnetic and non-magnetic)
(f) Parallel magnetic lines of force travelling in the same directions repel each other
while lines of force travelling in opposite directions attract each other
(g) Magnetic lines of force always enter or leave a magnetic material at right angles (900)
to the surface
How to locate the position of the north pole of a bar magnet
 If a bar magnet is suspended so that it rotates freely, one pole of the magnet will
always turn toward the north, with the opposite pole facing south
 The pole of the magnet that orients northward is called the north pole(N) while the
opposite pole is called south pole(S)
How Does Magnetic Particle Inspection Work?

A ferromagnetic test specimen is magnetized with a strong magnetic field created by a
magnet or special equipment. If the specimen has a discontinuity, the discontinuity will
interrupt the magnetic field flowing through the specimen and a leakage field will occur.
Finely milled iron particles coated with a dye pigment are applied to the test specimen. These
particles are attracted to leakage fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected under proper lighting conditions.
Magnetic shielding
This is the process of limiting the penetration of magnetic fields into a region by redirecting
the magnetic field lines through a material with a higher ability to be magnetized.
Example; The electron beam in the cathode ray tubes of TV sets, and very delicate measuring
instruments are shielded(protected)from magnetic influence by placing them in soft iron cases
with thick wells.
Here the object is shielded from the strong magnetic fields by a soft iron ring around it.
Earth's Magnetic Field
Earth is imagined as a single big magnet, with its south seeking pole near the geographic
north called a north magnetic pole and the north seeking pole is near geographic South Pole
called south magnetic pole.
The earth behaves as if at its centre there is a short piece of a bar magnet inclined at a small
angle to its rotation (spinning) axis. When a bar magnet is hanged horizontally with a string, it
will oscillates for a short time and then comes to rest with its poles pointing in the N-S direction
due to the earth’s magnetic field.
This gives a notion that the earths north pole is in the southern hemisphere where any magnets
north pole will always point. The two earth’s magnetic poles are joined by a line called
magnetic meridian. The geographic meridian joins the true north and true south.
Whereby:-
 GE = Geographic Equator
 This is the imaginary line which divides the earth into Northern and southern
hemisphere.
 ME = Magnetic Equator
 This is an imaginary line parallel to the equator where a magnetic needle has
no dip
 Angle of declination, Ɵ
 This is the angle formed between the magnetic meridian and geographic
meridian.
 SMP = south magnetic pole
 This is the pole near the geographic south pole of magnet
 NMP = north magnetic pole
 This is the pole near the geographic north pole of magnet
 NGP = north geographic pole
 SGP = south geographic pole
 Geographic Meridian
 This is the imaginary line joining the earth North Pole and South Pole
 Angle of dip or Angle of inclination α
 This is the angle between the direction of the earth’s magnetic flux and the
horizontal. The angle of dip and declination both vary from place to place. The
angle of dip at the magnetic poles of the earth is 900 while at the equator is 00
Measurement of angle of dip

The angle of dip is not constant over the earth’s surface; it varies from place to place.
This difference is brought about by the earth’s magnetic field direction at a point on the
earth’s surface. The easiest way to measure the angle of dip is using a thin iron rod. The rod
is suspended by length of a thread such that it balances horizontally.
Without disturbing the position of attachment, the rod is magnetised by bringing close a bar
magnet and touching. On re-suspending the rod will dip with its north pole pointing
downwards as shown in the diagram above. Using a protractor, the angle between the axis of
the rod and the horizontal can be measured.
Direction of Earth's Magnetic Field
Compass needle:
This is a thin magnet balanced on a point, usually at the centre of gravity used to identify N-S
direction. Spinning a compass needle, it will eventually come to rest with its poles pointing to
the N-S direction. This gives direction at any point on the earth’s surface.
Test for Magnets

 Remember that unmagnetised iron, steel, cobalt and nickel objects will be attracted to
either pole of a magnet.
 This means you can only show that an object is a magnet if it repels a known magnet.
 Therefore Repulsion is the best test for Magnetism.
Magnetic Properties of Iron and Steel.

 Iron is easier to Magnetize and Demagnetize, therefore it is called soft iron.
 Steel is hard to Magnetize and Demagnetize, therefore it is called hard iron.
Application of the Earth’s Magnetic Field

 Used to indicate poles of unknown magnets
 Used by map – readers for finding locations of different places
 Gives useful information in the search for minerals
 Satellites transmit information through earth’s magnetic field to the earth surface
 The earth’s external magnetic field (magnetosphere) protects the earth from
harmful emissions from the sun.
 The earth’s magnetic field enables the compass needle to operate.
Application of Magnets
Magnets are used in:-
 Making electric bell and motors
 Used in separation of mixture of which some are ferromagnetic
 Magnetic recording media: VHS tapes, audio cassettes, floppy and hard disc
recording data on a thin magnetic coating
 Common television and computer monitors
 Transformers :Are used in power transmission and many electronic devices
 Credit, Debit and ATM cards: it uses magnetic ink to store information to contact and
individual’s financial institution and connect with their account
 Speaker and microphones: They use permanent magnets and current carrying coils to
convert electric energy into sound energy
 Electric generator: It uses permanent magnets convert mechanical energy to electrical
energy
 Electromagnets used in hospitals or steel works
1. Choose the correct among the given pair of magnets with the correct lines of force.
2. List down three ways you can make a magnet

 Attract ferromagnetic materials.
 They have magnetic poles.
 They obey the first law of magnetism.
3. How can you demagnetize a magnet?

 Hammering in North-South direction.
 By using direct current.
 Stroking with a permanent magnet.
4. Define magnetic field?

 This is the area around a magnet where its magnetic forces can be detected.
TOPIC 4: FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM
A force is a push or pull which when applied to a body it will change its state either by
stopping it if it was in motion or making it move if it was at rest.
If a body under the action of a net external force is allowed to rotate about a pivot, the body
will tend to turn in the direction of the applied force.
The distance is always measured at right angles to the force.
The Moment of Force

Moment of force about a point is the turning effect of the force about that point. The change
of state of a body can appear in several forms and the most common form is the turning effect
which is referred to as moment of a force.
The unit for a force is Newton, N while that for moment of a force is Newton-meter, Nm.
Moment = Force, F x Perpendicular distance, d.
Moment = Fd
Moment of a force is used in the following:
 Is applied by a hand to unscrew a stopper on the bottle.
 Is applied by a spanner to unscrew a nut on a bottle.
 Turning a steering wheel of a car.
NB:
 The point where the object rotates after turning force is called pivot or fulcrum
 Moment of force is applied in different activities such as opening bottle caps, door
opening and tightening nuts etc.
 The moment of a force depends on the following
(a) Size of a force
(b) Perpendicular distance
Consider the diagram below;
Moment of W₁ about the fulcrum. = W1d1

Moment of W₂ about fulcrum = W2 d2
Moment of Wo about fulcrum = Wod3
From the diagram above,
Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
Wod3 + W2d2 = W1d1
The Principle of Moments

The Principle of moments states that: “If a body is in equilibrium under the action of forces
which lie in one plane, the sum of the clockwise moments is equal to the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about any point in that plane.”
Activity 1
Experiment.
Aim: To determine the moment of a force.
Materials and apparatus:- Meter rule, several different weights, inelastic cotton thread, knife
edge and a marker pen.
Procedures
 Balance the meter rule horizontally on a knife edge.
 Mark a balance point as C. Use the marker pen to do that.
 Suspend a meter rule from a fixed axis through C. Suspend unequal weights W₁ and
W₂ from the meter rule by using thin cotton threads.
 Adjust the distance d₁ and d₂ of the weights W₁ and W₂ from C until the rule balances.
 Repeat the test five times using different values of W₁ and W₂.
 Record the results on the table as shown below.
W₁(g) W₂(g) d₁(cm) d₂(cm) W₁ d₁ (gcm) W₂ d₂ (gcm)
Observation:-
In each case it will be found that W₁ d₁ is equal to W₂ d₂.
The Principle of Moment in Daily Life
Apply the principle of moment in daily life
Example, 1
A 100 g weight is suspended 45 cm from the pivot, of a light rod. If a weight w suspended 20
cm from the pivot balances the 100 g weight. Find weight w.
Solution
See the diagram below:
45 cm 20 cm
100g W
From:
The principle of Moments,
Clockwise Moment = Anticlockwise Moment
100 × 10 × 45 = w × 10 × 20
100 × 10 × 45 = 200 w
∴ w = 225 N (m = 22.5 g)
Application of Turning Effect in daily life

 It is applied by a hand to unscrew a stopper on the bottle
 It is applied by a spanner to unscrew a nut
 It is applied when turning a steering wheel by applying force on its rim.
 A force is applied to a door knob and the door swings open about its hinge
 It is applied when closing and opening the water tapes.
This gives some reasons as to why:-

 It is easier to open a nut with a long spanner opener than with short spanner fingers
(This is due to the high moment as a result of perpendicular distance arise from the
long spanner)
 A person pushing a swing will make the swing rotate about its pivot
 It is easier to open the cap of the bottle with a bottle opener than with your fingers
(This is due to the addition perpendicular distance arise from the opener)
 Knob on a door is placed as far as possible from the hinges (This is due to the addition
perpendicular distance arise from the hinges to the knob)
Example
A line of action of a force of 90 N acts at a perpendicular distance of 2.5 m, from a
point. Find the moment of the force
Solution
Data given
Force applied, F = 90 N
Perpendicular distance, d = 2.5 m
Moment, M =?
From M = f × d
M = 90 N×2.5 m
∴ Moment of force = 225 Nm
1. The line of action of a force 48N is at perpendicular distance of 1.5m from the point. Find
the moment of the force about the point. (Ans:- Moment of the force = 72Nm)
2. The moment of a force about a point is 1120Nm. If the magnitude of a force is 5600N,
find the perpendicular distance between the point and the line of action of the force.
(Ans:- 0.2m)
3. The moment of a force is 1000 Nm. If the line of the force is at perpendicular distance of
100m, find the magnitude of a force. (Ans: - F = 10N.)
4. If 150 N of force is applied on a spanner of 10 cm to open a nut. What is the length on a
spanner when a force of 60 N is applied? (Ans:- L = 25 cm)
5. A uniform meter ruler is pivoted at its centre. A 20 g mass is placed at the 10 cm mark
and a 50 g mass at the 40 cm mark. At what mark must a second 50 g mass be placed for
the system to be in rotational balance? (Ans:- d =26 cm)
6. A uniform rod with a mass 120 g and a length of 130 cm is suspended by a wire from a
point 80 cm from the rod’s left end.
(a) What mass must be hang from the right end of the rod for it to be in equilibrium?
(Ans:- 36g)
(b) What will be the tension of the wire? (Ans:- T = 1.56 N)
7. David and his father are sitting at the end of a seesaw 2 m from the pivot while David's
mother is sitting at a distance d from the pivot. The seesaw balances as shown in the
figure below. Determine the distance d.
(Ans:- Therefore, David's mother is sitting 1m from the pivot)

8. A 102g remote control 24.4cm long rests on a table, as shown, with a length L
overhanging its edge. To operate the power button on this remote requires a force of
0.260 N. How far can the remote control extend beyond the edge of the table and still not
tip over when you press the power button? Assume the mass of the remote is distributed
uniformly, and that the power button is on the end of the remote overhanging the table.
9. A cat walks along a uniform plank that is 4.00 m long and has a mass of 7.00 kg. The
plank is supported by two sawhorses, one a 0.440 m from the left end of the plank and the
other 1.50 m from the right end. When the cat reaches the right end, the plank just begins
to tip. What is the mass of the cat?
10. A uniform metal cube of length 5m and mass 9kg is suspended horizontally by two wires
attached at 50cm from the left end of the cube and 150cm from the right end of the cube.
What is the tension in each wire? (Ans:- 16.67N, 33.33N)
11. A 4.54 m long diving board is supported by two pillars. One pillar is at the left end of the
diving board, the other is d = 1.37 m away. Find F1 (force of pillar 1) and F2 (force of
pillar 2) as a function of the distance, x, which is 4.54m, of the swimmer from the left end
of the diving board Assume that the diving board is uniform and has a mass of 81 kg and
the diver has a mass of 88.5 kg. (Assume that g = 9.81.)
12. A uniform 1500kg beam, 20 m long, supports a 15,000kg printing press 5.0 m from the
right support column. Calculate the force on each of the vertical support columns.
13. A 5 m long diving board of negligible mass is supported by two pillars. One pillar is at
the left end of the diving board, the other is 1.50-m away. Find the forces exerted by the
pillars when a 90.0-kg diver stands at the far end of the board
Centre of Gravity
Center of gravity of a body is the point at which the weight of a body appears to be
concentrated. Center of gravity of a body is also defined as the point of application of the
resultant force due to the earth attraction on the body. The center of gravity of a regular body
is found to be at its geometrical center.
Example 1
(a) Centre of gravity of a uniform meter rule is at the 50cm mark.
(b) Centre of gravity of a circular object is at its center.
The center of gravity of irregular bodies can be found experimentally.
Centre of Gravity of Regular Shaped Body
Couple
A couple is a pair of equal but opposite parallel forces applied to the same body but
not acting in the same line
Characteristics of a couple
 Comprises a pair of forces
 The forces must be equal
 The forces must be parallel
 The forces must act in opposite directions
 Moment (torque) of a couple
 This is the product of one of the anti – parallel forces, F by the perpendicular distance
between them.
Activity 2
Experiment.
Aim; To determine the center of gravity of a regular body (meter rule)
Materials and apparatus: Meter rule, a known weight and a spring balance.
Procedures
 Balance the meter rule on a fulcrum and mark the position where the meter rule balances
horizontally by the letter G.
 Hang a known weight from one end of the meter rule and determine the position where
the meter rule balances and mark it X.
 Measure the distance XC and XG (C is the point at the end of the meter rule where an
object of known weight, w is attached).
G x C
W
W1
The weight, w of the meter rule always acts at G downwards. Thus it will create a moment to
balance the moment due to w.
Results
The mass of the meter rule, w is determined by using the principle of moments. Taking
moments about X;
Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments
W₁ .XC =W. XG
𝑤1 × 𝑋𝐶
𝑊=
𝑋𝐺
Determine center of gravity of irregular shaped body

Activity 3
Experiment
Aim: To determine the center of gravity of irregular plate.
Materials and apparatus: - Card board, plumb line, inelastic cotton thread, clamp, clamp rod
and a marker pen.
Procedures
 Make an irregular shaped piece of card board.
 Make three small holes well-spaced round the edge of the cardboard.
 Attach a small mass to one end of a string and hold the other end next to the
suspension point so that the string hangs straight down.
 Using a felt pen, draw a line on the cut out along the string
 Repeat the procedure with two other vertices. The center of gravity is located at the
point of intersection of the three lines.
Types of Equilibrium
Equilibrium is a state achieved by a body when all the forces which act upon it are balanced
The force which brings a body into mechanical equilibrium is called “Equilibrant”
Conditions for a body to be in equilibrium

1. The net force on the object must be zero
 The sum of the forces in one direction must be equal to the sum of the forces in the
opposite direction
2. The system (body) must have an acceleration of 0 m/s2
 The Sum of clockwise moment should be equal to the sum of anticlockwise moment
Conditions for equilibrium depends on three factors
 Magnitude
 Direction of forces
 Point of application
There are three types of equilibrium, namely:
1. Stable equilibrium:- 2. Unstable equilibrium:- 3. Neutral equilibrium:-
A body is in this equilibrium A body is in this equilibrium A body is said to be in neutral
if when subjected to if when subjected a equilibrium when a small
displacement the center of displacement the center of displacement doesn’t alter
gravity will be raised and gravity is lowered and the the position of the center of
the body returns to its body doesn’t returns to its gravity; the body is at rest in
original position after original position after whichever position it is
displacement. displacement. placed, e.g. rolling a sphere

In which position A, B or C is a spherical objects stable, unstable or neutral below?
Example
The moment of a force about a point is 1120 Nm. If the magnitude of the force is 5600N, find
the perpendicular distance between the point and the line of action of the force
Solution
Moment = Force x Perpendicular distance
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 1120𝑁𝑚
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = =
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 5600𝑁
1120𝑁𝑚
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
5600𝑁
Hence, the perpendicular distance is 0.2m
1. If a 100g weight is used to balance the weight determine the distance of the 300g
weight from the point. ( Ans:- x = 15 cm)
X 45 cm
300g 100g
2. A uniform pencil AB of mass 4g can be balanced horizontally about a knife edge at

2cm from the end A when a mass of 6g is hung from this end. What is the length of
this pencil? (Ans:- 10cm)
3. A metre rule is found to balance at 49 cm mark. When a mass of 100g is suspended at
10 cm mark, it balances at 36 cm mark. Calculate the weight of the rule. (Ans:- 200g)
4. A meter rule is pivoted at 40cm mark. If it is balanced by a 10N weight placed at
10cm mark, find the weight of the ruler. (Ans:- 30N)
5. A uniform metre-rule is balanced at the 60cm mark with forces of 6N and 5N
respectively at either end. Find:
(a) Centre of gravity of the metre rule
(b) The weight and mass of the metre rule.
6. A uniform wooden bar, AB of length 120cm and weighing 1.20N rests on two sharp
edged supports C and D placed 10cm from each end of the bar respectively. A 0.20N
weight hangs from a loop of thread 30cm from A and a 0.90N weight hangs similarly
40cm from B. Find the reactions at the supports. (Ans:- C = 1.27N, D = 1.03N)
7. A uniform scaffold plank AB 4m long weighs 100N and rests on trestles at each end.
A man of mass 70kg stands 1m from end A.
(a) What forces do the trestles exert at end A and end B? (Ans:-575N,225N)
(b) State the conditions for stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium and give
example to each condition.
(c) Why should a mechanic choose a long spanner to undo a tight nut?
8. An aquanaut stands on a uniform plank 6m long and of mass 40 kg. The plank is
suspended horizontally from vertical ropes attached 1m from each end. The mass of
the aquanaut 72kg.
(i) Calculate the tension in the ropes when the aquanaut is 1m from one of the
supports. (Ans:- 740N, 380N)
(ii) If he jumps into water up to 10m under the surface where the atmospheric
pressure is 65cm of mercury, calculate the total pressure on his body. [Density
of Hg is 1.36x104 kg/m3; water = 1.0x103 kgm-3] (Ans: 188,000N/m2)
9. A ladder is 5m long and has mass of 16 kg. It can be balanced horizontally 2m from
one of the end. Two men, one at each end, carry the ladder. Calculate the force each
exerts on the ladder. (Ans: 64N, 96N)
10. Use the diagram below to solve for the values of F1 and F2 (Ans:- F1 = 6N, F2 = 4N)
10N
2cm 3cm
F1 F2
11. The following figure shows a light bar pivoted at a point and acted on by various
forces such that it remains in equilibrium
Pulley
20cm F
20cm 40cm 20cm

2N 6N
Determine the
(a) Total clockwise moments. (Ans:- 3.6J)
(b) Total anticlockwise moments. (Ans:- 3.6J)
(c) Force F (Ans:- 8N)
12. This diagram shows a wheel of mass 20kg and radius 1m being pulled by a
horizontal force F against a step 0.2m high. What initial force F is just sufficient to
turn the wheel so that it will rise over the step? (Ans:- 150N)
F
1m
0.2m
13. A uniform bridge AB, 30m long and weighing 200000N, rest on supports at each
end. Find the forces on the supports when a car of mass 1ton is 4m from A and a
lorry of weight 100000N is 10m from B (Ans:- FA=142,000N, FB = 168,000N)
14. A uniform half meter rule is pivoted at its 30cm. A mass of 50g hung at the 45cm
mark keeps the rule horizontal. Determine the mass of the half metre rule.
15. A uniform lever 150 cm long is pivoted at its mid-point. A 50g mass is suspended
from the left-hand and an 80g mass from the right-hand end. A string tied 50cm to
the right of the fulcrum passes upwards over a pulley so that the string is at 300 to
the lever. What mass must be suspended from the string for the lever to balance?
16. A uniform plank 4.4m long and of mass 20kg is placed horizontally and
symmetrically on two supports which are 3.2m apart. A brick layer of mass 80kg
stands on the plank over one of the supports.
(a) Calculate the force on each support (Ans:- 900N, 100N)
(b) State briefly how you would expect the forces on each support to vary as the
man moves along the plank towards the other support
(c) When will the two forces on the supports equal and what will be their
magnitude? (Ans:- 1.6m, 400N)
(d) How far could the man move towards the nearer end of the plank before it
starts to tip? [take g = 10N/kg] (Ans:- 0.4m)
17. A uniform meter rule is pivoted at its center. A 20g mass is placed at the 10cm mark
and 50g mass at the 40cm mark. At what mark must a second 50g mass be placed
for the system to be in rotational balance?
18. A pole AB of length 10m and weight 800N has its center of gravity 4m from the end
A and lies on a horizontal ground. The end B is to be lifted by a vertical force
applied at B. Calculate the least force that is required to do this.
19. A heavy uniform beam AB of weight 500 N is supported at its ends. The beam carries
a weight of 3000 N at a distance of 1.5m from the end A. if the beam is 4m long. Find
the thrust (tension) at A and B (Ans:- 1375 N, 2125 N)
20. A metre rule is pivoted at its mid – point. If two objects of weight 1.0 N and 2.0N are
suspended at 30 cm and 90 cm respectively from one end ,calculate the position
where an upward force of 3.0 N must be applied in order for the metre rule to balance
horizontally (Ans: 20 cm from pivot or 70 cm mark)
21. The diagram below shows a 150g rod balanced at its centre of gravity. A 20g mass is
placed 120cm from the pivoted point
120 cm X
20g 50g
(a) Find the value of x (Ans:- 48 cm)

(b) What upward force does the pivot exert on the rod? (Ans:- 0.7 N)
22. A uniform wide and thick wooden plunk (floor board) with a mass of 75kg and its
length of 20m is placed on top of a brick wall so that 5m of the plank extends beyond
the wall’s edge and remains 2.6 m to reach the next wall. (let the plank’s axis of
rotation be at the wall’s edge)
2.6m
5m
(a) How far beyond the edge of the wall can a 1000kg wagon car travel before the
plank begin to rotate? (Ans:- 0.375m)
(b) If a person wishes to jump off the wagon car horizontally towards the second
wall just before the plank rotates, which lateral distance (least) must the
person be able to accomplish? (Ans:- 7.225m)
23. A uniform metre rule is pivoted at the center is balanced by four suspended forces as
shown in the figure below.
Calculate the force exerted in the 60 cm mark (Ans:- 60N)

24. A uniform metal tube of length 5 m and mass 9 kg is suspended horizontally by two
vertical wires attached at 50 cm and 150 cm respectively from the ends of the tube.
Find the tension in each wire ( Ans: 30 N, 60 N)
25. A uniform metre rule of weight 0.9 N is suspended horizontally by two vertical loops
of thread A and B placed at 20 cm and 30 cm from its ends respectively. Find the
distances from the center of the rule at which a 2 N weight must be suspended
(a) To make loop A become sagging (Ans: 29 cm)
(b) To make loop B loose (sagging) (Ans: 43.5 cm)
Laboratory Work
1. You are provided with a metre ruler, a knife edge and two stings of length 100cm each,
weight A of masses 20g and weight B of unknown mass.
(a) Locate and record the centre of gravity G of the metre rule by balancing on the
knife edge
(b) Suspend the 20g mass on the left hand side at 10cm mark and adjust the position of
weight B on the right hand side of the knife edge until the metre rule balances
horizontally
(c) Read and record the values of distance of 20g mass and weight B as ‘a’ and ‘b’
respectively
(d) Repeat the procedure in (b) above when the 20g mass is at 15cm, 20cm, 25cm and
30cm
(e) Draw the diagram for your experiment
(f) Tabulate your results
(g) Plot a graph of ‘a’ against ‘b’ and state the nature of the graph.
(h) Determine the slope of the graph
(i) Use the slope to calculate the mass of B
(j) Name and state the principle governing this experiment
(k) Suggest the aim of this experiment
2. The aim of this experiment is to determine the density of metre rule by balancing it on a
knife edge.
Procedure
(a) Let W represent the mass of the ruler, securely fix 100g brass weight labelled W1
underneath the 80 cm mark of the ruler. The flat base of the weight being in contact
with the ruler
(b) Attach a small loop of thread to the second 50g weight labelled W2 and suspend this
mass at a distance X, from the zero mark end of the ruler.
(c) Using the value of X indicated on the table below, balance the ruler on the knife edge
and note the distance Y of the knife edge from the zero end of the ruler
(d) Use a vernier calliper to measure the length (l) thickness (t) and width (h) of the given
metre rule
Table of results
X (cm) 15 20 30 40 50 60
Y (cm)
(i) Plot the graph of Y (vertical axis) against X (horizontal axis)
(ii) Find the gradient of the graph and the intercept on the Y – axis
(iii) Deduce the value of W, given the equation of the graph as
50g
Y= x+K
150g + W
(iv) Deduce its density using
𝑊
Density (ɗ) = 𝑙𝑥𝑡𝑥ℎ
𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚3
3. The aim of this experiment is to determine the mass of a loaded metre rule by balancing it
on a knife edge.
Procedure
(a) Let W represent the mass of the ruler, securely fix 100g brass weight labelled W1
underneath the 70 cm mark of the ruler.
(b) Attach a small loop of thread to the second 50g weight labelled W2 and suspend this mass
at a distance X, from the zero mark end of the ruler.
(c) Using the value of X indicated on the table below, balance the ruler on the knife edge and
note the distance Y of the knife edge from the zero end of the ruler
Table of results
X (cm) 15 20 30 40 50 60
Y (cm)
(i) Plot the graph of Y (vertical axis) against X (horizontal axis)
(ii) Find the gradient of the graph and the intercept on the Y – axis
(iii) Deduce the value of W, given the equation of the graph as
−50𝑔
𝑌= 𝑥+𝐾
150𝑔 + 𝑊
TOPIC 5: SIMPLE MACHINES
A simple machine is a non-powered mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude
of a force. In general, they can be defined as the simplest mechanisms that use mechanical
advantage (also called leverage) to multiply force. A simple machine uses a single applied force
to do work against a single load force. Ignoring friction losses, the work done on the load is
equal to the work done by the applied force.
Nowadays man can do many things without necessarily using much of his own energy. Many
can fly by using Aeroplane, raise a heavy load, and drive a nail into wood by using a hammer.
All of these are achieved using machines.
Machine:
Machine is any device, which is used for simplifying work. Examples of machines are: a
crowbar, a seesaw, a claw hammer, a pulley and an inclined plane.
Types of machine:
There are two types of machines
1. Simple machine
2. Complex machine
What is simple machine?

Simple machine is any device, which requires single force in operation to simplify work e.g.
Claw hammer, a pulley, and an inclined plane. In a simple machine, a force is applied at one
convenient point to overcome another force acting at another point.
Simple Machine
Effort is the force used to operate a machine

Load is the resistance, which machines overcome.
Mechanical Advantage, M.A

Mechanical advantage (M.A) is the ratio of load and effort. M.A has no SI unit.
Mathematically:
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
Velocity ratio, V.R

Velocity ratio (V.R) is the ratio of distance travelled by effort and distance travelled by load.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Example 1
A simple machine raises a load of 150N by using a force 20N. Calculate the mechanical
advantage.
Solution;
Data given
Load = 150N
Effort = 20N
M.A =?
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑀. 𝐴 =
150𝑁
𝑀. 𝐴 =
20𝑁
The M.A is 7.5
Example 2.
A force of 50N raises a load of 100kg. Calculate mechanical advantage of the machine.
Solution
Data given
Mass given = 100kg
Effort = 50N
M.A =?
Load =?
Change mass given into N
Load = mg
𝑁
= 100𝑘𝑔 𝑥 10
𝑘𝑔
=1000N
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑀. 𝐴 =
1000𝑁
𝑀. 𝐴 =
50𝑁
The M.A is 20
Example 3
In a certain machine a force of 20N moves down a distance of 30cm in order to raise a load of
100N through a height of 1.5cm calculated the velocity ratio (V.R) of the machine.
Solution:
Distance by Effort = 30cm
Distance moved by load = 1.5cm.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚, 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
30 𝑐𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑉. 𝑅 =
1.5 𝑐𝑚
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐, 𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟎
Efficiency of Machine
Efficiency of machine is the ratio of work output and work input.
 Work output is the product of load and distance moved by the load.
 Work input is the product of effort and distance moved by the effort
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑥100%
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Load x Distance moved by Load
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝑥100%
Effort x Distance moved by Effort
But
Load Distance moved by Effort
𝑀. 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉. 𝑅 =
Effort Distance moved by Load
1
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝑀. 𝐴 𝑥 𝑥100%
V. R
𝑀. 𝐴
V. R
A perfect machine has 100% Efficiency. Therefore M.A is equal to V.R.
Note: most machines are imperfect machines since efficiency is less than 100% this is due to
the friction and heat and loss of energy.
Example4:
A certain machine with force of 10N moves down a distance of 5cm in order to raise a load of
100N through a height of 0.5cm.
Calculate the efficiency of the machine
Solution:
Date given:
Effort = 10N
Load = 100N
Distance moved by effort = 5cm
Distance of load= 0.5cm
Efficiency machine?
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀. 𝐴 =
Effort
100N
M. A = = 10
10N
Distance moved by Effort
𝑉. 𝑅 =
Distance moved by Load
5 cm
𝑉. 𝑅 = = 10
0.5 cm
𝑀. 𝐴
V. R
10
10
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 100%
1. In a certain machine , a force of 10 N moves down a distance of 5 cm in order to raise a
load of 100 N through a height of 0.5 cm. Calculate velocity ratio of the lever (Ans:- 10)
2. A machine with velocity ratio of 6 required 800J of work to raise a load of 600 N through
a vertical distance of 1 m. Find efficiency and mechanical advantage (Ans: Eff = 75%,
M.A = 4.5)
3. A certain first class lever of length 2.5 m has a velocity ratio of 12 and an efficiency of
85%. Find
(a) Distance moved by effort (Ans:- 2.31 m)
(b) Force/effort required lifting a load weighing 75N (Ans:- 7.35 N)
4. A machine having a velocity ratio of 5 requires 600 J of work to raise a load of 400 N if
the load moved through a distance of 0.5 m. calculate the mechanical advantage and
efficiency of the machine. (Ans:- M.A = 1.67, Efficiency, E= 33.33% )
5. In a certain machine a force of 10N moves down a distance of 3cm in order to raise a load
of 10N through a height of 0.5cm. Calculate the velocity ratio of the machine. (Ans:- 6)
6. A certain machine is designed in such a way that a force of 150N is used to lift load of
600N. What is the mechanical advantage (Ans:- 4)
7. An athlete exerts a force of 100 N while running 100 m race, if he uses 50,000 J of food
energy. Calculate his efficiency (Ans:- 20%)
8. A simple machine was used to raise a load of weight 3920N through a height of 3.5m by
applying an effort of 980N, if the distance moved by the effort was found to be 20m, find.
(a) The mechanical advantages (Ans:- 4 )
(b) The velocity ratio (Ans:- 5.71)
(c) The efficiency of the machine (Ans:- 70%)
Different Kinds of Simple Machines
Simple Machines are in these forms, Levers, Pulleys, Inclined plane, the screw and screw jack,
Wheel and axle, Hydraulic press
Levers
A lever is a rigid body, which when used turns about a fixed point called a fulcrum or pivot. It
is used to shift heavy loads.
Classes of Levers
There are three classes of levers:
1. First class lever
2. Second class lever
3. Third class lever
First Class Lever

This is the class lever whereby the pivot is located between load and effort. Examples of first
class levers are: see-saw, crowbar, pair of scissors and claw hammer.
Second Class Lever
This is the class lever where by load is between pivot and load. E.g. wheel barrow, tongs,
nutcracker, bottle opener.
Third Class Lever

This is the class lever whereby Effort is between load and pivot. E.g. fishing load, fore arm.
Mechanical Advantage of Lever

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑚
NB:
 Effort arm (Ea) is a distance between fulcrum and effort
 Load arm (La) is a distance between fulcrum and load
 MA of second class is greater than fist class lever
 MA of third class is less than fist class lever
Uses of Lever in Daily Life

The reason for a lever to be useful is that you can use it for a mechanical advantage in lifting
heavy loads as it increases the applied force, increase distance moved or increasing the speed
of an object.
 Fishing rod
 Used in pair of scissors and tong
 Used in wheelbarrow to carry sand
 Spanner types like (wrenches) used by plumbers, electrician etc.
 Crowbar to remove nails from piece of wood

1. In a certain machine , a force of 10 N moves down a distance of 5 cm in order to raise a
load of 100 N through a height of 0.5 cm. calculate velocity ratio of the lever (Ans:- 10)
2. A machine with velocity ratio of 6 required 800J of work to raise a load of 600 N through
a vertical distance of 1 m. Find efficiency and M.A (Ans: E = 75%, M.A = 4.5)
3. A screw jack has 5 threads per centimeters. If the length of the tuning lever is 20cm,
determine the velocity ratio of the screw jack? (Ans:- 628)
Pulleys
A pulley is a grooved wheel, which is free to turn about an axle that is fixed in a frame.
Types of Pulleys
1. Single fixed pulley
2. Single movable pulley
3. The block and tackle system of pulley
Single fixed pulley
This is the type of pulley whereby effort is applied at one end of the tape in order to raise the
load. Single fixed pulleys are used to raise small objects e.g. Flags.
Neglecting the weight of the rope and friction of the pulley, the tension in the rope is equal to
the effort and the load is equal to the effort applied on it.
Consider the diagram below:-
M.A and V.R of single fixed pulley

Thus Effort (E) = Tension = Load (L)
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿)
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐸)
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = =1
From this type of pulley the load and effort all move the same distance.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡, 𝐸𝐷
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝐿𝐷

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =1
In single fixed pulley M.A is equal to V.R of a machine
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Single Movable Pulley
Single movable pulley is the one in which load is multiple of Effort.
Load = 2E
Consider the following diagram
The tension (T) in the string is equal to the effort applied, so the total upward pull on the
pulley is twice the effort 2E (E = T). The load L = 2T, T is the tension in the string so load 2
= 2E (neglecting the friction losses and weight of the pulley and string the mechanical
advantage is given by;
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
But Load is equal to 2x Effort
2 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝑀. 𝐴 = 2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡, 𝐸𝐷

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
1
But when Effort moves a distance X, Load moves a distance 2 𝑥
𝑥
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
1
2𝑥
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 2
Velocity ratio of Block and tackle system is equal to the number of pulleys.
The block and tackle system of combined pulleys

When two or more pulleys are fixed in a frame, a block is formed. The pulleys in each block
are fixed independently on separate axles.
Consider the diagram below:-
From the diagram, the effort, E, moves a distance equal to nx while the Load, L moves a
distance equal to x (This is because each of the two ropes bearing the Load, L moves a
𝑥
distance equal to 2. Then the distance moved by the effort is 2x, ie for n =2)
Whereby:
x = distance moved by load and effort
n = number of pulley (number of rope pull the road)
Now, Ed = nx and Ld = x
Thus:
𝐸. 𝑑 𝑛𝑥
𝑉. 𝑅 = = =𝑛
𝐿. 𝑑 𝑥
Therefore:
VR = n (number of pulleys/ number of ropes pull the load)
From the diagram above: n = 2, therefore its V.R = 2
Example 1
A block and tackle pulley system has a velocity ratio of 4. If a load of 200N is raised by using
a force of 75N. Calculate
(i) The mechanical Advantage of the system
(ii) Efficiency of the system.
Solution;
Data given
Velocity ratio (V.R) = 4
Load = 200N
Effort = 75N
M.A =?
V.R = number of pulleys = 4
M.A and Efficiency of block and tackle pulley system
(i) 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐸)
200𝑁
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
75𝑁
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 2.67%
𝑀.𝐴
(ii) 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑉.𝑅
𝑥100%
2.67
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑥100%
4
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝐸 = 66.75%
The Block and Tackle Pulley

 It is a combination pulley that consists of several fixed and movable pulleys
 It is used in sailing ships to lift heavy sails
 In winches for building works
 Uses as transport tourist up mountain slopes
 Used by fisher man to lift heavy clothes which used to move their boat
 Used in garage to lift car engine
 Used for fetching water in the well
1. A pulley system is made up of 8 pulleys. An effort of 200 N is applied on the pulley
system, if the pulley system has an efficiency of 80%. Find the maximum load
(Ans: L =1280 N)
2. A block and tackle pulley system has a VR of 4, if a load of 100 N is raised by using a
force of 50 N. Find the mechanical advantage and Efficiency (Ans: M.A = 2, E = 50%)
3. A simple pulley system has velocity ratio of 3, if its efficiency is 90%. Find the load
which can be raised by an effort of 100 N (Ans: L= 270 N)
Inclined Plane
An inclined plane is a sloping plane surface, usually a wooden plank used to raise heavy load
by pulling or pushing them along the surface of the plane inclined at angle 𝜃
An inclined plane
Mechanical advantage of the inclined plane

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀. 𝐴 =
Velocity ratio of inclined plane
Length of the plane, ED
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, 𝐿𝐷
But also
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, 𝐿𝐷
sin 𝜃 =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, 𝐸𝐷
Then
1
𝑉. 𝑅 =
sin 𝜃
Example:
A loaded wheelbarrow of weight 800N is pushed up an inclined plane by a force of 150N
parallel to the plane. If the plane rises by 50cm for every 400cm distance measured along the
plane, find
(a) The velocity ratio,
(b) Mechanical advantage and
(c) Efficiency of the plane.
Solution:
Data given
Load = 800N, Effort = 150N
Length of plane = 400cm, Height of the plane = 50cm
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 400 𝑐𝑚
(a) 𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒
= 50 𝑐𝑚
=8
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿) 800𝑁

(b) 𝑀. 𝐴 = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐸) = 150𝑁 = 5.3
𝑀.𝐴 5.3
(c) 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑉.𝑅
𝑥100% = 8
𝑥100%
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝐸 = 67. %
1. A force of 600 N is used to move a load of 3000 N up an inclined plane. Given that the
slanted height and vertical height of the plane are 18 m and 3m respectively. Find
(a) Velocity ratio of the plane (Ans:- 5)
(b) Mechanical advantage (Ans:- 6)
(c) Efficiency of the plane (Ans:- 83.3%)
2. A loaded wheelbarrow weighting 800 N is pushed up an inclined plane by a force of 150
N parallel to the plane, if the plane rises 50 cm for every 400 cm length of the plane. Find
(a) Velocity ratio of the plane (Ans:- 8)
(b) Mechanical advantage (Ans:- 5.3)
(c) Efficiency of the plane (Ans:- 66.7%)
Application of Inclined Plane

 Inclined planes are widely used to unload goods on trucks, ships, and planes.
 Wheelchair ramps are used to allow people in wheel chairs to get over vertical
obstacles without exceeding their strength.
 Escalators and slanted conveyor belts are also forms of inclined plane.
 In a cable railway a railroad car is pulled up a steep inclined plane using cables.
 Inclined planes also allow heavy fragile objects, including humans, to be safely lowered
down a vertical distance by using the normal force of the plane to reduce the
gravitational force.
 Aircraft evacuation slides allow people to rapidly and safely reach the ground from the
height of a passenger airliner.
Screw and Screw Jack
A screw is a form of an inclined plane in which the plane is wrapped around a rod
A screw Jack consist of a cylinder with a spiral ridge runs round it. The spiral is called the
thread (T) and the distance between two adjacent threads is called the pitch (P) of the screw.
The Screw Jack
Mechanical advantage of the screw jack

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀. 𝐴 =
Velocity ratio of the screw jack
Length of the rod in cm
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤, 𝑃 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠
Circumference of circle made by a turning arm
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤, 𝑃
Circumference of circle of radius R
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤, 𝑃
2π R
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑃
NB:
 There is always much friction in a jack. In practice, more than half of the work done is
wasted by friction. A jack without friction is useless because the load or car would fall
down as soon as the effort was removed
 All types of screw work in the same way as screw jack. The only difference in them is
the means of turning the screws.
Example 1
A screw jack with a pitch of 0.2cm and a handle of length 50cm is used to lift a car of weight
1.2 x 104N. If the efficiency of the screw is 30%, find:
(a) The velocity ratio and mechanical Advantage of the machine
(b) The effort required to raise the car
Solution;
Date given
Pitch = 0.2cm
Radius = 50cm
Load = 1.2 x104N
Efficiency of jack =30%
Velocity ratio of the screw jack
2π R
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑃
2 x 3.14 x 50cm
𝑉. 𝑅 =
0.2 𝑐𝑚
𝑉. 𝑅 = 1570
Efficiency of the screw jack
𝑀. 𝐴
𝐸= 𝑥100%
𝑉. 𝑅
Mechanical advantage of the screw jack
𝑀. 𝐴
30 = 𝑥100%
1570
Mechanical advantage, M.A = 471
Example,
A screw jack has 3 threads per centimeter, if the length of the turning lever is 10 cm. Find the
velocity ratio (Use π = 3.14)
Solution:
Given: Length of the turning, R = 10 cm
Length of the rod, x = 1 cm, Number of thread, y = 3
Pitch, P =?
Velocity ratio, VR =?
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑥 1𝑐𝑚
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ, 𝑃 = = = 0.33 … . 𝑐𝑚
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑦 3
2π R
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑃
2 x 3.14 x 10cm
𝑉. 𝑅 =
0.33 … 𝑐𝑚
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝟏𝟖𝟖. 𝟒
Uses the Screw Jack in daily life
 Screw jacks are used to lift heavy loads despite the large friction they produce. The
heavier the load the higher the friction force.
 They are self-locking, meaning that when the applied force is removed, they do not
rotate backwards. They are used in adjusting workplace chairs and tables.
 They also help in pulling and pushing machine equipment as well as tightening
mechanical parts.
 There are two types of screws; fastening and Lifting screws

1. A screw jack which has a 5 thread per centimeter is used to lift a car weighting 20000 N, if
the length of the turning lever is 40 cm and the efficiency of the screw jack is 90%. Find
(a) Velocity ratio, (Ans:- 1256)
(b) Mechanical advantage (Ans:- M.A =1130.4)
(c) Minimum effort and maximum effort. (Ans:- Emin = 17.7 N Emax = 19.7 N)
2. The handle of the screw jack is 35 cm long and the pitch of the screw is 0.5 cm. what force
must be applied to the end of the handle when lifting a load of 2200 N, when efficiency of
the jack is 55% (Ans: E = 9.5 N)
Wheel and Axle

A wheel and axle is a simple machine that consists of a wheel and axle mounted with the same
axis of rotation. The radius of the wheel is always greater than that of the axle.
Consider the diagram below:
A larger wheel moves slowly but with a larger force. It is a force multiplier. The smaller is
both, a speed and distance multiplier.
Mechanical advantage of Wheel and Axle
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀. 𝐴 =
Velocity ratio of the Wheel and Axle
Radius of the Effort (Large)wheel, R
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙)𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝑟
R
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑟
The principle of wheel and axle is mainly applied in gear boxes where toothed wheels of
varying diameter engage so as to give a turning force at a low or high speed.
Number of teeth of Load gear (small
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙)𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙, 𝑟
Example 1
A wheel and axle has a velocity ratio of 6. Determine the radius of the wheel, if the radius of
the axle is 8 cm
Data given
Velocity ratio, VR = 6
Radius of the wheel,
R=?
Solution:
If radius of axle, r = 8 cm
R
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑟
𝑅 = 5 𝑥 8𝑐𝑚
The radius of the wheel = 40cm
Example 2
A wheel and axle of efficiency 80% is used to raise a load of 2000N. If the radius of the wheel
is 50cm, and that of the axle is 2cm, calculate
(a) The velocity ratio and mechanical Advantage of machine
(b) The effort required to overcome the load
Solution
Data given
Efficiency = 80%
Load = 2000N
Radius of wheel (R)= 50cm
Radius of axle (r) = 2cm
V.R=?
M.A=?
Effort?
Velocity ratio of the Wheel and Axle
R
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑟
50 cm
𝑉. 𝑅 = = 25
2 𝑐𝑚
𝑉. 𝑅 = 25
Efficiency of the Wheel and Axle
𝑀. 𝐴
𝐸= 𝑥100%
𝑉. 𝑅
𝑀. 𝐴
80 = 𝑥100%
25
𝑀. 𝐴 = 20
But from Mechanical advantage of Wheel and Axle
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀. 𝐴 =
2000𝑁
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 =
20
The Effort is 100N
Application of Wheel and Axle
 Wheels allow you to do something easy for a longer time, instead of doing something
hard for a shorter time.
 Use a lot of force to turn the axle, and that will spin the wheels really fast. That's what
cars do. Wheels are the most important part of pottery wheels, wagons and cars, but also
of wheelbarrows, spinning wheels, water wheels, windmills, and pulleys.

A wheel and axle with an efficiency of 90% is used to raise a load of 10000 N. the radius of
the wheel is 40 cm while radius of the axle is 5 cm. find Velocity ratio, Mechanical
advantage and Effort (Ans: V.R = 8, M.A = 7.2, Effort = 1388.9 N)
Hydraulic press
A hydraulic press is a machine that has a bed or a plate in which the metallic material is placed
so that it can be crushed, straightened or molded.
Consider the diagram below:
In hydraulic press small force (Effort) applied on the small piston is used to overcome a much
greater force (load) on the large piston.
When a small effort (E) is applied downwards on the effort piston of radius (r) the load piston
of radius (R) lifts the load (L).
From
Force
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Effort
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
Load
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
From Pascal’s principle, says liquids are incompressible and that pressure exerted at one point
is equally transmitted throughout the liquid, then the pressure on effort piston is equal to the
load piston.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
Load 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
=
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝜋𝑅2
𝑀. 𝐴 = = 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝜋𝑟
𝑅2
𝑀. 𝐴 = 2
𝑟
𝑅2
 Thus in practical cases, the mechanical advantage is less than 𝑟 2 due to frictional forces in
the hydraulic press .Therefore the efficiency of a hydraulic press is less than 100%
VELOCITY RATIO OF HYDRAULIC PRESS
If friction is neglected the work done by the effort E is equal to the work done on the load (L).
So if the effort piston is moved by distance x and the load piston raised up by a corresponding
distance Y, it follows:
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑥 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑥𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐿𝑌
𝑥 𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠, =
𝑌 𝐸
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝐿 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑀. 𝐴 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡, 𝐸 𝑌
Hence
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑀. 𝐴
Note: Due to friction, efficiency of the hydraulic press is not 100%
Example
The diagram below shows a hydraulic press being used to lift a container weighting 100000 N.
Radii of the effort and load piston are 20 cm and 50 m respectively,
If the efficiency of the hydraulic press is 90%. Determine

(a) Velocity ratio
(b) Mechanical advantage
(c) Minimum Effort
(d) The distance the container raised through if the effort piston pushed through 1 m
Data given:
Load, L = 100000 N
Radius of Load piston, R = 5 m
Radius of effort piston, r = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Efficiency, Eff = 90%
Velocity ratio, VR = ?
Mechanical advantage, MA =?
Minimum effort, Emin =?
Distance moved by effort, Ed = 1m
Distance moved by load, Ld =?
(a) Velocity ratio
Solution
𝑅2
𝑉. 𝑅 = 2
𝑟
52
𝑉. 𝑅 =
0.22
𝑉. 𝑅 = 625
(b) Mechanical advantage
Solution
𝑀. 𝐴
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥100%
𝑉. 𝑅
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑀. 𝐴 = 𝑥 𝑉. 𝑅
100
90
𝑀. 𝐴 = 𝑥 625
100
𝑀. 𝐴 = 562.5
(c) Minimum Effort

Solution
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝐿
𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡, 𝐸
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝐿
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡, 𝐸 =
𝑀. 𝐴
100,000𝑁
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡, 𝐸 =
562.5
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡, 𝐸 = 177.78𝑁
(d) The distance the container raised through if the effort piston pushed through 1 m
Solution
𝐸. 𝐷
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝐿. 𝐷
𝐸. 𝐷
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐿. 𝐷 =
𝑉. 𝑅
1
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐿. 𝐷 =
625
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐿. 𝐷 = 0.0016𝑚
Uses of a Hydraulic Press

 Used for transforming metallic objects into sheets of metal.
 In other industries, it is used for the thinning of glass, making powders in case of the
cosmetic industry and for forming the tablets for medical use.
 A hydraulic press is the heart of any car crushing system. In this process, a hydraulic motor
applies a large pressure on the fluids into the cylinders. The fluid pressure makes the plates
rise and with a large force, the plate is driven on the car thereby crushing it.
 While processing the cocoa beans, a liquid known as chocolate liquor is derived. For
making fat-free cocoa powder, this liquid is squeezed out in a hydraulic press.
 In swords making, a hydraulic press is used to give a flat shape to the raw steel.
1. Determine the effort required to lift a load of 100 N using:
(a) Using a single fixed pulley
(b) A single movable pulley
(c) Combination pulley system made up of 5 pulleys
(d) Which is the best pulley to use in this case? Why is it the best?
2. A machine has a velocity ratio of 5 and is 80% efficient .What effort would be needed to
lift a load of 200 N with the aid of this machine?
3. While lifting a load of 200 N using a lever, an effort of 80 N moved through a distance of
20 cm to lift the load through a distance of 4 cm
Calculate:
(a) The mechanical advantage
(b) The velocity ratio
(c) The efficiency of the machine
4. A block and tackle system consisting of a 5 pulleys is used to raise a load of 400 N
through a height of 10 cm .If the work done against friction is 100 J , Calculate:
(a) The work done by the effort
(b) The efficiency of the machine
(c) The effort applied
5. If an effort of 15 N is needed to lift a load of 150 N with a three pulley, what is the
efficiency of this machine?
6. In a pulley system, a load of 700 N requires an effort of 100 N to raise it . If this effort
moves through a distance of 10 m and the load is then moved up a distance of 2 m,
calculate
(a) the velocity ratio and the efficiency of the machine
(b) What is the mechanical advantage
7. A machine requires 6000 J of energy to lift a mass of 55 kg through a vertical distance of
8 m. Calculate its efficiency
8. A pulley system has a velocity ratio of 3. Calculate the effort required to lift a load of 600
N, if the system is 75% efficient
9. A machine of efficiency 75% lift a mass of 90 kg through a vertical distance of 3 m. Find
the work required to operate the machine.
10. A hydraulic machine has a piston P of cross – sectional area 5 cm2 and Q of cross –
sectional area of 50 cm2 .Find the velocity ratio of the system
11. If the V.R of a hydraulic machine is 441 and the effort distance moved by the effort
piston is 7 m, Calculate the load distance
12. A load of 30 N is raised 2m when an effort of 10 N moves through 8 m. Calculate the
mechanical advantage and velocity ratio of the machine
13. 120 N load is pushed up a straight smooth inclined plane. The angle between the inclined
plane and the horizontal is 300 .The load is moved a distance of 5 m along the inclined
plane. Calculate:-
(a) The vertical height the load is moved
(b) The velocity ratio of the inclined plane
(c) If the machine has an efficiency of 75% ,calculate the effort force required
14. The frictional force in a car jack is great. Explain why this must be so?
15. What do you understand by the efficiency of a machine? A system of levers with a
velocity ratio of 25 overcomes a resistance of 3300 N when an effort of 165 N is applied
to it. calculate:-
(a) Mechanical advantage of the system (Ans:- 20 )
(b) Its efficiency (ANS: 80% )
16. Define work and power. Name and define the SI unit of power. By using a block and
tackle a man can raise a raises the load 720N through 10 m in 90 s by an effort of 200N.
Find:-
(a) The mechanical advantage of the method (Ans: 3.6)
(b) The man’s useful power output if he (Ans: 80 w)
17. Draw a diagram of a single – string pulley system with a velocity ratio of 4
18. A father exerting a force of 300 N was able to push a wheelbarrow with a load of mass
120 kg. Calculate the number of times the wheel barrow multiplied the father’s force ( g =
9.8 N/kg) (Ans: M.A = 3.92)
19. A machine, the load moves 2 m when the effort moves 8 m. If an effort of 20 N is used to
raise a load of 60 N, what is the efficiency of the machine? (Ans:- E = 75%)
20. A block and tackle system has 3 pulleys in the upper fixed block and two in the lower
movable block. What load can be lifted by an effort of 200 N if the efficiency of the
machine is 60 %. (Ans: L = 600 N)
21. A wheel and axle is used to raise a load of 280 N by a force of 40 N applied to the rim of
the wheel. If the radii of the wheel and axle are 70 cm and 5 cm respectively. Calculate
the M.A, V.R and efficiency. (Ans: M.A = 7, V.R = 14, Efficiency = 50 % ).
22. A man uses an inclined plane to lift a 50 kg load through a vertical height of 4.0 m. The
inclined plane makes an angle of 300 with the horizontal. If the efficiency of the inclined
plane is 72 % ,calculate:-
(a) The effort needed to move the load up the inclined plane at a constant velocity.
(Ans:- Effort = 347.2 N)
(b) The work done against friction in raising the load through the height of 4.0 m.
(take g = 10 N/kg) (Ans:- Wd = 777.6 J)
23. A car weighing 1 600 kg is lifted with a jack – screw of 11 mm pitch .If the handle is 28
cm from the screw , find the force applied. (Ans:- E = 10 N)
24. In the figure below, a crowbar was used to lift a 600 N Load placed 1.2 m away from the
turning point. An effort was exerted at a distance of 3m from the turning point. Assume
the machine was frictionless and weightless. Calculate
(a) The value of the velocity ratio ( Ans:- V.R = 0.4)

(b) The value of the load (Ans: L= 240 N)
25. A machine used to lift a load to the top of a building under construction has a velocity
ratio of 6. Calculate its efficiency if an effort of 1 200 N is required to raise a load of
6000 N .Find the energy wasted when a load of 700 N is lifted through a distance of 3 m.
26. In order to lift a car of weight 5000 N through a vertical height of 200 m, a 700 m long
inclined plane is used. Calculate:
(a) Velocity ratio of the simple machine (Ans: 3.5)
(b) The effort applied (Ans: 1428.57 N)
(c) The mechanical advantage of the simple machine (Ans: 3.5)
27. A Crate of soda of mass15 kg was raised through a certain vertical height of a plane
inclined at 300 with the horizontal .Assume that the plane is frictionless and g = 10 N/kg.
Determine:
(a) Velocity ratio of the simple machine (Ans: V.R = 2)
(b) The effort applied (Ans: E = 75 N)
(c) The mechanical advantage of the simple machine (Ans: M.A = 2)
28. In a hydraulic press ,the small piston has an area of 0.2 m2 while the large piston has an
area of 1.5 m2 .The effort applied on the small piston is 250 N. Calculate:
(a) The mechanical advantage of the machine (Ans:- 7.5)
(b) The maximum load that the machine can lift (Ans:- 1875 N)
(c) If the small piston (effort piston) moves inwards by 3 m, calculate the distance by
which the load is lifted (Ans:- 0.4 m)
(d) What is the velocity ratio of the machine (Ans:- 7.5)
(e) Calculate the efficiency of the hydraulic press (Ans:- 100%)
29. An experiment was carried out to investigate the performance of a single – string pulley
system with a velocity ratio of five. The following results were obtained:
Load (N) 50 100 200 300 400 500 600
Effort (N) 30 45 65 85 105 125 145
Plot a graph of effort against Load, Hence find:
(a) The effort (Ans:- 115 N)
(b) The mechanical advantage and (Ans:- 3.9)
(c) The efficiency corresponding to a load of 450 N (Ans:- 78% )
30. Draw a diagram of a single – string pulley system with a velocity ratio of 5 .Draw also
two other mechanical devices having the same velocity ratio .Explain in each of the
examples, why you assert that the velocity ratio is indeed 5.Give one reason common to
them all, why the mechanical efficiency is less than 100% , and one way of increasing the
mechanical efficiency of any of the machines you have described
31. Describe how a hydraulic press works
32. An inclined plane is 7 m long and its height is 1 m. If the efficiency of the plane is 70%,
find the load which can be moved up the plane by an effort of 150 N parallel to the plane.
(Ans:- L = 73500 N)
33. A box of mass 12 kg is pulled up a straight smooth incline at 30 to the horizontal , for a
distance of 5 m .Calculate the work done (Ans: 300 J)
34. A bicycle has wheels 66 cm in diameter .Its crank wheel has 44 teeth and the rear
sprocket 16 teeth .If the crank radius is 16.5 cm, Calculate the velocity ratio. Find the
efficiency of the bicycle if its mechanical advantage is 0.14 (Ans:- V.R = 0.18, E = 77%)
35. A screw jack with a pitch of 0.2 cm and a handle of length 50 cm is used to lift a car of
weight 1200 N. If the efficiency of the screw is 30% calculate.
(a) The velocity ratio (Ans: p = 1570)
(b) The mechanical advantage (Ans: M.A = 471)
(c) The effort used to raise the car(Ans: E = 2.55)
36. A driving gear wheel having 25 teeth engages with a second wheel with 100 teeth. A third
wheel with 30 teeth on the same shaft as the second, engages with a fourth having 60
teeth. Find:
(a) The total velocity ratio (Ans:- 8 )
(b) The mechanical advantage of the gear system if its efficiency is 85% (Ans:- 6.8 )
37. String pulley system with a velocity ratio of 6.Calculate the efficiency of it if an effort of
1000 N is required to raise a load of 4500 N .Find the energy wasted when a mass of 500
kg is lifted through 2 m (Ans: Eff = 75%, E = 3333 J)
38. A man uses a rope to haul a packing case of weight 750 N up an inclined wooden plank
of effective length 4.50 m and on to platform 1.50 m high .The frictional force between
case and plank is 200 N. Find:
(a) The effort he must exert on the rope (ANS: 450 N)
(b) The velocity ratio (Ans: 3)
(c) The mechanical advantage (Ans: 1.67)
(d) The useful work done on the packing case in joules (Ans: 1125 J)
39. The machine is used to lift a container weighing 80,000 N. The radius of effort piston is
50 cm and the radius of a load piston is 5 m. If the efficiency of the machine is 90%,
calculate the velocity ratio and its mechanical advantage. (Ans: V.R = 100, M.A = 90)
40. A common windlass is used to raise a 480 N load of earth from an excavation by the
application of an effort of 200 N at right angles to the handle and crank. If the handle is
33 cm from the axis and the radius of the axle is 11 cm , find:
(a) The velocity ratio (Ans:- 3 )
(b) The mechanical advantage ( Ans:- 2.4)
41. A lever 2.4 m long is to be used to raise an object weighing 500 N by applying an effort
of 100 N as shown below. How far from the object should the fulcrum be placed?
42. The efficiency of a press is given as 75%.If the radius of the load piston is given as 3 m
while the effort piston is 1.5 m, calculate:
(a) the VR
(b) the MA of the press
43. The pulley system shown below is to be used to raise a load of 150 N
(a) Ignoring friction and the weight of the pulleys, what force is required to raise the
load at a constant speed?
(b) If the cable is pulled down 60 cm, how far will the object rise?
44. The figure below shows a box whose weight along the inclined plane is 300 N
Calculate:
(a) The work done in sliding the box up the inclined from P to Q
(b) The power used if it took 5 minutes to move the box from P to Q
45. The effort distance moved by an effort force of 20 N to lift a bag is 10 cm. If the M.A of
the inclined system is 10, calculate the load distance
46. The figure below shows a pulley system.
Find
(a) The velocity ratio of the pulley system
(b) The mechanical advantage, if the system is 80% efficient.
(c) The effort
(d) The work done by the effort in lifting the load through a distance of 0.7 m
(e) How much energy is wasted
47. A box weighing 560 N is pulled along an inclined plane of length 5 m onto a platform 2m
high with a force of 70 N. Calculate:
(a) The velocity ratio of the plane
(b) The mechanical advantage of the plane
(c) The efficiency of the plane
48. The diagram below shows a box of weight 150 N being pulled at a steady speed up a
ramp by a force of 100 N
If the height of the plane is 2 m above the ground and the length of the plane is 4 m,
Calculate:
(a) The mechanical advantage
(b) The velocity ratio
(c) The work done by the effort
(d) The work done on the load
49. A 200 kg crate is to be loaded onto the bed of a truck that is 1.4 m above the ground. A
metal ramp 5 m long is leaned against the truck bed and the crate pushed along it.
Neglecting the frictional force: Calculate:-
(a) The force required to push the crate up the incline at a constant velocity
(b) The M.A of the incline
(c) The efficiency of the machine
50. A trolley is pulled up an inclined plane 2 m high using a force of 4 N. If the mass of the
trolley is 1 kg
(a) What is MA of the plane (c) Find its efficiency
(b) Find the velocity ratio
51. A Pulley system has a velocity ratio of 5 and efficiency of 60%
(a) What effort force is required to lift a 750 N object using the pulley?
(b) How much work will be done in raising the object through a distance of 1.5 m
52. A hydraulic Press has effort and load pistons with areas 0.02 m2 and 0.3 m2 respectively.
A force of 550 N is required to lift a car with a mass of 680 kg using the press .What is
the efficiency of the press?
53. Find the velocity ratio of a wheel and axle system if the load gear has 60 teeth and the
driven gear wheel has 20 teeth
54. A block and tackle pulley system has a velocity ratio of 4. If a load of 100N is raised by
using a force of 50 N. Calculate the mechanical advantage and efficiency of the system.
(Ans: M.A = 2, Eff = 50% )
55. The handle of a screw jack is 35cm long and the pitch of the screw is 0.5cm. What force
must be applied at the end of the handle when lifting a load of 2200N? If the efficiency of
jack is 40% (Ans: E = 12.5 N )
56. A screw jack has an efficiency of 40% and it is used to lift a load of 400 kg. If its pitch is
0.5 cm and the effort arm is 0.5 m long, find the effort required.
57. The pitch of a screw jack is 0.5 m. When used to raise a load, the handle turns through a
circle of radius 40 cm .What is the mechanical advantage of the screw jack if its
efficiency is 25%? (Take 𝜋 = 3.14)
58. The velocity ratio of the screw jack is 420. If it has 10 threads per centimeter
Calculate the length of the turning lever
59. A screw jack has 8 threads per centimeter of length. If the length of the turning handle is
10 cm ,Calculate the velocity ratio of the screw Jack
60. An electric pump raises 9.1 m3 of water from the reservoir whose water – level is 4 m
below ground level to a storage tank above ground .If the discharge pipe outlet is 32 m
above ground level and the operation takes 1 h, find the minimum power rating of the
pump if its efficiency is 70 per cent .(1m3 of water = 1000kg) (Ans: 1.3 kW)
61. A simple pulley system has velocity ratio of 3. Its efficiency is 90%, what load can it
raise by an effort of 100N. (Ans: Load = 270 N)
62. A lift of mass 500 kg containing a load of mass 700 kg rises through 25 m in 20 s. In the
absence of friction, calculate the average power output of the motor driving the lift.
Explain why, in practice, the power output will not be constant during this time (Ans: 15
kW)
63. A ladder AB, 16 m long weighs 420 N and its centre of gravity is 7 m from the end A. It
is carried horizontally by two boys, each holding it 1 m from the ends.
Calculate the forces exerted by them
64. A loaded wheel barrow weight 800N is pushed up an inclined plane by a force of 150N
parallel to the plane. If the plane rises 50cm for every 400cm length of the plane, find the
velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and efficiency of the plane.
(Ans:- V.R = 8, M.A = 5.3 ,Eff = 66.25%)
65. A block and tackle pulley system has a velocity ratio of 4. If its efficiency is 75%.
Find the
(a) Mechanical advantage (Ans: M.A = 3)
(b) Load that can be lifted with an effort of 500 N (Ans: L = 1500 N)
(c) Work done if the load is lifted through a vertical distance of 4.0 m (Ans: = 6000 J)
(d) Average rate of working if the work is done in 2 minutes. (Ans: P = 50 W)
66. The diagram below shows a cross section of a bicycle wheel .The wheel has a radius of
35 cm while the rear sprocket has a radius of 3.5 cm
(a) If the axle has a radius of 1 cm ,determine

(i) The velocity ratio of the sprocket
(ii) The velocity ratio of the wheel
(b) An effort of 200 N is applied at the sprocket .If the efficiency of the entire system
is 80%, what is the maximum load that can be carried by the bicycle?
67. A see – saw is 10 m long and is balanced on a fulcrum in the middle. A girl weighing 300
N is at one end. Where should a boy weighing 400 N sit if the see – saw is to balance?
68. Using a certain machine, a force of 250 N must move through a 5 meters in order to lift
100kg 1 meter off the ground. What is the efficiency of the machine?
69. The arm of a screw jack is R cm long and there are 4 threads to the centimeter. Calculate
its velocity ratio.
70. A uniform meter rule is balanced horizontally on a wedged placed under the 40 cm mark
by a weight of 0.5 N hanging from the 20 cm mark. What is the weight of the rule?
71. A wheel and axle of efficiency of 80% is used to raise a load of 2000N. If the radius of
the wheel is 50cm and that of the axle is 20m. Calculate:-
(a) The velocity ratio and mechanical advantage of the machine. (Ans: 25)
(b) The effort required to overcome the load (Ans: 100 N)
72. A crank handle with a length of 30 cm is attached to an axle with a radius 5 cm and is
used to lift a bucket of water from a deep well. If the bucket of water weighs 120 N,
(a) How much force is required to turn the crank?
(b) Find the number of turns of the crank required to raise the bucket to the surface if
the well is 510 m deep
73. Find the velocity ratio of a wheel and axle system if the load gear has 60 teeth and the
driven gear wheel has 20 teeth.
74. A gearwheel A has 20 teeth. It is used to drive a gearwheel B with 80 teeth.
(a) Calculate the velocity ratio
(b) If wheel A rotates three times every second, how many times does wheel B rotate
in a second?
(c) Why does a cyclist often zigzag when going up a hill?
(d) Imagine that you are riding a bicycle, how many simple machines are in your
possession?
75. State the Principle of Moments. Discuss how this principle may be used to balance a see-
saw by two persons of different weight.
Answer:-
When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a pivot is equal to
the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same pivot. The heavier person has to sit
nearer to the pivot, while the lighter person has to sit further away from the pivot. In this
way, the moments of the two persons can be equal and the see-saw can be balanced.
TOPIC 6: MOTION IN STRAIGHT LINE.
Motion in Straight Line
Motion is the change of position of an object from one place to another. There are two types
of motions;
(i) Circular motion-Is the motion of an object in a circle. Examples;
(a) Motion of the electron around the nucleus of an atom
(b) Revolutionary movement of the earth around the sun.
(ii) Linear motion-Is the motion of an object in a straight line.
Terms used to describe Motion

 Distance and displacement
 Speed and velocity
 Acceleration and Retardation
Distance and Displacement
Distance is the length of the actual path taken to go from source to destination
It is a scalar quantity i.e. it has a magnitude only but no direction. Its symbol is S and the SI unit is
meter (m). Other units used are Kilometer (km) and Centimeter (cm)
Displacement is the distance in a specific direction. This is the length of the straight line joining the
source to the destination or in other words the length of the shortest path
It is a vector quantity i.e. it has both magnitude and direction.
It is denoted using a line segment to show the magnitude and the arrow to show the direction. The SI-
unit of displacement is Meter (m)
The SI Units of Distance and Displacement

The symbol for distance is X or S and the SI unit is meter (m). Other units used are Kilometer (km)
and Centimeter (cm)
The standard unit of displacement in the International System of Units (SI) is the meter (m).
Questions
1. How much distance do you have to travel to reach school?
2. If you were to draw a straight line between your house and school, what would be the length of
that line?
Differences between distance and displacement
Distance Displacement
Distance is the length of the path travelled by a Displacement is the shortest distance between
body while moving form an initial position to a the initial position and the final position of the
final position. Si-unit is meter (m) body. Si-unit is meter (m)
Distance is a scalar quantity Displacement is a vector quantity
Distance measure is always positive Displacement can be positive or negative
depending on the reference point
Total distance covered is the algebraic sum of The net displacement is the vector sum of the
all distances travelled in different directions individual displacements in different directions
There is always a distance covered whenever Displacement will be zero if the body comes
there is a motion back to its initial position
Speed and Velocity

Speed
Speed is the distance moved by an object in a unit time or is the rate of change of distance. It is a
scalar quantity.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Velocity
Velocity is the displacement moved by an object per unit time or is the rate of change of
displacement. It is a vector quantity and its symbol is U or V.
Formula for speed and velocity
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
Note: 36km/h = 10m/s
Examples 1.
A car moved 90km in 3hours. Calculate its velocity in:-
(i) Km/h
(ii) m/s
Solution
(i) Data
Displacement, 𝑑 = 90𝐾𝑚
Time, 𝑡 = 3ℎ𝑟𝑠
90𝑘𝑚
3ℎ
The velocity is 30km/h
(ii) Data
Displacement, 𝑑 = 90𝐾𝑚
Time, 𝑡 = 3ℎours
90𝑘𝑚
3ℎ
90000 𝑚
3 𝑥60 𝑥 60 𝑠
The velocity is 8.33m/s
Differences between speed and velocity
Speed Velocity
Speed can never be negative or zero. Velocity can be zero, negative, or positive.
Speed is a scalar quantity Velocity is a Vector quantity
The rate at which an object covers a Velocity can be defined as the rate at which an object
certain distance is known as speed. changes position in a certain direction.
Speed is measured in m/s Velocity is measured in m/s
The SI unit of speed and velocity is meter per second (m/s). Other units are Km/h or cm/s
Types of velocity
 Initial velocity, u – This is the velocity of a body at the start of observation
 Final velocity, v – This is the velocity of a body at the end of observation
 Average velocity – This is the average or mean between initial and final velocity or is the ratio of
the total displacement to the total time.
 Uniform velocity is the one whereby the rate of change of displacement with time is constant.
 Absolute velocity is the actual velocity of a moving object recorded by a stationary observer
 Relative velocity is the velocity of a moving object recorded by a moving observer.
 Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of a moving object recorded at any time.
Uniform motion
A distance – time graph represents the distance travelled with respect to time.
When an object covers equal distance in every time interval, it is said to be having uniform motion.
In a uniform motion, the speed of the object remains constant.
A stationary body is also an example of uniform motion
Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity or is the change in velocity per unit time.
Mathematically.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∆𝑣
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑡
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
Example
A car with velocity 180km/h is retarded uniformly and come to rest in 10sec. Calculate the
acceleration
Solution
Initial velocity, u = 180k𝑚/h
180000 𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 50𝑚/𝑠
60 𝑥 60 𝑠
Final velocity, v = 0
Time, 𝑡 = 10 sec
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∆𝑣
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑡
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
0 − 50
𝑎=
10
The retardation of the car is 5 m/s2
Graphs
Distance – Time Graph Speed – Time Graph
Uniform Motion Non-uniform Motion
Uniform Acceleration A non-uniform Acceleration
Velocity Time-graph
This is the graph which shows the velocity (in y-axis) versus time (in x-axis)
Consider a body starts moving from rest and accelerates uniformly to a velocity, v after time,
t1. It then moves with this velocity for time, t2 and then comes to stop after another time, t3.
The above information can be represented on the velocity time graph as shown.
Distance
 The distance x moved by the body is given by the area under the curve.
 In this case is the area of trapezium OABC will be the will be the distance.
 The area of any figure of a velocity time-graph represents distance.
Retardation
Deceleration (retardation) is the rate of decrease of velocity or is the decrease in velocity per unit
time. Uniform acceleration or retardation Is the one whereby the rate of increase or decrease of
velocity is constant or it doesn’t change.
Example
A car travel with uniform velocity of 30m/s for 5 second and then comes to rest 10 second with
uniform deceleration.
(i) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
(ii) Find the total distance travelled.
(iii) Find the average velocity.
Solution:
(i) velocity-time graph of the motion
(ii) Total distance travelled, s =?

30 𝑥 10
𝑆 = 30 𝑥 5 +
2
𝑆 = 150 + 150 = 300𝑚
(iii) From velocity time graph Total distance, s = 300 m and Total time taken, t = 15 s
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
300𝑚
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = = 20𝑚/𝑠
15 𝑠
1. If a car is traveling at an average speed of 60 meters per second, how long does it take to travel 12
meters? (Ans:- 0.2 s)
2. A car starts from rest and accelerates to a velocity of 120 m/s in one minute. It then moves with
this speed for 40 seconds finally decelerates to rest after another 2 minutes. Calculate;
(a) the distance travelled (Ans:- 15600m)
(b) the total time taken for the whole motion (Ans:- 220 sec)
(c) the deceleration (Ans:- 1m/s2)
(d) the average velocity (Ans:- 71m/s)
3. A car starts from rest and is accelerated uniformly at a rate of 4 m/s2 for 5 sec. it maintains a
constant speed for 20 sec, brakes applied and the car stops in the next 3 sec. find
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
(b) Maximum speed attained (Ans:- v = 20 m/s)
(c) Find the total distance travelled. (Ans:- s = 480 m)
4. A bike accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 7.10 m/s over a distance of 35.4 m.
Determine the acceleration of the bike. (Ans:- a = 0.712 m/s2)
5. A body accelerates uniformly from velocity of 40 m/s to a velocity of 50 m/s in 4seconds
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
(b) Find acceleration of the body (Ans:- a = 2.5 m/s2)
(c) Calculate the total distance travelled by the body in meter (Ans:- s = 180 m)
6. If a car is traveling at an average speed of 24 meters per second for 3 sec, and 48 meters per
second for 3 seconds. What is the average speed for
(a) the 1st three seconds (Ans:- 8m/s)
(b) the entire 6 seconds (Ans:- 12m/s)
7. A train travels between the 100 meter marker and the 250 meter marker in 10 seconds. What is
the train’s average speed? (Ans:- 15m/s)
8. Study the motion represented by letter A, B, C and D and answer the questions that follow
(a) Which object has the maximum acceleration?

(b) Which object has no acceleration?
(c) How much distance is covered by object D in 20 seconds?
(d) Explain the motion represented by D. Given an example of such a motion in real life.
Note;
 when a body starts from rest or is brought to rest, its velocity is zero
 when the velocity of a body is constant or uniform, its acceleration is zero
 when the velocity of a moving object increases, its acceleration becomes positive
 when the velocity of a moving object decreases, its acceleration becomes negative called
retardation
Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion
Equation of Uniformly Accelerated Motion and deriving the equations
There are three equations of motion;
 Consider a body moving with a constant acceleration 𝒂 from an initial velocity 𝒖, to a final
velocity 𝒗. The body covers a displacement, 𝒔, after sometime 𝒕.
 Newton’s first equation of motion
This is derived from the definition of acceleration, which is rate of change of velocity
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
∴ 𝐯 = 𝐮 + 𝐚𝐭
 Newton’s second equation of motion
 Displacement = Area under the line
𝑆 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + (𝑡 𝑥(𝑣 − 𝑢))
2
(𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝐵𝑢𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 (𝑣 − 𝑢) = 𝑎𝑡
𝑡
𝟏 𝟐
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐
 This is also derived from the definition of distance, which is the average velocity times time
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
2
𝑣+𝑢
𝑠= 𝑥𝑡
2
Inserting the first equation in a place of v
(𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡) + 𝑢
𝑠= 𝑥𝑡
2
(2𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑠=
2
𝟏
∴ 𝐬 = 𝐮𝐭 + 𝐚𝐭 𝟐
𝟐
 Newton’s third equation of motion
 Displacement = Area under the line (as a trapezium)
1
𝑠= (𝑢 + 𝑣) 𝑥 𝑡
2
(𝑣 − 𝑢)
=𝑡
𝑎
1 (𝑣 − 𝑢)
𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑣) 𝑥
2 𝑎
2𝑎𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑣) 𝑥 (𝑢 − 𝑣)
2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑢2 − 𝑣 2
∴ 𝐯 𝟐 = 𝐮𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝐬
This is also derived from the definition of distance, which is the average velocity times time
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠 = 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
2
𝑣+𝑢
𝑠= 𝑥𝑡
2
Inserting the first equation in a place of t
𝑣+𝑢 𝑣−𝑢
𝑠= 𝑥
2 𝑎
2𝑎𝑠 = (𝑣 + 𝑢)𝑥 (𝑣 − 𝑢)
∴ 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
 Also, squaring the first equation both sides
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣 2 = (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡) 𝑥 (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 𝑥 𝑢𝑎𝑡 + 𝑢𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑢𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡2
1
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎(𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 )
2
Since the equation in the brackets represents the second equation of motion, then
∴ 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
Example
A car accelerate from 25m/s to 60m/s in 6sec, it then maintain this speed for 12sec and then decelerate
and come to rest in 7sec.
(i) Represent the motion using Velocity – time graph
(ii) Find its acceleration
(iii) Determine the deceleration
(iv) Find the distance travelled
(v) Determine its average velocity
Solution
(i) The motion using Velocity – time graph
(ii) Acceleration is obtained when the velocity is increasing

𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
60 − 25
𝑎= = 5.83
6
The acceleration is 5.83m/s2
(iii) Deceleration is obtained when the velocity is decreasing

𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
0 − 60
𝑎= = −8.57
7
The deceleration is 8.57m/s2
(iv) Distance travelled is equal to the area under the curve. The area can be found by using any
method suitable for you, you can divide the figure into different figures and sum up the area
of all figure.
Area of trapezium
1
𝐴 = ℎ (𝑎 + 𝑏)
2
1
𝐴 = 𝑥 6 (25 + 60) = 255𝑚
2
Area of rectangle
𝐴=𝑙𝑥𝑤
𝐴 = 60 𝑥 12 = 720𝑚
Area of triangle
1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏
2
1
𝐴= 𝑥 60 𝑥 7 = 210𝑚
2
The distance travelled is (255 + 720 + 210) m = 1185m
(v) Average velocity is given by
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1185𝑚
𝑣= = = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟒𝒎/𝒔
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 25𝑠
Example
A body moving with a velocity of 30m/s is accelerated uniformly to a velocity of 50m/s in 5s.
Calculate the acceleration and the distance travelled by the body.
Solution
Data given
Initial velocity (u) = 30m/s, Final velocity (v) = 50m/s, Time (t) = 5s
∆𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑢
∆𝑡 𝑡
50 − 30
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 = = 4 𝑚 ⁄𝑠 2
5
𝐀𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧, 𝐚 = 𝟒 𝐦⁄𝐬 𝟐
1
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑆 = 30 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 𝑥 52
2
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞, 𝐒 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝐦
1. A car initially at rest, attains a velocity of 20 m/s after 8 seconds. What is the acceleration of the
car? (Ans:- a = 2.5 m/s2)
2. A rally car takes 5 minutes to cover a displacement of 20 km. If the initial velocity of the car is 40
m/s, Calculate the average acceleration of the car (ANS: a = 0.178 m/s2)
3. A body move with a velocity of 15m/s in 6sec, sketch the Velocity – time graph for its motion and
determine the distance travelled (Ans:- 90m)
4. A car start from rest to velocity 20m/s in 3sec, it moves with this velocity for another 10sec and
finally decelerates uniformly and come to rest in another 6sec. Sketch its motion and find
distance. (Ans:- 290m)
5. A rocket initially moving at a velocity of 5m/s accelerates uniformly at 1.5 m/s2. What will be its
velocity after covering 120 km? ( Ans:- v= 600 m/s)
6. Two cars A and B are initially 100 m apart with A behind B. Car A starts from rest with a
constant acceleration 2 m/s2 towards car B and at the same instant car B starts moving with
constant velocity 10 m/s in the same direction. Determine the time after which car A overtakes car
B (Ans:- 16.2 seconds)
7. Two cars are traveling at 40km/h and 50 km/h, respectively. If the second car starts out 5 min
behind the first car. How long will it take the second car to overtake the first car? (Ans:-20 min)
8. A car traveling at a constant speed of 45.0 𝑚/𝑠 passes a trooper hidden behind a billboard. One
second after the speeding car passes the billboard, the trooper sets out from the billboard to catch
it, accelerating at a constant rate of 3.00 𝑚/𝑠2. How long does it take her to overtake the car?
(Ans:- 31seconds)
9. A car start from rest and accelerate uniformly at the rate of 2m/s2 for 6sec. It then maintain
constant speed for half a minute. The brakes are applied and the vehicle retarded uniformly and
come to rest in 14 sec. Find the maximum speed reached and determine the distance travelled.
(Ans:- 12 m/s, 480m)
10. Starting from rest, a car accelerates uniformly at 2.5m/s2 for 6sec. The constant speed is
maintained for one third of a minute. The brakes are then applied making the car to retard
uniformly to rest in 4 sec. find
(a) Draw speed time graph
(b) Maximum speed in km/h (Ans:- v = 54km/h)
(c) Displacement covered in km (Ans:- S = 0.375 km)
11. A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 15km/h in 10s, Find:-
(a) The acceleration in m/s2 (Ans:- a = 0.42 m/s2)
(b) Distance covered in meters (Ans:- s = 21 m)
12. A stone fall from the height 500m. It accelerated by the force of gravity
(i) Find the time it need to reach the ground (Ans:- 10 s)
(ii) The speed with which it hit the ground (Ans:- 100m/s)
13. A train with a velocity of 40m/s is uniformly retarded and brought to rest after 5 seconds.
Determine its deceleration and draw the graph (Ans:- a = -8 m/s2 )
14. Two cars A and B travel along the same road in the same direction from the same starting point.
Car A maintains a speed of 60 km/h and car B is at 75 km/h. But car B started one hour later.
How many hours will B take to overtake A? (Ans:- 4 minutes)
15. A ball is thrown with a velocity of 20 m/sec from top of a multi-storey building the height of
point from where the ball is thrown in 25 m from the ground. Take g = 10m/s
(i) How high will the ball rise (Ans:- 20m)
(ii) How long will it take before hitting the ground? (Ans:- 3 sec)
16. A driver traveling at 8m/s sees a dog walking across the road 30m ahead. The driver reaction time
is 0.2sec, and the brakes are capable of producing a deceleration of 1.2m/s2. Calculate the
distance from where the car stops to where the dog was crossing. Assume driver reacts and brakes
as quickly as possible. (Ans:- 1.73m between the car and dog)
17. A lorry departed from town B towards town M at a speed of 60km per hour. A bus meanwhile
departed from town M towards town B at a speed of 80km/h. After 2.5 hours, how far apart will
the two vehicles be if the distance between the two towns is 600km? (250km)
Motion under Gravity
All bodies on the earth will always fall down
towards the earth’s surface when released from
a point.
What makes these bodies falling downwards is
the acceleration of free falling body called
acceleration due to gravity.
The acceleration of a free falling body is known

as the acceleration due to gravity denoted by g
and controlled by gravitational force of the
earth.
When two bodies of different masses are
released from a certain height h above the
ground, they will reach the ground at different
times with the heavier one reaching earlier
before the lighter one. Light bodies like
feathers, paper etc. are observed to fall down
more slowly than iron balls.
The reason is that the air resistance is more

effective on lighter bodies than in heavier
bodies, consequently this affect acceleration due
to gravity in a reverse manner.
But dropping a light object and a heavy object

in a vacuum they will reach the ground at the
same time due to the absence of air resistance
effect.
There are two important characteristics of free fall

(a) Free falling objects do not encounter air resistance
(b) All free falling objects on earth accelerate downwards at a rate of 9.8 m/s2 (often
approximated as 10 m/s2)
 For a body moving downwards the following formulae are applied (Here 𝒂 = 𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔 = 𝒉)
 1st Equation
o v = u + at
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕
 2nd Equation
1
o s = ut + 2 at 2
𝟏 𝟐
𝑯 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟐
 3rd Equation
o v 2 = u2 + 2as
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝑯
 For a falling body the following formulae are applied (Here 𝒂 = 𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔 = 𝒉, u = 0)
When the initial speed is upward, at first the acceleration due to gravity causes the speed to
decrease. After reaching the highest point, its speed increases exactly as if it were dropped from
the highest point with zero initial speed.
Consider a body falling freely from a certain height h and uses time t to reach the ground.
This means there is an increase in v as the body approaches the ground
 1st Equation
o v = u + at
𝒗 = 𝒈𝒕
 2nd Equation
1
o s = ut + 2 at 2
𝟏 𝟐
𝑯= 𝒈𝒕
𝟐
 3rd Equation
o v 2 = u2 + 2as
𝑣 2 = 2𝑔𝐻
𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝑯
 When the body moves upwards ,the formulae will change to: (Here 𝒂 = − 𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔 = 𝒉)
Consider a body thrown vertically upwards from the ground with an initial velocity u to a certain
height h and then comes back to the ground after time t.
 1st Equation
o v = u + at
𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕
 2nd Equation
1
o s = ut + 2 at 2
𝟏 𝟐
𝑯 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕
𝟐
 3rd Equation
o v 2 = u2 + 2as
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝐻
𝒗 = √𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝑯
• A dropped ball:
– Begins a rest, but soon acquires downward speed
– Covers more and more distance each second
• A tossed ball:
– Rises to a certain height
– Comes briefly to a stop
– Begins to descend, much like a dropped ball
Use slope to recognize acceleration on speed vs. time graphs.
1. Level sections (A) on the graph show an acceleration of zero.
The highest acceleration (B) is the steepest slope on the graph.
Sections that slope down (C) show negative acceleration (slowing down).
2. The graph shows the speed of a bicyclist going over a hill. Calculate the maximum acceleration of
the cyclist and calculate when in the trip it occurred.
Solution
(a) You are asked for maximum acceleration.
(b) You are given a graph of speeds vs. time.
(c) Use the relationship a = slope of graph
(d) The steepest slope is between 60 and 70 seconds, when the speed goes from 2 to 9 m/s.
 a = (9 m/s – 2 m/s) ÷ (10 s)
 a = 0.7 m/s2
3. A ball rolls at 2 m/s off a level surface and down a ramp. The ramp creates an acceleration of 0.75
m/s2. Calculate the speed of the ball 10 s after it rolls down the ramp.
Solution
(a) You are asked for speed.
(b) You are given initial speed, acceleration and time.
(c) Use the relationship v = v0 + at
(d) Substitute values
 v = 2 m/s + (0.75 m/s2)(10 s)
 v = 9.5 m/s2
A Model for Accelerated Motion
It is possible that a moving object may not start at the origin.
Let x0 be the starting position.
The distance an object moves is equal to its change in position (x – x0).
Initial position Distance moved at a constant u
𝟏 𝟐
𝒙 = 𝒙𝒐 + 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐
1st term 2nd term 3rd term Add or subtract

1. A ball traveling at 2 m/s rolls up a ramp. The angle of the ramp creates an acceleration of - 0.5
m/s2. What distance up the ramp does the ball travel before it turns around and rolls back?
Solution
(a) Use the relationship below as you are asked for distance
1
v = v0 + at and x = x0 + v0t + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
(b) At the highest point the speed of the ball must be zero. Substitute values to solve for time,
then use time to calculate distance.
 0 = 2 m/s + (- 0.5 m/s2)(t) = - 2 m/s = - 0.5 m/s2 (t) t=4s
 x = (0) + (2 m/s) ( 4 s) + (0.5) (-0.5 m/s2) (4 s)2 = 4 meters
2. A car at rest accelerates at 6 m/s2. How long does it take to travel 440 meters, or about a quarter-
mile, and how fast is the car going at the end?
Solution
(a) You are given v0 = 0, x = 440 m, and a = 6 m/s2; assume x0 = 0.
1
(b) Use v = v0 + at and x = x0 + v0t + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 as you are asked to find the time and speed.
(c) Since x0 and v0 = 0, the equation reduces to x = ½at2
 440 m = (0.5)(6 m/s2) (t)2
 t2 = 440 ÷ 3 = 146.7 s t = 12.1 s
3. A ball starts to roll down a ramp with zero initial speed. After one second, the speed of the ball is
2 m/s. How long does the ramp need to be so that the ball can roll for 3 seconds before reaching
the end?
Solution
(a) You are given v0 = 0, v = 2 m/s at t = 1 s, t = 3 s at the bottom of the ramp assume x0 = 0.
1
(b) After canceling terms with zeros, v = at and x = 𝑎𝑡 2
2
(c) This is a two-step problem. First, calculate acceleration, then you can use the position formula
to find the length of the ramp.
 a = v ÷ t = (2 m/s ) ÷ (1 s ) = 2 m/s2
 x = ½ at2 = (0.5)(2 m/s )(3 s )2 = 9 meters
4. A stone is dropped down a well and it takes 1.6 seconds to reach the bottom. How deep is the
well? You may assume the initial speed of the stone is zero.
Solution
(a) You are given an initial speed and time of flight. You are asked for distance.
(b) Use v = v0 - gt and y = y0 + v0t - ½ gt2
(c) Since y0 and v0 = 0, the equation reduces to x = -½ gt2
 y = - (0.5) (9.8 m/s2) (1.6s)2
 y = -12.5 m (The negative sign indicates the height is lower than the initial height)
Acceleration due to Gravity
A simple pendulum is a small heavy body of negligible size suspended by a light inextensible string
of length L (and negligible mass) from a fixed support and it is normally used to determine
acceleration due to gravity.
The angle it makes with the vertical varies with time as a sine or cosine.
If the pendulum swung in vacuum the oscillations would have been continuous. But practically, air
friction causes losses of energy of the pendulum bob. Hence after a certain time the oscillations cease.
From the experiments, it has been observed that, changing the weight of the bob and keeping the same
length of pendulum, the period is always constant provided that all swings are small though they may
be different in size.
In order to be in Simple Harmonic Motion, the restoring force must be proportional to the negative of
the displacement. Here we have: F = -sin θ which is proportional to sin 𝜃 and not to θ itself.
However, if the angle is small, sin θ ≈ θ.
Therefore, for small angles, we have:
𝑚𝑔
𝐹≈− 𝑥
𝐿
Where
𝑥 = 𝐿𝜃
So, as long as the cord can be considered massless and the amplitude is small, the period does not
depend on the mass.
Substituting θ for sin θ allows us to treat the pendulum in a mathematically identical way to the mass
on a spring. Therefore, we find that the period of a pendulum depends only on the length of the string:
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
(𝑚𝑔⁄𝐿)
The period is obtained by using this formula
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
The frequency is obtained by using this formula

1 𝑔
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝐿
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LENGTH AND TIME PERIOD OF THE PENDULUM
 The graph of the relationship between length and time period of the pendulum is a parabola.
 Thus the relationship can be expressed as

 L = constant x T2
𝐿
 Constant = 𝑇 2
𝐿
 By calculating the value of = 𝑇 2 for each value of the graph between L and T2, the value of the
constant comes out to be 0.248
 The constant has the same units as the acceleration that is m/s2
 If we try to learn more about the pendulum, we will find that the constant is just the
acceleration g due to gravity divided by 4𝜋 2
𝑔
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 2
4𝜋
 The equation is
𝑔
𝐿 = 2 𝑇2
4𝜋
 The Period of the pendulum T is related to the length L by the relation

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

1. A large motor in a factory causes the floor to vibrate at a frequency of 10 Hz. The amplitude of
the floor’s motion near the motor is about 3.0 mm. Estimate the maximum acceleration of the
floor near the motor.
Solution
𝑎 = 𝐿(2𝜋𝑓)2
𝑎 = 0.003(2𝜋10)2
The acceleration is approximately 11.8m/s2
2. Determine the period and frequency of a car whose mass is 1400 kg and whose shock absorbers
have a spring constant of 6.5 x 104 N/m after hitting a bump. Assume the shock absorbers are
poor, so the car really oscillates up and down.
Solution:
m
T = 2π√
k
1400kg
T = 2π√ = 0.92 𝑠
6.5 x 104 N⁄m
1
f = = 1.1𝐻𝑧
𝑇
The periodic time and frequency are 0.92 sec and 1.1 Hz respectively
3. A geologist uses a simple pendulum that has a length of 37.10 cm and a frequency of 0.8190 Hz
at a particular location on the Earth. What is the acceleration of gravity at this location?
Solution
1 𝑔
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝐿
𝑔 = 𝐿(2𝜋𝑓)2
𝑔 = 0.3710 𝑥 (2𝜋 𝑥 0.8190)2
g = 9.824 m⁄s 2
The acceleration of gravity, g at this location is 9.824 m/s2
Terms used
 Period, T is the time taken by the pendulum bob to complete one oscillation.
 The time taken for one oscillation is very short and therefore, difficult to measure
accurately.
 To find the time taken, we find the time taken for large number say 15 oscillations.
This time divided by 15 will give us time taken for one oscillation.
 Amplitude is the maximum displacement by which the pendulum has been displaced.
 Length of pendulum is the length of the string from the point of attachment on the wooden
pieces to the canter of gravity of the bob.
 An oscillation is the motion of the mass from its extreme position A to C and back to A.
 Periodic motion is the motion which repeats itself after fixed time intervals.
Application of gravitational force

 Used to launch satellites and space vehicle into space requires overcoming the gravitational
attraction forces for take off
 Used to keep satellite rotating on the earth’s orbit
 It causes everybody to be attracted towards the earth’s surface
 It is used to calculate the time taken by object to reach to ground for all objects near the earth’s
surface. E.g. army aircraft when firing bombs, parachutist move under free fall,(a = g) etc.
PROJECTILE MOTION
 Projectile motion is the motion of a body which is projected in air and moves under the influence
of gravity. A projectile is an object upon which the only force acting on it is gravity.
 A projectile is any object which once projected or dropped continues in motion by its own inertia
and is influenced only by the downward force of gravity. Assuming there is no air resistance.
 There are no horizontal forces acting upon projectiles and thus no horizontal acceleration,
the horizontal velocity of a projectile is constant (a never changing value).
 𝑎𝑥 = 0
 There is a vertical acceleration caused by gravity; its value is 9.8 m/s/s, down. The
vertical velocity of a projectile changes by 9.8 m/s each second,
 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔
 The horizontal motion of a projectile is independent of its vertical motion.
 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜
To get the horizontal displacement, x
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡
 Projectiles travel with a parabolic trajectory due to the influence of gravity,
1
 𝑦 = ℎ + 2 𝑔𝑡 2
To get a vertical displacement, Eliminate time, t
𝑥
𝑡=
𝑉𝑜
1 𝑥 2
𝑦 = ℎ+ 𝑔( )
2 𝑉𝑜
1 𝑔
𝑦 = ℎ + ( 2) 𝑥2
2 𝑉𝑜
1 𝑔
𝑦= ( ) 𝑥2 + ℎ
2 𝑉𝑜 2
Opening of the Parabola for a lateral thrown objects
Total time, Δt
y = h + ½ g t2 Known that Final y = 0
0 = h + ½ g (Δt)2
2𝐻
∆𝑡 = √
−𝑔
Total time of motion depends only on the initial height, h
Horizontal Range, Δx
x = v0 t
Final y = 0, time is the total time Δt, Δx = v0 Δt
2𝐻
𝐵𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑡 = √
−𝑔
2𝐻
∆𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜 √
−𝑔
Horizontal range depends on the initial height, h, and the initial velocity, v0
FINAL VELOCITY
𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑦 = 𝑔𝑡

Then,
𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥 2 + (𝑔𝑡)2
2𝐻
∆𝑡 = √
−𝑔
2𝐻
𝑣 = √𝑣𝑜 2 + 𝑔2 ( )
−𝑔
1. A boulder rolls off of a cliff and lands 6.39 seconds later 68 m from the base of the cliff.
(i) What is the height of the cliff? (Ans:- -200m)
(ii) What is the initial velocity of the boulder? (Ans:- 10.6m/s)
2. A plane traveling with a horizontal velocity of 100 m/s is 500 m above the ground. At
some point the pilot decides to drop some supplies to designated target below.
(a) How long is the drop in the air?
(b) How far away from point where it was launched will it land?
Solution
1
−𝑦 = − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
2𝑦 2𝑥 500
𝑡=√ = √
𝑔 −9.8
Time, t = 10.1 seconds

2𝐻 2𝑥500
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒, ∆𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜 √ = 100𝑥 √
−𝑔 −9.8
𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆, ∆𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎𝒎
Motion of objects projected at an angle

Consider the following figure, where a body moves with an initial velocity Vo at an angle 𝛼
to the horizontal until it reaches a maximum height H.
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕, 𝒕

Vy = Vo sin 𝛼 and Vx = Vo cos 𝛼
Vy = Voy – gt and Vox = Vox – gt (but now g = 0 when horizontally)
Vy = Vo sin 𝛼 –gt and Vx = Vo cos 𝛼
At the highest point, Vy = o
0 = Vo sin 𝛼 –gt
gt = Vo sin 𝛼
𝑽𝒐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜶
𝒕=
𝒈
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐲 − 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐇𝐦𝐚𝐱
1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚, 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝐻 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝛼 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑉𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝑡 = (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
𝑔
𝑉𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 1 𝑉𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 2
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝛼 ( )− 𝑔( )
𝑔 2 𝑔
𝑉𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 1 𝑉𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − 𝑔
𝑔 2 𝑔2
𝑉𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 𝑉𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
𝑔 2𝑔
𝟐
𝑽𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜶
𝑯𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐𝒈
Alternatively
From
𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑆
𝑉 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑎𝐻 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑉 = 0
0 = 𝑉𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 − 2𝑔𝐻
2𝑔𝐻 = 𝑉𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
𝐕𝐨 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛂
𝐇𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝟐𝐠
The time of flight, tf
1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚, 𝐻 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝐻 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝛼 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐻 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒
2
1 2
0 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝛼 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡
2
1
0 = 𝑡 (𝑉𝑜 sin 𝛼 − 𝑔𝑡)
2
1
0 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝛼 − 𝑔𝑡
2
𝟐𝑽𝒐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜶
𝒕=
𝒈
Example
Suppose a projectile is shot at an angle of 300 above the horizontal with an initial speed of
100m/s. calculate:-
(i) The time it takes to reach the maximum point
(ii) The maximum height
(iii) The time of flight
RANGE
This is the horizontal covered distance over which a gun or other weapon can hit things. A
distance over which something can be seen or heard, but it sounds better when it is laterally.
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒, 𝑅 = 𝑉𝑜 cos 𝛼 𝑡𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2Vo Sin α
𝑡𝑓 =
g
2Vo Sin α
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒, 𝑅 = 𝑉𝑜 cos 𝛼 ( )
g
2𝑉𝑜 2 cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒, 𝑅 =
𝑔
𝑉𝑜 2
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒, 𝑅 = (2 cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼)
𝑔
From
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
Let A = B
sin(𝐴 + 𝐴) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴
sin(2𝐴) = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
Then it is true that,
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2 cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼 = sin(2𝛼)
𝐕𝐨 𝟐
𝐑𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞, 𝐑 = ∙ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛂
𝐠
Solving Problems Involving Projectile Motion
If projectiles are launched at the same speed, but at different angles, the height and range is
of the projectile are affected. From the equation below, g is constant
Vo 2
Range, R = ∙ sin 2α
g
Therefore the Range, R will depend on the two factors which are
(i) Initial velocity, Vo of the projection
(ii) The angle 𝛼 of the projection
Assuming the speed of the projection is the same at those angles:- 75o, 60o, 45o, 30o and 15o
Vo 2 Vo 2
Range, R = ∙ (sin 2x 75) = ∙ 0.5000
g g
Vo 2 Vo 2
Range, R = ∙ (sin 2x 60) = ∙ 0.8660
g g
Vo 2 Vo 2
Range, R = ∙ (sin 2x 45) = ∙1
g g
Vo 2 Vo 2
Range, R = ∙ (sin 2x 30) = ∙ 0.8660
g g
Vo 2 Vo 2
Range, R = ∙ (sin 2x 15) = ∙ 0.5000
g g
In order for the projection to have Maximum range the projectile has to be fired at an
angle of 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝜶 = 𝟏, 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝜶 = 𝟒𝟓𝒐 respect to the horizontal.
Procedures to be followed when solving the Questions

1. Read the problem carefully, and choose the object(s) you are going to analyze.
2. Draw a diagram.
3. Choose an origin and a coordinate system.
4. Decide on the time interval; this is the same in both directions, and includes only the time
the object is moving with constant acceleration g.
5. Examine the x and y motions separately.
6. List known and unknown quantities. Remember that vx never changes, and that vy = 0 at
the highest point.
7. Plan how you will proceed. Use the appropriate equations; you may have to combine
some of them.
Driving off a cliff.

A movie stunt driver on a motorcycle speeds horizontally off a 50.0-m-high cliff. How
fast must the motorcycle leave the cliff top to land on level ground below, 90.0 m from
the base of the cliff where the cameras are? Ignore air resistance.
Example
A cat chases a mouse across a 1.0 m high table. The mouse steps out of the way and the cat
slides off the table and strikes the floor 2.2 m from the edge of the table. What was the cat’s
speed when it slid off the table?
Solution
Given that, Height, H = 1m, Range, R= 2.2m
1
∆𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 2
2
2𝑦 2(−1𝑚)
𝑡=√ =√ = 0.45 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡 −9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡
𝑥 2.2𝑚
𝑣𝑥 = = = 4.89 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑡 0.45 𝑠𝑒𝑐
The cat’s speed is 4.89m/s

1. A boulder rolls off of a cliff and lands 6.39 seconds later 68 m from the base of the cliff.
(i) What is the height of the cliff? (Ans:- 200m)
(ii) What is the initial velocity of the boulder? (Ans:- 10.6m/s)
2. A baseball is thrown at an angle of 25° relative to the ground at a speed of 23.0 m/s. If the
ball was caught 42.0 m from the thrower,
(i) How long was it in the air? (Ans:- 2 sec)
(ii) How high was the tallest spot in the ball’s path? (Ans:- 4.8m)
3. A girl throws a tennis ball at an angle of 60°North of East from a height of 2.0 m. The
ball’s range is 90 m and it is in flight for 6 seconds.
(i) What is the initial horizontal velocity of the ball? (Ans: 15m/s East)
(ii) What is the initial vertical velocity of the ball? (Ans: 25m/s North)
(iii) What is the total initial velocity of the ball? (Ans: 30m/s at 600 North of East)
(iv) How high above the initial position does the ball get? (Ans: 36.45m)
(v) What is the vertical velocity of the ball 2 seconds after it is thrown? (Ans: 6.4 m/s)
4. A body is projected downward at an angle of 300 to the horizontal from the top of the
building 170m high. If it’s initial speed is 40m/s,
(i) How long will it take to reach the ground? (Ans:- t = 4.193 sec)
(ii) What is the magnitude and direction of the velocity? (Ans:- 70.2m/s at 600 SE)
5. A ball is thrown upwardly with an initial velocity of 30 m/s from a point 600 above the
horizontal on the side of the hill. Which slopes upwards uniformly at an angle of 280
horizontal
(i) Calculate the time of fight, tf (Ans:- 3.67 sec)
(ii) At what distance up the slope does the ball strike? (Ans:- 62.42 m)
6. A ball is kicked with an initial velocity of 8m/s such that, it just passes over a barrier
which is 2.2m high. Calculate:-
(i) The angle to the horizontal at which the ball was kicked. (Ans:- 𝜃 = 42.360 )
(ii) The time of flight (Ans:- 1.1 sec)
The Trajectory
This is the path traced by a body moving in space by the influence of only gravity.
Since the projectile is normally moving under two dimensions, i.e. vertical and horizontal
components, then the equations of horizontal and vertical displacement can be combined
to for trajectory equation.
1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚, 𝑦 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝛼 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜 cos 𝛼 𝑡
Making t the subject of the second equation
𝑥
𝑡=
𝑣𝑜 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑥 1 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 sin 𝜃 ( )− 𝑔 ( )
𝑣𝑜 cos 𝜃 2 𝑣𝑜 cos 𝜃
𝑣𝑜 sin 𝜃 1 𝑥2
𝑦=( )𝑥 − 𝑔 ( 2 )
𝑣𝑜 cos 𝜃 2 𝑉𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑔 𝑥2
𝑦 = tan 𝜃. 𝑥 −
2𝑉𝑜 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑔 𝑥2
𝑦=− + tan 𝜃 𝑥
2𝑉𝑜 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
Let
𝑔
𝑎= 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = tan 𝜃
2𝑉𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
Then, the equation can be represented as
𝑦 = −𝑎 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 𝑥
The nature of the graph of a projectile is a parabola
The wrong strategy.
A boy on a small hill aims his water-balloon slingshot horizontally, straight at a second boy
hanging from a tree branch a distance d away. At the instant the water balloon is released, the
second boy lets go and falls from the tree, hoping to avoid being hit. Show that he made the
wrong move. (He hadn’t studied physics yet.) Ignore air resistance.
Where does the apple land?

A child sits upright in a wagon which is moving to the right at constant speed as shown. The
child extends her hand and throws an apple straight upward (from her own point of view),
while the wagon continues to travel forward at constant speed.
If air resistance is neglected, will the apple land (a) behind the wagon, (b) in the wagon,
or (c) in front of the wagon?
A kicked football.
A football is kicked at an angle θ0 = 37.0° with a velocity of 20.0 m/s, as shown. Assume
the ball leaves the foot at ground level, and ignore air resistance and rotation of the ball.
Calculate:-
(a) the maximum height,
(b) the time of travel before the football hits the ground,
(c) how far away it hits the ground,
(d) the velocity vector at the maximum height, and
(e) the acceleration vector at maximum height

1. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47s. Determine the
acceleration of the car and the distance traveled (Ans:- a = 11.2m/s2 , d = 79.8 m)
2. A man runs 800 m due North in 100 seconds , followed by 400 m South in 80 seconds
Calculate,
(a) His average speed (Ans:- V = 6.67 m/s)
(b) His average velocity (Ans:- V = 2.22 m/s due North)
(c) His change in velocity for the whole journey (Ans:- V = 3 m/s due North)
3. Define speed and explain what is meant by average speed. A motorist travels from a town A
to town B, 145 km distant in 3 h 45 minutes. Find his average speed:
(a) In km/h (Ans:- V = 38.7 km/h)
(b) In m/s (Ans:- V = 10.7 m/s)
4. A car initially moving at a velocity of 2 m/s takes 2 minutes to reach a velocity of 20 m/s.
What is the average acceleration of the car? (Ans:- a = 0.15 m/s2)
5. A plane traveling with a horizontal velocity of 100 m/s is 500 m above the ground. At some
point the pilot decides to drop some supplies to designated target below.
(a) How long is the drop in the air? (Ans:- 10.1 sec)
(b) How far away from point where it was launched will it land? (Ans:- 1010 m)
6. A kangaroo is capable of jumping to a height of 2.62 m. Determine the takeoff speed of the
kangaroo. (Ans:-: v = 7.17 m/s)
7. A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 15 km/h in 10 seconds. Find
(a) The acceleration in m/s2 (Ans:- a = 0.42 m/s2)
(b) The distance covered during this period in meters. (Ans: s = 21 m)
8. A dragster accelerates to a speed of 112 m/s over a distance of 398 m. Determine the
acceleration of the dragster. (Ans: a = 15.8 m/s2)
9. A bullet leaves a riffle with a muzzle velocity of 521 m/s. While accelerating through the
barrel of the riffle, the bullet moves a distance of 0.840 m. Determine the acceleration of the
bullet. (Assume a uniform acceleration.) (Ans: 1.62 x 105 m/s2)
10. A car moving along a straight road ABC as shown in the figure below.
It maintains an average speed of 90 km/h between point A and B and 36 km/h between point
B and C. Calculate the:-
(a) Time taken in seconds by the car between points A and C. (Ans: t = 300 s)
(b) The average speed in m/s of the car between points A and C. (Ans: 13 m/s)
11. A tennis ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 m/s. Calculate the time taken
for the ball to return to its starting point. (Ans: t = 4 s)
12. A car travelled from town A to town B 200 km east of A in 3 hours. The car changed
direction and travelled a distance of 150 km due North from town B to town C in 2 hours.
Calculate the average
(a) Speed for the whole journey (Ans:- V = 70 km/h)
(b) Velocity for the whole journey (Ans:- V = 50 km/h)
13. A tennis ball hits a vertical wall at a velocity of 10 m/s and bounces off at the same velocity.
Determine the change in velocity. (Ans:- V = 20 m/s)
14. A football kicked horizontally from a vertical cliff has a vertical velocity of 30 m/s when it
reaches the sea below. The initial horizontal velocity of the ball is 15 m/s.
(a) Calculate the time the ball takes to reach the sea. (Ans:- t = 3 s)
(b) Calculate the horizontal distance travelled by the ball. (Ans:- s = 45 m)
15. The velocity of a body increases from 72 km/h to 144 km/h in 10 seconds. Calculate its
acceleration. (Ans:- a = 2 m/s2)
16. A car is brought to rest from 180 km/h in 20 seconds. What is its retardation? (Ans:- a = -2.5
m/s2)
17. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 2 m/s2 for 20 s. It then maintains a
constant velocity for 10 s. The brakes are then applied and the car is uniformly retarded and
comes to rest in 5 s. Draw the velocity – time graph for the motion and find:
(a) The maximum velocity. (Ans:- v = 40 m/s)
(b) The retardation in the last 5 seconds. (Ans:- a = -8 m/s2)
(c) Total distance travelled. (Ans:- s = 900 m)
(d) Average velocity. (Ans:- v = 25.71 m/s)
18. A car starts from rest and attains a velocity 20 m/s in 10 s. If it travels at this velocity for 5 s
and then decelerates to stop after another 6 s. Draw the velocity time graph for this motion.
From the graph calculate:-
(a) The total distance moved by the car (Ans:- s = 260 m)
(b) The acceleration of the car at each stage (Ans:- a = 2 m/s2, 0 m/s2 and - 3.33 m/s2)
19. A stone is set to fall vertically down from a window on the 10th floor of a building 40 m
above the ground. Find the time taken by the stone to reach the ground.
20. A stone dropped down a well takes 3.0 s to reach the surface of the water .How far is the
water surface below the top of the well? (Ans:- h = 45 m)
21. A car on a straight road accelerates from rest to a speed of 30 m/s in 5 s. It then travels at the
same speed for 5 minutes and then brakes for 10 s in order to stop. Calculate the:
(a) Acceleration of the car during the motion (Ans:- a = 6 m/s2)
(b) Deceleration of the car (Ans:- a = -3 m/s)
(c) (c) Total distance travelled (Ans:- d = 9 225 m)
22. A car accelerates from rest to a velocity of 20 m/s in 5 s. Thereafter it decelerates to a rest in 8
s. Calculate the acceleration of the car
(a) In the first 5 s (Ans: - 4 m/s2)
(b) In the next 8 s (Ans: - a = -2.5 m/s2)
23. A rocket fired vertically upward with a velocity of 60 m/s falls back to earth .Ignoring the
effects of air resistance ,Calculate the greatest height reached by the rocket (Ans: h = 180 m)
24. An electric train moving at 20 km/h accelerates to a speed of 30 km/h in 20 s. Find the
average acceleration in m/s2 and the distance travelled in metres during the period of the
acceleration. (Ans:- a = 0.14 m/s2 , s = 139 m)
25. A tennis ball is dropped on to the floor from a height of 10 m. It rebounds to a height of 2.5
m. If the ball is in contact with the floor for 0.01 s. What is the average acceleration during
the contact? Take g = 10 m/s2 (Ans:- a = 2121 m/s2)
26. The speed of goods truck which has been shunted on to a level siding falls from 10 km/h to 5
km/h in moving a distance of 30 m. If the retardation is constant, how much further will the
truck travel before coming to rest? (Ans:- s = 10 m)
27. A stone is dropped into a deep well and is heard to hit the water 3.41 s after being dropped.
Determine the depth of the well. (Ans:- d = 57.0 m)
28. A car travelling at 22.4 m/s skids to a stop in 2.55 s. Determine the skidding distance of the
car. (Ans:- d = 28.6 m)
29. A train, 90 m long, stops in a station with its front buffers in line with a lamp – post on the
platform. Later it starts off with an average acceleration of 0.45 m/s2. What will be its speed,
in km/h, when the tail buffers pass the lamp – post? (Ans:- V = 32.4 km/h)
30. A bird flying horizontally at 4.8 m/s drops a stone from its beak. The stone hits the ground
after it has travelled a horizontal distance of 12 m. After the bird dropped it,
(a) How long did it take the stone to fall to the ground (Ans:- t = 2.5 s)
(b) Calculate the vertical velocity of the stone when it hits the ground (Ans:- v = 25 m/s)
31. A body moves with a uniform acceleration of 10 m/s2 covers a distance of 320 m. If its initial
velocity was 60 m/s. Calculate its final velocity (Ans:- v = 100 m/s)
32. A body whose initial velocity is 30 m/s moves with a constant retardation of 3 m/s2. Calculate
the time taken for the body to come to rest. (Ans:- t = 30 s)
33. Two stones are thrown vertically upwards from the same point with the same velocity of 20
m/s but at an interval of 2 seconds. When they meet, the second stone rising at 10 m/s.
Calculate:
(a) The time taken by the second stone in air before they meet. (Ans:- t = 1 s)
(b) The velocity of the first stone when they meet. (Ans:- V = 10 m/s, downward)
34. Explain the difference between speed and velocity. Draw a graph of velocity against time for
a body which starts with an initial velocity of 4 m/s and continues to move with an
acceleration of 1.5 m/s2 for 6 s. Show how you would find from the graph:
(a) The average velocity. (Ans: - V = 8.5 m/s)
(b) The distance moved in the 6 s. (Ans: - s = 51 m)
35. A stone is projected vertically upward with a velocity of 30 m/s from the ground. Calculate
(a) The time it takes to attain maximum height (Ans: - t = 3 s)
(b) The time of flight (Ans: - T = 2t = 6 s)
(c) The maximum height reached (Ans: - h = 45 m)
(d) The velocity with which it lands on the ground (Ans: - V = 30 m/s)
36. Two cars A and B start moving at the same time along a straight line with uniform
acceleration of 5 m/s2 and 3 m/s2, respectively. If A is 60 km behind B, after how long will
car overtake car B? (Ans: - t = 245 s)
37. Define the term uniform acceleration of a body 53. A small solid sphere falls freely from rest,
in air, with an acceleration of 10 m/s2.How far does it fall in 5.0 s? (Ans: -: h = 125 m)
38. An object is thrown vertically upward from the ground at 30 ms-1.
(a) What is the displacement after 4 s? (Ans: - h = 42 m)
(b) What is the velocity after 4 s? (Ans: - v = - 9 m/s)
(c) What is the maximum height it attains? (Ans: - H = 46 m)
(d) What is the time of flight? (Ans: - T = 6.1 s)
39. A balloon is ascending at the rate of 12 m/s. When it is at a height of 65 m from the ground, a
packet is dropped from it. After how much time and with what velocity does the packet reach
the ground? Take g = 10 m/s2 (Ans: - t = 5 s, v = 38 m/s)
40. A small iron ball is dropped from the top of a vertical cliff and takes 2.5 s to reach the sandy
beach below. Find:
(a) The velocity with which it strikes the sand. (Ans: - v = 25 m/s)
(b) The height of the cliff .If the ball penetrates the sand to a depth of 12.5 cm, calculate
its average retardation. (Ans: - h = 31.25 m, a = 2500 m/s2)
41. An object is seen to fall from an Aeroplane and observed to take 15 seconds in reaching the
ground. Assuming that air resistance is negligible, calculate the
(a) Height of the plane. (Ans: - h = 1103 m)
(b) Velocity with which the object strikes the ground (Ans: - v = 147 m/s)
42. A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 400 m high and at the same time another stone is
projected upward vertically from the ground with a velocity of 100 m/s. find when and where
the two will meet. (Ans: - t = 4 s, h = 78.4 m)
43. A body is dropped from rest at a height of 150 m and simultaneously another body is dropped
from rest from a point 100 m above the ground .What is the difference of their heights after
they have fallen for 3 seconds? ( Ans: - ∆h = 50 m)
44. A car travels at a uniform velocity of 20 m/s for 5 s. The brakes are then applied and the car
comes to rest with uniform retardation in a further 8 s. Draw a sketch graph of velocity
against time. How far does the car travel after the brakes are applied? (Ans: -: s = 80 m)
45. A trolley starts from rest on an inclined plane and moves down it with uniform acceleration.
After having moved a distance of 40 cm its velocity is 20 cm/s. Find its acceleration:
(a) in cm/s2 (Ans: -: a = 5 cm/s2)
(b) in m/s (Ans: -: a = 0.05 m/s2)
2
46. Define speed, velocity and acceleration.

(a) A stone is released from rest at the top of a tall tower.
(b) Draw a distance – time graph of its free fall under gravity during the first 6 s. Show
your table of values.
(c) A bullet, fired vertically upwards from a gun held 2 m above the ground ,reaches its
maximum height in 4 s, given that g = 10 m/s2. Calculate:-
(i) The initial velocity of the bullet. (Ans: - v = 40 m/s)
(ii) The total distance the bullet travels by the time it hits the ground. (Ans:162m)
47. A body starts from rest and accelerates at 3 m/s2, for 4 s. Its velocity remains constant at the
maximum value so reached for 7 s and it finally comes to rest with uniform retardation after
another 5 s. Find by a graphical method:
(a) The distance moved during each stage of the motion.( Ans: - s = 24 m, s = 30 m)
(b) The average velocity over the whole period. (Ans: - V = 8.6 m/s)
48. A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/h is uniformly retarded by an application of brakes and
comes to rest after 8 seconds. If the car with its occupants has a mass of 1,250 kg. Calculate
(a) The braking force (Ans: - F = 3,125 N)
(b) The work done in bringing it to rest. (Ans: - Wd = -2.5 x 105 J)
49. A bus starts to move with acceleration of 1 m/s2. A man who is 48 m behind the bus runs to
catch it with a constant velocity of 10 m/s. In how much time he will catch the bus? (Ans: - t
= 8 s or 12 s)
50. A ball is thrown straight up. What is its velocity and acceleration at the top? (Ans: - V at top
= 0 m/s, acceleration at top = 9.8 m/s2)
51. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30 m/s from the top of a tower
20 m high. Find:
(a) The time taken to reach the maximum height. (Ans: - t = 3 s)
(b) The total time which elapses before it reaches the ground. (Ans: - t = 6.6 s)
52. A projectile is fired vertically upwards and reaches a height of 125 m. Find the velocity of
projection and the time it takes to reach its highest point. (Ans: - V = 50 m/s, t = 5 s)
53. A place kicker kicks a football with a velocity of 20.0 m/s and at an angle of 53 degrees.
(a) How long is the ball in the air? (Ans:- t = 3.26 sec)
(b) How far away does it land? (Ans:- s = 39.24 m)
(c) How high does it travel? (Ans:- t = 13.01 m)
LABORATORY WORK
1. The aim of this experiment is to find the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ at a given position.
Tie a thread to the pendulum bob provided. Hang the pendulum such that the length l of the thread
is 100cm as seen in the figure bellow.
(a) Pull the pendulum bob aside and release it so that it swings in a vertical circle to and fro
with small amplitude. Note the time t for 20 complete oscillations hence determine the
periodic time T for one oscillation.
(b) Repeat the procedure above for the values of l = 80, 60, 40 and 20cm
(c) Record your findings in a tabular form
(d) Plot a graph of T2 against l
(e) Find the slop S of the graph
(f) Determine the value of ‘g’ at the position by using the relation T = 2π√(l/g)
(g) Mention three (3) sources of errors and their amendments.
2. The aim of this experiment is to determine the acceleration due to gravity.

PROCEDURE
(a) Suspend the pendulum from a fixed point using the retort stand such that it is at a distance
d = 10cm from the floor. H is the distance from the point of suspension to the floor.
(b) Displace the pendulum through a small angle ∅ ≈ 10° to one side and record the time t
for 10 complete oscillations. Hence find the periodic time T for one complete oscillation.
(c) Repeat the procedures in (b) above by varying d in intervals of 10cm to obtain five more
readings. Tabulate your results for the values of d, t, T and T2
(d) Plot a graph of T2 against d (cm)

i. Determine the slope of the graph
ii. Determine the intercept along the d axis and state its significance.
iii. Calculate the acceleration due to gravity g if the equation for the motion of
the pendulum, is given by:-
−4𝜋 2 4𝜋 2
𝑇2 = 𝑑+ 𝐻
𝑔 𝑔
TOPIC: 07 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
There are three Newton’s laws of motion. These include the following
 Newton’s first law of motion
 Newton’s second law of motion
 Newton’s third law of motion
Newton’s First Law of Motion

The law so called Newton’s first law of motion state that
“A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless an external
force act on it to change that state”
This law is also referred to as the law of inertia or the seat belt – law
 Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion OR
 Inertia is the ability of a body to resist changes in motion. This means, a resting body to resist
motion or a moving body to continue moving in a straight line when abruptly stopped.
 The more mass a body has, the greater its inertia and vice versa is true.
Types of Inertia
 Inertia of rest
 Inertia of motion
 Inertia of direction
Inertia of Rest
 Is the resistance of a body to change its state of rest
Inertia of Motion
 Is the resistance of a body to change its state of motion
Inertia of Direction
 Is the resistance of a body to change its direction of motion
Verification of Newton's First Law of Motion

Activity 1
Aim: To verify Newton’s 1st law of motion.
Materials and apparatus: Glass, manila card and small coin.
Procedures.
A small coin is placed on a manila card and the card is positioned on top of the glass such that the
coin is directly positioned over the open mouth of the bottle.
Make sure that the card is not tilted by moving the finger in the horizontal plane.
Observation:
When the card is flicked away quickly by finger, the coin drops neatly into the glass. The coin
dropped into the glass because there was no force applied on it when the card was flipped.
Conclusion:
The coin continued to be at rest as the card was flicked quickly. This experiment verifies Newton’s
1st law of motion.
Some examples of inertia in everyday life
 When you shake a branch the leaves get detached
 When you beat a carpet the dust particles come out
 When you quickly pull a book from the bottom of a file of books, the other books remain
arranged
 It is harder to stop a big vehicle like a bus than a smaller vehicle like a motorcycle. There is
more inertia with the bigger object
 If a car is moving forward, it will continue to move forward unless friction or the brakes
interfere with its movement
 If you jump from a car or bus that is moving, your body is still moving in the direction of the
vehicle. When your feet hit the ground, the grounds act on your feet and they stop moving.
You will fall because the upper part of your body didn’t stop and you will fall in the direction
you were moving
 When a bus suddenly starts moving, the passengers sitting or standing in the bus tend to fall
backwards
 When a bus suddenly stops, the passengers sitting or standing in the bus are thrown forward
 One's body movement to the side when a car makes a sharp turn.
Momentum
 A body is said to be in motion if it changes its position with time and when it has velocity
 A body with zero velocity therefore it is not in motion and hence it is at rest
 The motion of a body can be measured by multiplying out its mass ‘m’ and its velocity ‘v’ the
product M.V is known as the linear momentum of a body
 Momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an object
Linear momentum (p) = Mass (m) x Velocity (v) with S.I unit kgm/s
Example
A man of mass 1000 kg is moving with a velocity of 60 km/h. Find its momentum
Solution:
Given: Mass of a car, m = 1000 kg, Velocity of a car, v = 60km/h = 16.7 m/s
Momentum of a car, p =?
From: Momentum (p) = mass x velocity
= mv
= 1000 x 16.7 = 16700 kgm/s
The momentum is 16700kgm/s
Newton’s Second Law of Motion

It states that: “The rate of change momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied
force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts”
 Suppose force F acts on a body of mass ‘m’ for time t. This force causes the velocity of the
body to change from initial velocity ‘u’ to final velocity ‘v’ in that interval t
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝛼𝐹
𝑡
 But
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
If a constant of proportionality k is introduced in the above relation, then F = kma.
This equation can be used to define unit of force. If m = 1kg and a = 1m/s2, then the unit of force is
chosen in such a way that when F = 1 the constant k = 1,
“The force is directly proportional to acceleration of the object and the acceleration of the same
body is inversely proportional to its mass”
Hence F = ma
∴ A newton is the force which when acting on the body of mass1kg produces an acceleration of 1m/s2.
Example 1.
Suppose you exert an upward force of 10 N on a 3kg object. What will be the object acceleration?
Solution:
Given: Force applied, f = 10 N,
Mass of object, m = 3 kg = 30 N
Acceleration of an object, a =?
Net force (F) = 30 - 10 = 20 N
From F = ma
𝐹 20𝑁
𝑎= =
𝑚 3𝑘𝑔
Acceleration = 6.67m/s2
Example 2
A tennis ball whose mass is 150 g is moving at a speed of 20 m/s. it is then brought to rest by one
player in 0.05 s. find average force applied
Solution:-
Mass of tennis ball, m = 150 g = 0.15 kg,
Initial velocity, u = 20 m/s
Final velocity, v = 0 m/s
Time taken, t = 0.05 s
𝑣−𝑢
F = m( )
𝑡
0 − 20
F = 0.15 ( ) = −60𝑁
0.05
The average force applied is 60N in the opposite direction of the ball
Impulse
 This is the change of momentum which is given as the product of force and the time.
 Impulse is change in momentum =≫ (𝑣 – 𝑢). Its SI unit is Newton second (Ns) or kgm/s
Example 3.
During a collision, a truck applies a force of 20000N on a 250 kg van for 0.5 seconds. Determine the
impulse experienced by the van
Solution
Given: F = 20000 N,
t = 0.5 s,
m = 250 kg
From: Impulse (I) = Force x time
Ft = 20000 x 0.5 = 10000 Ns
The impulse will be 10000Ns
Application of Newton’s second law (Momentum & Impulse) in our daily life
 The high jumpers usually bend their knees on landing. This increases the time of impact thus
reducing the chance of injuries on their sudden start.
 While goalkeeper catching a ball, he extends his hands forward so that he has enough room to let
his hands move backward after impact to prevent bounce of ball
 A person is better off falling on a mattress than a concrete floor. Because the mattress allows for a
longer time of impact and, therefore a lesser force of impact than a concrete floor.
 Glass wares are wrapped in a paper before packing to avoid breakage. Because this increases the
time of impact between various articles during bumps, thereby decreasing the force of impact on
the articles
 When the car goes out of control while driving, you would prefer to hit something soft than
something hard. It is because by hitting soft material you extend your time of impact, thereby
reducing the impact force
1. A body at rest is acted upon by a force for 20 seconds. The force is then withdrawn and the body
moves a distance of 60m in the next 5 seconds. If the mass of the body is 10kg calculate the
magnitude of the force. (Ans:- 12N)
2. Suppose a force F acts on a body of mass m for time t causing its velocity to change from initial
velocity u to a final velocity v; Explain how the Newton’s second law of motion can be used to
define a unit of force of one Newton.
3. A net force of 15 N is exerted on an encyclopedia to cause to accelerate at a rate of 3ms-2
Determine the mass of the encyclopedia (Ans:- m = 5 kg)
4. A trolley of mass 400 g has a velocity of 600 cm/s. Calculate the momentum of the trolley (Ans:-
p = 2.4 kgm/s)
5. Sands drops vertically on a flat conveyor belt moving at a steady velocity of 5cm/s. If the rate at
which the sand drops is 100g/s, what is the force required to keep the belt moving? (Ans:-0.005N)
6. Suppose that a sphere is accelerating at rate of 2 m/s2. If the net force is tripled and the mass is
halved, then what is the new acceleration of the sphere? (Ans:- a = six times larger)
7. Determine the momentum of a 1000 kg truck moving Northwards at a velocity of 20 m/s (Ans:- p
= 20000 kgm/s ------northward)
8. An athlete has a westward momentum of 5000 kgm/s. If the athlete has a mass of 75 kg, at what
velocity is he moving? (Ans:- v = 66.67 m/s)
9. A car of mass 600 kg moves with a velocity of 40 m/s .Calculate the momentum of the car
(Ans:- 24,000 kgm/s)
10. A cricket ball of mass 180 g travelling at 25 m/s is hit towards the bowler at 15 m/s .The impact
lasts for 0.04 s. Find:
(a) The impulse (Ans: I = 1.8 Ns)
(b) The average force applied (Ans: F = 45 N to the left)
11. An unbalanced force of 12 N acts on a mass of 2 kg. Calculate
(a) The resulting acceleration (Ans:- a = 6 m/s2)
(b) The force that would give a body of 10 kg the same acceleration (Ans:- F = 60 N)
12. Stones of 8 kg and 4 kg move with velocities of 3 m/s and 6 m/s respectively. Compare their
momentum (Ans:- Have the same momentum of 24 kgm/s)
13. A cricket player catches a ball of mass 150 g moving with a velocity of 25 m/s. Find:
(a) the momentum of the ball (Ans:- P = 3.75 kgm/s, F = 10.7 N)
(b) the average force applied by the players hands to stop the ball in 0.35 s
14. Find the force required to accelerate a mass of 0.6 kg from 20 cm/s to 140 cm/s in 6 s
(Ans:- F = 0.12 N)
15. A car of mass 1200 kg travels along a straight horizontal road with a constant speed of 15 m/s.
Calculate the momentum of the car (Ans:- 18 000 kgm/s)
16. A van of mass 3 metric tons is travelling at a velocity of 72 km/h. Calculate the momentum of the
vehicle. (Ans:- p = 6.0 x 104 kgm/s)
17. A rocket pushes out exhaust gas at the rate of 150 kg/s. The velocity of the gas is 250 m/s.
Calculate the forward thrust on the rocket
18. A football was kicked into the hands of a goalkeeper with 4m/s. The goalkeeper stopped the ball
in 2sec. If the mass of the ball is 0.5kg, find the average force exerted into the hands of a
goalkeeper. (Ans:- the average force exerted into the hands is 1N)
19. Maryanne, who has a mass of 50 kg is driving at a velocity of 35 m/s, suddenly, she slams on the
brakes to avoid hitting a pedestrian crossing the road. She is tightly held by the seatbelt which
brings her body to rest in 0.5 s
(a) What force does the seatbelt exert on her?
(b) If she had not been wearing the seatbelt and not had an airbag, then the wind screen would
have stopped her head in 0.002 sec. What force would the wind screen have exerted on her?
20. A mass of 3.0 kg is moving at a velocity of 30 m/s. How long will a force of 15 N take to stop it?
21. A person of mass 60 kg jumps in air and lands with a speed of 6 m/s. If he bends his knees, he
comes to rest in 0.8 s. Find the:
(a) Deceleration of the person
(b) Average force acting on the person
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
 Consider the spring fixed on a block as seen below, is pushed with a force F. an equal force F
pulls it back to its same length it were at before being pushed. For this to be attained, the two
forces must necessarily be equal but acting oppositely.
 When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.
 Newton’s third law is also known as the law of reciprocal actions or law of action and reaction
Since two forces are equal Isaac Newton establish a law which state that:
“To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”
Question: 1.
 Newton pair forces are equal in size and opposite in direction and yet they do not cancel each
other out. Explain
Ans:-
 Forces can only cancel each other out if they act on the same object, but not on different objects.
Application of Newton’s Third Law

The following are some practical examples involving Newton’s 3rd law of motion
 Walking: When a person walks on the ground, he or she exerts a force on the ground and in
turn ground exerts an equal force on the person
 If a car is accelerating forward , it is because its tires are pushing backward on the road and
the road is pushing forward on the tires
 A block resting on a table exerts normal reaction which is equal to the weight of the block
 The person firing the gun will feel the recoil (push back) when the bullet leaves the gun
 When a person throws a package out of a boat, the boat moves in opposite direction from the
package. The package exerts an equal but opposite force on the person
 A falling object exerts upward force on the earth as much as the earth is exerting a downward
force on the object
 A hammer driving a nail into block of wood
 When the air is released from balloon it rushed out (action) tend to give reaction balloon so it
acquire the motion
 An airplane pushes back on the air and the air pushes forward on the plane.
Apparent weight of man in lift (elevator)

 Suppose a man of mass m is standing on a weighing machine placed in lift or elevator
 The man exerts on the floor a force vertically downward which is the weight of the man (W)
 On the other hand, the floor exerts an equal force R on the man in the upward direction
(Newton’s 3rd Law of motion). Therefore R = W
 Since the two forces are acting on the man, Then the difference of the two forces will
determine in which direction the net force acts
(a) When the lift is at rest

Acceleration is zero and net force is zero
𝑹 − 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟎
∴ 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈
(b) When the lift is moving with constant velocity
Again in this case acceleration is zero (a = 0 m/s2)
∴ 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒏
(c) When the lift is moving upward with acceleration, a

Here the net force is acting in the upward direction
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑹 − 𝒎𝒈 → 𝒎𝒂 = 𝑹 – 𝒎𝒈
∴ 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒂 + 𝒎𝒈 = 𝒎 (𝒂 + 𝒈)
∴ 𝑹 > 𝑊 ( = 𝑚𝑔)
Therefore, apparent weight (R) is greater than the actual weight W (= mg) of the man.
The man can feel it if he walks on the floor of lift (elevator), he will need more effort to
walk naturally
(d) When the lift is moving downward with acceleration, a

Net force is acting downward
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝑹 → 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎𝒈 –R
∴ 𝑹 = 𝒎g - 𝒎a = 𝒎 (g - a)
∴ 𝑹 < 𝑊 ( = 𝑚𝑔)
Therefore the apparent weight (R) of the man is less than the actual weight W (= mg) of
the man .The man will feel lighter as he walks about on the floor of the lift (elevator)
(e) For free fall.

 If the lift (elevator) cable breaks , then the lift(elevator) will fall freely and 𝒂 = 𝒈
From: 𝑹 = 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎 (𝒈 − 𝒂) = 𝟎
 Therefore the apparent of the man will become zero
(f) When the lift moves downward with 𝒂 > 𝑔

 In this case 𝑹 = 𝒎 (𝒈 − 𝒂) becomes negative
 Therefore the apparent weight of the man becomes negative and this indicates that the
man will rise from the floor of the lift (elevator) and stick to the ceiling of the lift
(elevator)
Conservation of Linear Momentum

Collision
This an occurrence where momentum or kinetic energy is transferred from one object to another
Types of Collisions
There are two main collisions differentiated as shown in the table below
Difference between elastic and inelastic collision

Elastic collision Inelastic collision
This is a type of collision whereby each body This is a type of collision whereby all bodies move
moves with a separate velocity after collision with the same velocity after collision. This velocity
is known as common velocity.
Both momentum and kinetic energy are Only momentum is conserved (kinetic energy is
conserved changed into other energies such as heat and sound
energy)
Forces during collision are conservative and Forces during collision are not conservative and
mechanical energy is not transformed into mechanical energy is transformed into some other
some other form of energy such as sound and form of energy such as sound and thermal energy
thermal energy
An example of elastic collision is the An example of inelastic collision is an automobile
movement of the swinging balls collision
Bodies move apart after collision Bodies stick together after collision
Principle of Conservation of linear Momentum
 It states that:- “In the absence of an external force (gravity, friction), the total momentum
before the collision is equal to the total momentum after the collision.”
 Consider the case of firing a gun, as the bullet leaves the gun (reaction), the one holding it feels a
backward force (reaction from the bullet of the gun)
 According to Newton’s 3rd law of motion, these two forces are equal and opposite. Since these
two forces act at the same time, the impulses (i.e. change in momentum) produced must be equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction.
 Consider the collision of two balls moving in a straight line

𝑢2 𝑣2 𝑣
𝑢1 𝑣1
A B B
A
𝑚1 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑚2
Figure (a) Figure (b) Figure (c)
 The balls have the masses m1 and m2 and they are approaching each other with velocity u1 and
u2 as shown in figure (a) then the balls have the velocities V1 and V2 after collision in fig. (b)
 But also, possibly the two bodies can fuse into huge body of the sum of their masses as seen
in figure (c) with a common velocity v. In figure (b) we call it elastic collision while that of
figure (c) is inelastic collision
 Let F1 and F2 be the forces acting on m1 and m2 during collision.
 By Newton’s third law of motion the forces are equal and opposite since the two forces act
during the same time t. The two forces are equal but acting in opposite direction, thus
𝐹 = −𝐹
𝑚1 𝑎1 = −𝑚2 𝑎2
𝑣1 − 𝑢1 𝑣2 − 𝑢2
𝑚1 = −𝑚2
𝑡 𝑡
The time for action and reaction is common, hence cancel out
𝑚1 (𝑣1 − 𝑢1 ) = −𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )
Also the impulses produced are therefore equal and opposite

𝐹𝑡 = −𝐹𝑡
𝑚1 (𝑣1 − 𝑢1 ) = −𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 )
Opening the brackets in both sides,

𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 = −𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
∴ 𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
 But if the two bodies stick together

∴ 𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
 ∴ The total momentum before collision is equals to the total momentum after collision.
NB:
If the two bodies are moving in opposite side (after or before collision), then minus sign (–
ve) is introduced in the formula. Elastic collision kinetic energy is conserved but inelastic
collision kinetic energy is not conserved.
Elastic collision
Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved quantities, then following are true
 Momentum: Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
 Kinetic energy: Total K.E before collision = Total K.E after collision
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
From the equations above, we can resolve and come out with the following:-
𝑚1 − 𝑚2 2𝑚2
𝒗𝟏 = 𝑥 𝑢1 + 𝑥 𝑢2
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
And
𝑚2 − 𝑚1 2𝑚1
𝒗𝟐 = 𝑥 𝑢2 + 𝑥 𝑢1
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Inelastic collision
Kinetic energy is not conserved because some kinetic energy is turned into vibrational energy of the
atoms, causing a heating effect, and the bodies are deformed.
 In elastic collision, only the following is true
Momentum: Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
Points to remember
(i) If the bodies are moving in opposite directions then, one body will have Positive initial
velocity and the other Negative initial velocity
(ii) If in finding the final or initial velocity you find the negative answer, then it mean that the
velocity was in the opposite direction to the previous direction.
(iii) If the bodies stick together after collision, they will move with the same velocity, we call it
common velocity (Vc)
(iv) When speaking of head-on-collision, it means that the bodies were moving in the opposite
direction.
Example 1.
A bullet of mass 10 g leaves a gun of mass 500 g with a velocity of 100 m/s. Find the velocity
of the gun coil.
Data:- Mass of a bullet, m1 = 100 g, Mass of a gun, m2 = 500 g
Initial velocity of a bullet, u1 = 0 m/s, Initial velocity of a gun, u2 = 0 m/s
Final velocity of a bullet, v1 = 100 m/s, Final velocity of a gun, v2 =?
Solution
From: The Principle of conservation of linear momentum
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
500 𝑥 0 + 10 𝑥0 = 100 𝑥 10 + 500𝑥 𝑣2
∴ The recoil velocity of the gun is 2m/s to the opposite side
Examples 2.
A 10 Kg block is moving with an initial velocity of 12 m/s collides with 8 Kg wooden block
moving towards the first block with velocity 4 m/s. The second body comes to rest after the
collision. Determine the final velocity of first body.
Solution
Body 1(Block) Body 2(Wood)
m1 = 10kg m2 =8kg
u1 = 12m/s u2 = -4m/s (Opposite direction)
v1 = ? v2 = 0m/s (Come to rest)
From the formula
𝒎𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒗𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
(10 𝑥 12) + (8 𝑥 − 4) = (10𝑥𝑣1) + (8 𝑥 0)
The first body will move with velocity of 8.8m/s
Examples of conservation of linear momentum
1. Recoil of a gun: When a gun is fired, the bullet moves with a large velocity and the gun moves
with a small velocity in opposite direction to that of the bullet
2. When the bullet is fired, the gun is always held close to the shoulder otherwise the shoulder may
get hurt due to the recoil velocity of the gun
3. When a man jumps from a boat, the boat slightly moves away from the shore
4. Rocket propulsion: When the rocket is fired, fuel is burnt and very hot gases are formed. As the
hot gases gain linear momentum to the rear on leaving the rocket, the rocket acquires equal linear
momentum in the forward (i.e. opposite direction) because linear momentum is conserved

1. Trolley A of mass 6 kg is rolling across a smooth horizontal desk with a velocity of 0.8 m/s. The
trolley collides with a stationery trolley B of mass 2 kg. After the collision the trolleys couple and
move off together in the direction in which A was travelling. Calculate the velocity of the trolleys
after the collision (Ans:- 0.6 m/s)
2. A 1000 kg cannon launches a cannon ball of mass 10 kg at a velocity of 100 m/s. At what speed
does the cannon recoil? (Ans: - = 1 m/s)
3. During a shunting operation, a truck of total mass 15 metric tonnes (t) moving at 1 m/s, collides
with a stationary truck of mass 10 t. If the two trucks are automatically connected so that they
move off together, find their velocity. Also calculate the kinetic energy of the trucks (a) before
(b) after collision. Explain why these are not equal (Ans:- 0.6 m/s, KEB = 7.5 KJ, KEA = 4.5 KJ)
4. An object of mass 12kg moving with velocity 12m/s, collides head-on with a stationary object
whose mass is 6kg. Given that the collision is elastic, what are the final velocities of the two
objects? Neglect friction. (Ans:- A 12kg body is 4m/s and 6kg body move with 16m/s )
5. A body of 8kg moving with 25m/s collides with another body of 4kg moving with 10m/s in the
opposite direction. If the body of 8kg continued to move with 10m/s after collision. Determine:
(a) Velocity of 4kg body (Ans:- 4m/s in the opposite direction)
(b) The loss in kinetic energy. (Ans:- Lost energy is 2268J)
6. A 10kg mass traveling at 2m/s meets and collides elastically with a 2kg mass traveling at 4m/s in
the opposite direction. Find the final velocity of both objects (Ans:- A 10kg mass will remain
stationary and the mass 2kg will move with 6m/s)
7. A 2.79 kg object initially moving in the positive x-direction with a velocity of 5.35 m/s collides
with and sticks to a 2.01 kg object initially moving in the negative y-direction with a velocity of
2.83 m/s. find the final components of velocity of the composite object. (Indicate the direction
with the sign of your answer.) (Ans:- A 2.79kg mass will move with 1.5m/s in negative x –
direction and a 2.01kg mass will move with 6.68m/s in positive y – direction.)
8. A body of mass 2.0 kg makes an elastic collision with another body at rest and continues to move
in the original direction but with quarter of its original speed.
(a) What is the mass of the other body? (Ans:- 1.2kg)
(b) What is the speed of the two-body center of mass if the initial speed of the 2.0 kg body
was 4.0 m/s? (Ans:- 2kg mass will have 1m/s and the 1.2kg mass will be 5m/s)
9. A ball with a mass of 3 kg moving at 5 m/s collides with a 9 kg ball at rest. After the collision, the
impacting 3 kg ball bounces back at a speed of 2.5 m/s. How fast does the 9 kg ball move and in
what direction? (Ans:- 2.5m/s in the opposite direction to 3kg ball)
10. A particle of mass 4.0 kg, initially moving with a velocity of 2.0 m/s collides elastically with a
particle of mass 6.0 kg initially moving with a velocity of −4.0 𝑚/𝑠. What are the velocities of the
two particles after the collision? (Ans:- A 4kg mass will move with 5.2m/s in the opposite
direction to its initial direction and a 6kg mass will move with 0.8m/s in the opposite direction to
its initial direction.)
11. A 70 kg ice hockey goalie, originally at rest, catches a 0.15 kg hockey puck slapped at him at a
velocity of 35m/s. Suppose the goalie and the ice puck have an elastic collision and the puck is
reflected back in the direction from which it came. What would their final velocities be in this
case? (Ans:- The goalie will reflect back with 34.85m/s and the puck will reflect back with
0.15m/s)
12. A red ball of mass 0.2 kg hits a blue ball of mass 0.25 kg, in an elastic collision, and the red ball
comes to a stop. The red ball has a velocity of 5 m/s, and the blue ball was at rest. What is the
final velocity of the blue ball? (Ans:- The velocity of the blue ball will be 4m/s )
13. A 350 kg van moving at a velocity of 20 m/s crashes on a lorry of mass 600 kg that was at rest.
Assuming the van and the lorry stick together upon impact, how fast will they come to a rest?
(Ans:- 7.4 m/s)
14. A 4 kg object is moving to the right at 2 m/s where it collides elastically head on with a stationary
6 kg object as shown in the figure below after the collision, the velocity of the 6 kg object is 1.6
m/s to the right.
Find
(a) Velocity of 4 kg after the collision (Ans:- 0.4 m/s)
(b) Total kinetic energy before and after collision (Ans: - K.EB = K.EA = 8 J)
(c) Change in kinetic energy before and after collision (Ans: - ∆K.E = 0J )
15. A body of mass 8 kg moving with a velocity of 20 m/s collides with another body of mass 4 kg
moving with a velocity of 10 m/s in the same direction .The velocity of the 8 kg is reduced to 15
m/s after collision. If the bodies do not stick together after the collision, calculate the velocity of
the 4 kg body
16. Consider the diagram below and answer the questions that follows:-
(a) What is their velocity after the collision (Ans: - 0.8 m/s)
(b) Total kinetic energy conserved (Ans: - Since KEA≠KEB, Not conserved)
17. A 80 kg man stands in a lift. Calculate the force he exerts on the floor of the lift when the lift is
(Assume g = 9.8 m/s2)
(a) Stationary (Ans:- F = 780)
(b) Ascending upward at 2 m/s2 (Ans:- F = 940 N)
(c) Moving with a constant velocity (upward) 4 m/s (Ans:- F = 780 N)
18. Prince Merline and Ben Omulangira are riding in a bus at highway speed on a nice summer day
when an unlucky bug splatters onto the windshield. Miles and Ben begin discussing the physics of
the situation. Merline suggests that the momentum change of the bug is much greater than that of
the bus. After all, argues Merline, there was no noticeable change in the speed of the bus
compared to the obvious change in the speed of the bug. Ben disagrees entirely, arguing that that
both bug and bus encounter the same force, momentum change, and impulse. Who do you agree
with? Support your answer.
19. When fighting fires, a firefighter must use great caution to hold a hose that emits large amounts of
water at high speeds. Why would such a task be difficult?
20. Many people are familiar with the fact that a rifle recoils when fired.
This recoil is the result of action-reaction force pairs. A gunpowder
explosion creates hot gases that expand outward allowing the rifle to
push forward on the bullet. Consistent with Newton's third law of
motion, the bullet pushes backwards upon the rifle. The acceleration of
the recoiling rifle is ...
(a) Greater than the acceleration of the bullet.
(b) Smaller than the acceleration of the bullet.
(c) The same size as the acceleration of the bullet.
21. Irene, who is taking Physics for the second year in a row (and not because he likes it), has rowed
his boat within three feet of the dock. Irene decides to jump onto the dock and turn around and
dock her boat. Explain to Irene why this docking strategy is not a good strategy.
22. A clown is on the ice rink with a large medicine ball. If the clown throws the ball forward, then he
is set into backwards motion with the same momentum as the ball's forward momentum. What
would happen to the clown if he goes through the motion of throwing the ball without actually
letting go of it? Explain.
23. While driving down the road, a firefly strikes the windshield of a
bus and makes a quite obvious mess in front of the face of the
driver. This is a clear case of Newton's third law of motion. The
firefly hit the bus and the bus hits the firefly. Which of the two
forces is greater: the force on the firefly or the force on the bus?
24. For years, space travel was believed to be impossible because there was nothing that rockets could
push off of in space in order to provide the propulsion necessary to accelerate. This inability of a
rocket to provide propulsion in space is because ...
(a) Space is void of air so the rockets have nothing to push off of.
(b) Gravity is absent in space.
(c) Space is void of air and so there is no air resistance in space.
(d) Nonsense! Rockets do accelerate in space and have been able to do so for a long time.
25. Jennifer, who has a mass of 50.0 kg, is riding at 35.0 m/s in her red sports car when she must
suddenly slam on the brakes to avoid hitting a deer crossing the road. She strikes the air bag,
which brings her body to a stop in 0.5s. What average force does the seat belt exert on her?
If Jennifer had not been wearing her seat belt and not had an air bag, then the windshield would
have stopped her head in 0.002 s. What average force would the windshield have exerted on her?
26. In a physics lab, cart A of 0.5kg moving rightward with a speed of 92.8 cm/s collides with cart B
of 1.5 kg moving leftward with a speed of 21.6 cm/s. The two carts stick together and move as a
single object after the collision. Determine the post-collision speed of the two carts. (Ans:- 7cm/s)
27. A 25 gram bullet enters a 2.35 kg watermelon and embeds itself in the melon. The melon is
immediately set into motion with a speed of 3.82 m/s. The bullet remains lodged inside the melon.
What was the entry speed of the bullet? (Ans:- 363m/s)
28. A 25 gram bullet enters a 2.35 kg watermelon with a speed of 217 m/s and exits the opposite side
with a speed of 109 m/s. If the melon was originally at rest, then what speed will it have as the
bullet leaves its opposite side? (Ans:- 1.15m/s)
29. In a physics lab, cart A of 0.5kg moving with a speed of 129 cm/s encounters a magnetic collision
with cart B of 1.5 kg that is initially at rest. The 0.5 kg cart rebounds with a speed of 45 cm/s in
the opposite direction. Determine the post-collision speed of the 1.5 kg cart. (Ans:- 58cm/s)
30. A 3000kg truck moving rightward with a speed of 5 km/h collides head-on with a 1000kg car
moving leftward with a speed of 10 km/h. The two vehicles stick together and move with the
same velocity after the collision. Determine the post-collision velocity of the car and truck. (Be
cautious of the +/- sign on the velocity of the two vehicles.) (Ans:- 1.25km/h, right)
31. During a goal-line stand, a 75kg fullback moving eastward with a speed of 8 m/s collides head-on
with a 100-kg lineman moving westward with a speed of 4 m/s. The two players collide and stick
together, moving at the same velocity after the collision. Determine the post-collision velocity of
the two players. (Be cautious of the +/- sign on the velocity of the players.) (Ans:- 1.14m/s, east)
32. A 5 kg block moving at a velocity of 4 m/s strikes a 3 kg toy moving towards it at a velocity of 10
m/s. What will be the final velocity of the combined system after they experience an elastic
collision
33. Suppose a 2 kg pistol containing a 10 g bullet is resting on a table. When it is accidentally fired,
the bullet moves at a velocity of 150 m/s .What is the recoil velocity of the pistol?
34. A rocket expels gas at a rate of 0.5 kg/s. If the force produced by the rocket is 2000 N, What is the
velocity with which the gas is expelled? (Ans:- 4000 m/s)
35. A kick that lasts 0.03 s sends a ball of mass 0.65 kg with a velocity of 15 m/s northwards. Find the
(a) Change of momentum of the ball
(b) Average force exerted on the ball
(c) Displacement of the ball in 2 s.
36. A football of mass 500 g attains a velocity of 17 m/s after being in contact with the player’s boot
for 0.03 s. Find the (a) The average force exerted on the ball (b) Impulse of the force
37. A body A of a mass 4 kg moves to the left with a velocity of 7 m/s. Another body B of mass 7 kg
moves to the right with a velocity of 6 m/s. Calculate
(a) The momentum of A (Ans:- PA = -28 kgm/s)
(b) The momentum of B (Ans:- PB = 42 kgm/s)
(c) The total momentum of A and B (Ans:- PT = 14 kgm/s)
38. A train weighing 200 tons travelling at 54 km/h in two minutes stops from the application of the
brakes.
(a) Find the average force required to stop a train (Ans:- 25 000 N)
(b) What distance will the train travel in that time? (Ans:- 900 m)
39. An object of mass 3 kg changes its velocity from 16 m/s to 30 m/s in 7.0 s. Calculate
(a) the acceleration (Ans:- a = 2m/s2)
(b) the force applied on the object (Ans:- F = 6N)
40. State Newton’s Laws of motion and explain how the second law may be used to define a unit of
force, the Newton
41. A breakdown truck tows a car of mass 1000 kg along a level road, and accelerates at 0.5 m/s 2.
(a) What is the tension in the towline? (Ans:- T=500 N)
(b) If the towline breaks when the car reaches a speed of 36 km/h, how far will the car travel
before coming to rest if a breaking force of 5000 N is applied? (Ans:-S=10 m)
42. A trailer of mass 1000 kg is towed by means of a rope attached to a car moving at a steady speed
along a level road. The tension in the rope is 400 N .Why is not zero? The car starts to accelerate
steadily. If the tension in the rope is now 1650 N with what acceleration is the trailer moving?
(Ans:- 1.25 m/s2)
43. A wooden trolley of mass 1.5 kg is mounted on wheels on horizontal rails. Neglecting friction and
air resistance, what will be the final velocity of the trolley if a bullet of mass 2 g is fired into it
with a horizontal velocity of 400 m/s along the direction of the rails? (Ans:- 0.53 m/s)
44. An arrow of mass 100 g is shot into a block of wood of mass 400 g lying at rest on the smooth
surface of an ice rink .If at the moment of impact the arrow is travelling horizontally at 15 m/s,
Calculate the common velocity after the impact (Ans:- 3 m/s)
45. State the law of conservation of momentum. Explain why the recoil velocity of a gun is much less
than the velocity of the bullet
46. A bullet of mass 12 g strikes a sold surface at a speed of 400 m/s. If the bullet penetrates to a
depth of 3cm , calculate the average net force acting on the bullet while it is being brought to rest
(Ans:- 32 000 N)
47. Two boys of masses 45 kg and 60 kg sit facing one another on light frictionless trolleys holding
the ends of a strong taut cord between them .The lighter boy tug s the cord and acquires a velocity
of 2 m/s. What is the initial velocity of the other boy? What happens to their motion when they
collide? (Ans:- u = 1.5 m/s, they will either stop or rebound with velocities such that their total
momentum will be zero)
48. A rocket of total mass 5000 kg, of which 4000 kg is propellant fuel is to be launched vertically. If
the fuel is consumed at a steady rate of 50 kg/s, what is the least velocity of the exhaust gases if
the rocket will just lift off the launching pad immediately after firing? (Ans:- 1000 m/s)
49. A girl of mass 50 kg stands on roller skates near a wall. She pushes herself against the wall with a
force of 30 N. If the ground is horizontal and the friction on the roller skates is negligible,
determine her acceleration from the wall. (Ans:- 0.6 m/s2)
50. A resultant force of 12 N acts on a body of mass 2 kg for 10 seconds. What is the change in
momentum of the body? (Ans:- ∆p =12Ns)
51. A girl of mass stands inside a lift which is accelerated upwards at a rate of 2 m/s2. Determine the
reaction of the lift at the girls’ feet. (Ans:- R = 600 N)
52. The cork of a bottle of mass 4g is ejected with a velocity of 10 m/s in 0.1 s. Find the force exerted
on the bottle. (Ans:- 0.4 N)
53. An inflated balloon contains 2.0g of air which is allowed to escape from a nozzle at a speed of 4.0
m/s .Assuming that the balloon deflects at a steady rate in 2.5 s, what is the exerted on the
balloon. (Ans:- 0.0032 N)
54. A man whose mass is 70 kg stands on a spring weighing machine inside a lift.
(a) When the lift starts to ascend its acceleration is 2.5 m/s2. What is the reading of the
weighing machine? (Ans:- 87.5 kg)
(b) When the velocity of the lift is uniform (Ans:- m = 70 kg)
(c) As it comes to rest with a retardation of 5.0 m/s2. (Ans:- m = 35kg)
55. A stationary bomb of mass 5 kg explodes into one part A of mass 2 kg flying off with a velocity
of 60 m/s and another part B of mass 3 kg flying off with a certain velocity in the opposite
direction. Calculate the,
(a) Velocity of part B (Ans:- -40 m/s)
(b) Total kinetic energy produced by the explosion (Ans:- 6000 J)
56. A vertical spring of non-stretched length 30 cm is rigidly clamped at its upper end. When an
object of mass 100 g is placed in a pan attached to the lower end of the spring its length becomes
36 cm. For an object of mass 200 g in the pan the length becomes 40cm. Calculate the mass of
the pan. Name and state the clearly the law you have assumed. (Ans:- 50 g)
57. A body of mass 0.25 kg moving with a velocity of 12 m/s is stopped by applying a force of 0.6 N.
(a) Calculate the time taken to stop the body. (Ans:- 5 s )
(b) Calculate the impulse of this force. (Ans:- Impulse = - 30 N)
58. A 1200 kg car initially moving at 20 m/s strikes a tree and comes to rest in a distance of 1.5 m.
Find the average stopping force the tree exerts on the car (Ans:- 1.6 x 105 N)
59. A hunter has a machine gun that can fire 50 g bullets with a velocity of 150 m/s. A 60 kg tiger
springs at him with a velocity of 10 m/s. How many bullets must the hunter fire per second into
the tiger in order to stop him in his track (Ans:- 80 bullets)
60. A ball of mass 10 g hits a hard surface vertically with a speed of 5 m/s and rebounds with the
same speed. The ball remains in contact with the surface for 0.01 s. Find the average force exerted
by the surface on the ball (Ans:- 10N )
61. A shell of mass 30 kg is fired at a velocity of 600 m/s from a gun of mass 7000 kg
(a) What is the recoil velocity of the gun? (Ans:- 2.57 m/s)
(b) Briefly explain the significance of the answer obtained in (a) above
62. A 450 kg van moving at a velocity of 30 m/s crashes on a truck of mass 3000 kg that is at rest.
Upon impact the two vehicles moved some distance while stuck together
(a) What is the common velocity of the motion after the impact?
(b) If after the impact the two vehicles moved together for 10 seconds, calculate the distance
they moved
63. A 30 kg shell is flying at 48 m/s. When it explodes, its one part of 18 kg stops while the
remaining part flies on. What is the velocity of the latter? (Ans:- 120 m/s)
64. A cart of mass 500 kg is standing at rest on the rails. A man weighing 70 kg and running parallel
to rail track with a velocity of 10 m/s jumps onto the cart on approaching it. Find the velocity with
which the cart will start moving (Ans:- 1.23 m/s)
65. A mass of 3 kg moving with a velocity of 4 m/s collides with another mass of 2 kg which is
stationary. After collision the two masses stick together. Calculate the common velocity for the
two masses (Ans:- 2.4 m/s)
66. A 5 kg mass moving with a velocity of 10 m/s collides with a 10 kg mass moving with a velocity
of 7 m/s along the same line. If the two masses join together on impact, find their common
velocity if they were moving
(a) In opposite direction (Ans:- 1.33 m/s to the left)
(b) In the same direction (Ans:- 8 m/s to the right)
67. A bus of mass 3000 kg travelling at a velocity of 20 m/s collides with a stationary car of mass 600
kg. The two then move together at a constant velocity for 30 s. Find:-
(a) The common velocity
(b) The distance moved after impact
(c) The impulsive force
(d) Kinetic energy before and after collision
68. A rugby player of mass 75 kg, running east at 8 m/s, tackles another player of mass 90 kg and
who is running directly towards him at 5 m/s. If the two players cling together after the tackle,
what will be their common velocity?
69. A resultant force of 25 N acts on a mass of 0.5 kg starting from rest. Find:
(a) Find the acceleration in m/s2 (Ans:- a = 50 m/s2)
(b) The final velocity after 20 s (Ans:- v = 1000 m/s)
(c) The distance moved in metres (Ans:- s = 10 000 m)
70. A bullet of mass 0.006 kg travelling at 120 m/s penetrates deeply into a fixed target and is brought
to rest in 0.01 s. Calculate:
(a) The distance of penetration of the target (Ans:- 0.6 m)
(b) The average retarding force exerted on the bullet (Ans:- 72 N)
71. A man stand in a lift holds a spring balance with load of 5 kg suspended from it. What is the
reading on the spring if the lift is descending with an acceleration of 3.8 m/s2? (Ans:- 31 N)
72. A 3 kg hammer is used to drive a nail into a piece of wood. If at the time of impact the hammer’s
speed is 5 m/s and it drive the nail 1 cm into the wood. Calculate:
(a) The acceleration (Ans:- 125 m/s2)
(b) Force exerted on the nail by hammer (Ans:- 375 N)
(c) Time of impact (Ans:- 0.04 s)
(d) The impulse (Ans:- 15 Ns)
73. A monkey has a mass of 50 kg and it climbs on a rope which can stand a maximum tensional
force (T) of 600 N. When do you expect the rope to break if the Monkey:
(a) Climb up with acceleration of 6 m/s2 (Ans:- 800 N, it will break)
(b) Climb up with uniform speed of 5 m/s (Ans:- 500 N, it will not break)
(c) Fall down the rope with acceleration due to gravity (Ans:- 0 N, it will not break)
(d) Fall down the rope with acceleration of 4 m/s2 (Ans:- 300N,will not break)
(NB: Where R>T, the rope will break and for R<T, The rope will not break)
74. Jane has a mass of 55kg. She steps into a lift which goes up to the second floor. The lift
accelerates upward at 2m/s2 for 2.5 s, then travels with constant speed until it accelerates at 2m/s
downwards for 2.5 s.
(a) What is the maximum speed that the lift attains as it travels between floors? (Ans:- 5m/s)
(b) What is Jane’s weight when:-
(i) The lift is stationary (Ans:- 540N down)
(ii) Accelerating upward. (Ans:- 650N down)
75. A rocket taking off vertically, pushes out 25 kg of exhaust gas every second at a velocity of
100m/s. If the total mass of the rocket is 200 kg,
(a) What is the resultant upward force on the rocket? (Ans:- 2500 N)
(b) What is the upward acceleration of the rocket? (Ans:- 12.5 m/s2)
(c) Calculate the acceleration of the rocket in (a) above when it has burned off 100 kg of fuel
(Ans:- 25 m/s2)
76. A 5kg ball, moving to the right at a velocity of 2.00 m/s on a frictionless table, collides head-on
with a stationary 7.50kg ball. Find the final velocities of the balls if the collision is
(a) Elastic (Ans:- 0.4m/s for 5kg mass in the opposite direction 1.6 m/s for a 7.5kg)
(b) Completely inelastic. (Ans:- 0.8m/s and they stick together)
(c) How much energy was lost in the inelastic collision? (Ans:- 6J)
77. A 2000kg van moving with 15m/s toward East collides with a stationary Lorry of 3500kg. After
collision the van stopped. Calculate:-
(a) Total momentum before collision (Ans:- 30000kgm/s)
(b) Total momentum after collision (Ans:- 30000kgm/s)
(c) The final velocity of the lorry (Ans:- 8.57m/s)
78. A body moving with 28m/s collides another body of 250g moving with 10m/s in the same
direction. Assuming that the collision is inelastic and the common velocity is 18m/s. Calculate:-
(a) Mass of the body with 28m/s (Ans:- 200g)
(b) The Kinetic energy loss (Ans:- 18J)
79. Bertha is going by a slippery snowy hill. He has a mass of 20kg, and he is sliding the hill at a
velocity of 5m/s. Bertha’s elder brother has a mass of 30kg. His brother is moving slower with a
velocity of 2m/s. Bertha collides to his brother. Then both of them keep going down the hill as
one unit. Calculate the resulting velocity of Bertha. Is there any energy lost?
(Ans:- Common velocity is 3.2m/s, there is loss of 56J)
80. A railway wagon 800kg moving at steady velocity of 2.5m/s collides with another wagon of
1000kg mass. The two wagons couple together after collision. What will be the final speed and
loss in kinetic energy if the second wagon was moving at 2m/s in the opposite direction to the first
wagon? (Ans:- Energy lost is 4500J)
81. Collins driving a 200kg truck and travelling eastwards at a speed of 10m/s. He hit the rear end of
a 1400kg car at the stop signal. The collision caused both vehicles to stick together. What is the
final momentum of the vehicle? (Ans:- 2000kgm/s)
82. A head on collision occur between two bodies one of which has mass twice the mass of the other.
If the two bodies remain motionless after the collision, find the relationship between the speeds of
the two bodies before the collision. (Ans:- u1 = 2u2)
83. A stationary bomb of mass 56kg exploded into two parts A & B of masses 2kg and 3kg
respectively. Part A flying off with velocity 60𝑚/𝑠 and part B flying off with velocity V 𝑚/𝑠 into
the opposite direction. Find
(a) Value of Velocity V𝑚/𝑠 (Ans:- 40m/s)
(b) Total kinetic energy produced by the explosion (Ans:- 6000J)
84. Beatrice is a 60kg surfer who is able to stand on her 10kg Mahajan surfboard in calm water. She
starts to walk to the front of the board with an acceleration of 0.50 ms-2
(a) Explain what happens to the surfboard (Ans:- 30N)
(b) What is the acceleration of the board (Ans:- 3ms-2 in the direction opposite to Beatrice)
85. A driver jumps from a plane on an air cushion. His speed is 24 m/s. the average force of the
cushion on the body while he is being stopped is 9400 N. if his mass is 70 kg. Calculate the
distance he will sink into the cushion (Ans:- 2.15 m below)
86. A truck of mass 3 000 kg moving at 3 m/s collides head on with a car of mass 600 kg. The two
stop dead on collision. At what velocity was the car travelling?
87. If a 2 kg ball travelling north at 6 m/s collides with 4 kg ball travelling in the same direction at 4
m/s, the velocity of 4 kg ball increased to 5.5 m/s to the north, what happens to the 2 kg ball?
88. An object of mass 20 kg collides with a stationary object of mass 10 kg. The two objects join
together and move at a velocity of 5 m/s. Find the original velocity of the moving object
89. A 0.2 kg ball is travelling at 20 m/s to the left when it is struck by a bat. After being struck the
ball has a velocity of 25 m/s to the right. If the ball and bat were in contact for 0.3 s, what was the
average force exerted on the ball?
90. Object A has a mass of 5 kg and a velocity of 10 m/s. Object B has a mass of 10 kg and a velocity
of 5 m/s
(a) Which object has the greatest momentum?
(b) Which object has the most kinetic energy?
91. A truck of mass 2.4 t is shunted on to a stationary truck on a level track and collides with it at 4.7
m/s. After collision the two trucks move on together with a common speed of 1.2 m/s. Find:
(a) The mass of the stationary truck
(b) The original kinetic energy of the first truck
(c) The total kinetic energy of both trucks after collision.
(d) Account for the apparent loss in kinetic energy
92. Briefly explain the following statements
(a) A gun recoils when it is fired
(b) A car tends to skid on muddy roads
(c) why action and reaction forces never cancel each other
(d) A fireman moves backwards when a water hose he is aiming at a fire is abruptly on
(e) A person doing high jump prefers to land on sand or plastic foam instead of the ground.
(f) An object is not moving. Can you conclude that there are no forces acting on it?
93. A stationary bomb of mass 5 kg explodes into one part A of mass 2 kg flying off with a velocity
of 60 m/s and another part B of mass 3kg flying off with a certain velocity in the opposite
direction. Calculate the,
(a) Velocity of part B
(b) Total kinetic energy produced by the explosion.
TOPIC: 08 TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of a body
 The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin, K. Other unit is Celsius, (oC) or Fahrenheit,( oF)
Difference between heat and temperature

The differences between Heat and Temperature
Heat Temperature
Definition Heat is energy that is transferred Temperature is a measure of hotness or
from one body to another as the coldness expressed in terms of any of
result of a difference in several arbitrary scales like Celsius and
temperature. Fahrenheit.
Symbol Q T
Unit Joules Kelvin, Celsius or Fahrenheit
Particles Heat is a measure of how many Temperature is related to how fast the
atoms there are in a substance atoms within a substance are moving. The
multiplied by how much energy ‘temperature’ of an object is like the water
each atom possesses. level – it determines the direction in which
‘heat’ will flow.
Ability to do Heat has the ability to do work. Temperature can only be used to measure
work the degree of heat
Similarities between Heat and temperature
 Heat and temperature all relate to the energy of a body
Measurement of Temperature
 Temperature is measured by using a thermometer
A temperature scale is built from:
(a) At least two fixed points which are:-
 Upper fixed point
 Lower fixed point
(b) Fundamental interval
Take note:-
 Upper fixed point is the maximum temperature a reference object can attain without change
of the desired state
 Lower fixed point is the minimum temperature a reference object can attain without change of
the desired state
 Fundamental interval
 Refers to the span of numbers between the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point
 This is the difference between the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point on a
temperature scale
∴ Fundamental interval = Upper fixed point – Lower fixed point
 The measurement starts with the establishment of any of the following temperature scale.
 Fahrenheit scale (oF), Celsius scale (oC) and Kelvin scale (K)
 The following formula may be useful when converting temperature from one unit to another:-
𝑲 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑 + 𝜽𝒐 𝑪
But also using the two scales boiling and freezing points of fresh water
0𝑜 Freezing point 32𝑜
℃ At a certain point ℉
100𝑜 Boiling point 212𝑜
Taking the ratio of the certain to that of the boiling temperature
℃−0 ℉ − 32𝑜
=
100 − 0 212𝑜 − 32𝑜
℃ ℉ − 32𝑜
=
100 180𝑜
180 ℃ = 100 (℉ − 32𝑜 )
Making C the subject,
5
℃= (℉ − 32𝑜 )
9
Making F the subject,
9
℉= ℃ + 32
5
Thermometers
 This is a device that is used to measure the temperature of a system in a quantitative way
 The liquid which is enclosed in these types of thermometers is called “thermometric liquid”
Characteristics of Thermometric Liquid
(a) The liquid must be a good thermal conductor
(b) The liquid must be easily visible
(c) The liquid must have a wide range of temperature
(d) The liquid should not stick on to the walls of the container
(e) The liquid should be sensitive to minute temperature changes
(f) It should have a small specific heat capacity
NB:
 The most common thermometric liquids are mercury and alcohol
Alcohol thermometer
 This is a type of thermometer that uses a bulb filled with alcohol as the temperature sensor
Advantages of alcohol as a thermometric liquid:
(a) Has a low freezing point of -115oC
(b) Its expansion is uniform (It expands more than mercury)
(c) It is cheap and easily available
(d) It is clear visible through glass
(e) It is less toxic and less hazardous
Disadvantages of alcohol as a thermometric liquid
(a) It cannot measure a high temperature, because its boiling point is low
(b) Less durable (alcohol evaporates)
(c) It makes wet the wall of the glass
(d) The liquid should be dyed before filling the bulb
Mercury thermometer
 This is a type of thermometer that uses a bulb filled with mercury as the temperature sensor
Advantages of mercury as a thermometric liquid:
(a) It has a high boiling point (357°C) and low melting point (-39°C).
(b) It is visible, because its color silvery shining
(c) It does not stick to the wall of its place
(d) It is a good thermal conductor
(e) Its expansion is regular
(f) It is very sensitive to temperature changes.
Disadvantages of Mercury as Thermometric Liquid
(a) It is relatively expensive
(b) It is toxic
(c) Its freezing point is – 39oC, hence is not suitable in reading very low temperature
Why water is not used as a thermometric liquid?
(a) Its expansion is not linear
(b) It has high freezing point and low boiling point
(c) It has high specific heat capacity
(d) It is transparent (colorless)
(e) It is poor conductor of heat
(f) It wets glass and sticks to the sides of the glass
Types of thermometer
 Mercury in glass thermometer
 Alcohol in glass thermometer
 Bimetallic thermometer
 Thermocouple thermometer (works on E.m.f)
 Thermistor thermometer (Resistance thermometer)
Thermometric property
This is a physical property of matter on which a thermometer is based on.
This the property of a material that varies with the temperature of it
This the property of a substance which changes uniformly with the uniform change in temperature
Liquid in Glass Thermometer

 Liquid – in glass thermometer are the most often used for temperature measurement
 A typical liquid in glass thermometer consists of a glass cylinder with a bulb at one end , a
capillary tube inside the glass cylinder
 Examples of liquid in glass thermometers are clinical thermometer, six’s thermometer,
laboratory thermometer
Clinical thermometer (medical/doctors – thermometer)

 This is typically a mercury in – glass thermometer used to measure human body temperature
 It consists of
(a) A thin walled bulb containing mercury which warms quickly and makes the thermometer
quick – acting
(b) A narrow capillary bore for providing sensitivity of thermometer
(c) Narrow constriction just above the bulb for maintaining the reading (Makes the reading not to
change). It prevents the mercury in the bore from returning to the bulb.
Mode of Action
Consider the diagram below
The thermometric liquid expands with increase of temperature and tends to raise the height of the
thermometric liquid through the bore and vice versa
NB:
 Constriction: is a bend on the capillary tube or a very thin bore found at the neck of a clinical
thermometer
 Short stem: is the glass cover of a liquid – in – glass thermometer where the scale is calibrated
 Fine bore: is the space inside a capillary tube
 It is not advisable to sterilize a clinical thermometer in boiling water at normal atmospheric
pressure because the glass will crack (burst) due to excessive pressure created by expansion
of mercury
 Absolute zero temperature this is the theoretical value of temperature where it is assumed that a
substance has zero volume or is the temperature at which the molecules of a material have zero
kinetic energy. Kelvin scale is also known as absolute or thermodynamic scale.
Limitation of Clinical Thermometer
 They do not reflect the core temperature of the body
 May spread infection if not properly sterilized
 They are delicate and can break easily
Precautions taken when using Clinical Thermometer

 Don’t drop or subject it to heavy shock
 Do not bend it or bite the bulb
 Do not use damaged or broken thermometer as it can cause injury
 Keep it away from unsupervised children
 Sterilize it after use to avoid contamination
Maximum and Minimum Thermometer (six’s thermometer)

 This is a thermometer that is used to measure the maximum and minimum temperature of a
place during a day
 It consists of a U – shaped capillary tube with two separate temperature readings ,and a small
piece of steel called an index (marker)
 A maximum thermometer uses mercury which pushes an index when the temperature rises
and the mercury expands
 A minimum thermometer uses alcohol which contracts when the temperature falls.
 Maximum thermometer records highest temperature reached while minimum thermometer
records lowest temperature
Laboratory thermometer
 This is a kind of thermometer designed mainly for scientific experiments which involve large
temperature changes
 It consists of a bulb filled with mercury, a capillary tube attached to the bulb, a glass cover
(stem)
Difference between clinical thermometer and laboratory thermometer

Clinical Thermometer Laboratory thermometer
This the thermometer designed to measure the This is the thermometer designed to measure the
body temperature of humans and animals temperature of liquid and gas substance
Used at homes, hospitals and clinics Used in laboratories
Its range of temperature is 35 oC to 43 oC Its range of temperature is -10 oC to 110 oC
May be used by almost anybody Mainly used in the scientific filed
It is small in size It is large in size
Temperature can be read after removing the Temperature is read while keeping the
thermometer from body (armpit or mouth thermometer in the substance
1. After being mixed with impurities, the melting of ice was found to be 22 oC. What is this
temperature in Kelvin? (Ans:- 251 K)
2. The temperature of the liquid nitrogen is 77 K. What is this temperature on the Celsius and
Fahrenheit scale? (Ans:- -196 0C and -320 oF)
3. On a particular liquid – in – glass thermometer the distance between the 0 oC and 100 oC marks is
22.3 cm. What would be the distance between the 30 oC and 60 oC marks?
4. The ice and steam points on an ungraduated thermometer are found to be 192 mm apart. What
temperature is recorded in oC when the length of the mercury thread is 67.2 mm above the ice
point mark? (Ans:- 𝜃 = 35 oC)
5. Why should a clinical thermometer not be sterilized in boiling water?
6. With reasons, explain why mercury is more preferred to alcohol in liquid – in – glass
thermometers.
7. The temperature of the melting point of ice and that of steam above water boiling at 760 mmHg
pressure are marked as 20 and 80 respectively on a certain thermometer .Calculate the
thermometer reading when the temperature is 60oC (Ans:- 36oC)
8. In a mercury centigrade thermometer, the distance between 0oC point and 20 oC point is 4 cm.
What is the distance between 0 oC point and 100 oC point? (Ans:- = 20 cm)
9. Mention four reasons why mercury is a better thermometric liquid than ethanol.
10. Why is ethanol used in minimum thermometers but not in maximum thermometers?
11. Why do we often feel cold after perspiring freely?
12. Explain why a swimmer coming out of water on a windy day usually feels cold.
13. A thermometer is directly dipped into the beaker containing boiling water.
(a) What does the thermometer measure?
(b) What is the liquid in the thermometer?
(c) What liquid would be used to measure a temperature of about – 80 oC?
14. What does it mean by the term thermometric property?
TOPIC: 09 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SOURCE
Sustainable sources of energy
 These are the natural resources that are used in the production of energy without
destroying the environment. OR
 This is a form of energy of which its usage meets the needs of the present generation
without compromising its ability to meet the needs of the future generations
TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY
 Law of Conservation of Energy states that,
“Energy can neither be Created nor Destroyed but it can only transformed from one form to another
form”
 Energy can be changes from one form to another consider the follows examples
 Battery convert chemical energy to electrical energy
 Generator convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
 A motor convert electrical energy to mechanical energy
 A microphone convert electrical energy to sound energy
 Solar panel convert solar energy to electrical energy
 Solar cooker convert solar energy to heat energy
 Heater convert electrical energy to heat energy
Types of Sources of Energy

Renewable Sources

Examples are sun, water, wind and fossils
Non- Renewable Sources

 These are the energy sources which cannot be turned into use again. For example oil,
natural gas and charcoal
Sustainable Sources of Energy

This source occurs naturally and readily available, these include the following:-
 Hydroelectric energy
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Sea wave energy
 Geothermal energy
 Tidal energy
Solar Energy
 Solar energy is the radiant energy emitted by the sun.
 Solar energy converted by solar cells (photovoltaic or photoelectric cells).
 Solar cell is a device that converts light energy into electric current using a photoelectric
effect
 Photoelectric effect is a property of some materials to release electrons when hit with rays of
light known as photons
 The main surface of a solar panel (several thousand cells) is dull black to enhances the
absorption rate of the radiant energy from the sun
NB:
 The sun is the ultimate source of much of the world’s energy
 It provides the earth with light, heat and radiation
 All renewable energies ,other than geothermal energy and tidal(wave) energy, derive their
energy from the sun
Advantage of Solar Energy

 It is renewable and unlimited
 It is non – polluting
 It has easy installation
 It is used for lighting purposes
 It is used for provision of electricity that is used by electric appliances
 It is used for drying clothes
 It is used for heating of water
 It is used to power torches, cars and calculators
 It is used by spaceships and satellites to convert sunlight into electricity
 It creates jobs by employing solar panel manufacturers, solar installers etc.
Disadvantage of Solar energy

 Lower production in the winter months
 Devices that run on DC power directly are more expensive
 No solar power at night so there is a need for a large battery bank
 It is cost for initial purchasing of a solar system
 Uses a lot of space (the more solar panel as you need)
Wind Energy
 Wind is simply air in motion
 Wind energy is the form of solar energy caused by the uneven heating of the earth’s surface
by the sun
 Wind energy can be converted into electricity by building a tall tower with a large propeller
on top called wind mill (wind turbine).
 Wind mill is a rotating machine that converts kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy
Advantage of Using Wind Energy

 It is renewable source of energy
 It is environmental friendly
 It has low running costs
 It can provide power to remote locations
 It is free (anyone can use it and never run out)
Disadvantage of wind energy

 Noise: some wind turbines tend to generates a lot of noise which can be unpleasant
 Wind turbines can cause death to wild animals (e.g. birds, bats)
 Installation is expensive
Sea Wave Energy

 Sea water is the form of energy caused by disturbing water particles resulting progressive
propagation from one point to another
Causes of Sea Wave Energy

 Sea wave energy is as a result of wind blowing across the sea
Advantages of sea wave energy

 It is a renewable source of energy
 It is an environment friendly
 It is abundant and widely available
 It is easily predictable
 It is operated at low costs
Disadvantages of sea wave energy

 It has effects on marine ecosystem
 It is a source of disturbance for private and commercial vessels
 High cost of investment
Geothermal Energy
 Geothermal energy is the energy generated by the flow of heat within the surface of the earth
 it is associated with area of frequent earthquakes and high volcanic activities
 The heat from the inside of the earth is used to heat water into steam. The steam is used to
turn turbines and as the result this causes turbines to turn generator and produce electricity
 Geothermal energy exists in the form of:- Volcanoes: Hot Springs:- Geysers
Three main uses of geothermal energy

 Heating
 Electricity generation
 Geothermal heat pumps
Advantages of geothermal energy
 It is renewable source of energy
 It is environmentally friendly
 It is reliable
 It reduces reliance on fossil fuels
 It create jobs and economic benefits
Disadvantages of geothermal energy

 During construction it can cause earthquakes (surface instability)
 Commercial geothermal power projects are expensive
 It can sometime run out of steam
 Suited to particular region
 It may release harmful gases through the holes drilled by constructors
Tidal Energy
 A Tide refers to the rise and fall of the sea level surface
 Tidal energy refers to the energy that is created by the rise and fall of the earth’s sea level
which is caused by the gravitational interaction between the earth and the moon.
 The amount of energy that is produced is determined by how high or low the tide rises or falls
Advantages of tidal energy
 It is renewable energy source
 It is an environmentally friendly energy source
 Tides are very predictable thus highly reliable
 Cost of running is cheap
 It does not generate any unsafe, greenhouse gases or hazardous waste
 It functions without fuel requirement, only functions with natural tidal energy
Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

 It is expensive to construct
 Limited locations: Tidal energy requires specific site characteristics
 Equipment maintenance can be challenging
 Bad weather and storm events along coastlines can damage tidal energy equipment
Hydroelectric Energy (water energy)

 Hydroelectricity is a form of renewable energy that uses the water stored in dams as well
as flowing in rivers to create electricity in hydropower plants OR
 Hydroelectric energy is the generation of electricity using flowing water to drive a turbine
which powers a generator.
Generation of Hydroelectricity
 Hydroelectric energy is formed from the force of falling (moving) water
 The capacity of this energy depends on the available flow and the height from which it
falls
 When water comes from the dam which is constructed to hold water at a higher ground
used to drive the turbine in order to generate electricity
Uses of water energy

 Used for industrial work
 Used for lighting
 Used for heating and cooking
 Used for running hospital equipment
Advantage of Using Water Energy
 It is a renewable form of energy
 It is Clean and safe energy
 It is reliable source of energy
 It is operated at low cost
 Electricity can be generated constantly due to constant flow of water
Disadvantage of using water energy
 It is expensive to construct (install)
 The huge area is required hence can affect the ecology of the area
 Much of the energy produced is wasted in form of heat during transmission
Energy Cycle
 The sun is the ultimate the source of much of the world’s energy.
 The solar cell generates electricity using light energy which has just arrived from the sun.
 Energy from the sun also makes the water cycle work, it evaporates water from the sea and
this water later falls as rain which fills up rivers and lakes in which hydroelectric power
stations capture energy.
 Wind is caused by the unequal heating of the earth by the sun. Wind energy therefore is a
derivative of solar energy.
 All green plants use the energy from the sun during the process of photosynthesis. They store
chemical energy in form of starch. So the energy obtained from a wood fire originally comes
from the sun.
 This is similar to the fossil fuels formed hundreds of millions of years ago. Plants died and
became compressed to form coal.
NUCLEAR POWER
 Nuclear power is generated using Uranium, which is a metal mined in various parts of the world.
 Nuclear produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel, without the pollution that
you'd get from burning fossil fuels.
 The reactor uses Uranium rods as fuel, and the heat is generated by nuclear fission (splitting).
Neutrons smash into the nucleus of the uranium atoms, which split roughly in half and release
energy in the form of heat.
 The water, held under high pressure to keep it from boiling, produces steam. The steam is used to
generate electricity.
 Cooling water from the river condenses the steam back into water. The river is either discharged
directly back to the river or cooled in the towers and reused in the plant.
Advantages to Using Nuclear Power

• Nuclear power costs about the same as coal, so not expensive to make.
• Does not produce smoke or carbon dioxide, so it does not contribute to the greenhouse
effect.
• Produces small amounts of waste. Nuclear power is reliable.
Disadvantages to Using Nuclear Power
• Although not much waste is produced, it is very, very dangerous.
• It must be sealed up and buried for many years to allow the radioactivity to die away.
• One point to note, “Once we've dug up all the Earth's uranium and used it, there isn't any
more.”
1. Choose the most correct answer among the given alternatives
(i) A form of energy that can be persistently used without running out is said to be:
A. Efficient
B. Renewable
C. Environmental friendly
D. Non – Renewable
(ii) Which is false?
A. Hydroelectric power stations are easy to set up?
B. Windmills are noisy?
C. Hydroelectric power plants degrade the environment
D. Windmills cannot be set up near the seabed
(iii) The energy due to the rising and falling in the level of water in the oceans or seas is known
as:-
A. electric energy
B. water energy
C. Tidal energy
D. wind energy
(iv) The most available sustainable sources of energy is:
A. the sun
B. wind
C. Sea tides
D. Water falls
(v) Sustainable energy sources are:
A. Biogas, kinetic energy and petrol
B. Biogas , tidal energy and water energy
C. Firewood, petrol and tidal energy
D. Kerosene, nuclear energy and water energy
2. Match the items in list A with the items in List B
List A List B
(a) Geothermal energy (i) Energy from the sun
(b) Solar energy (ii) Energy from firewood
(c) Wind energy (iii) Energy from coal
(d) Sea wave energy (iv) Hydroelectric energy
(e) e) Water energy (v) Energy from the nuclear of the atom
(vi) Energy from hot rocks underground
(vii) Energy from fossils
(viii) Energy from charcoal
(ix) Air current energy
(x) Energy from batteries
(xi) Tidal energy
3. “Though fossil fuels such as petroleum and coal are widely used, they are not sustainable.” Give
reasons to support the statement above.
4. Nuclear energy is not sustainable energy. Explain.
5. What are the benefits and drawbacks of hydroelectric energy?
6. “The sun is the ultimate source of the earth’s energy”. Explain this statement showing how the
sun is the source of the other forms of energy
7. State the energy conversion in a solar cell and give two practical uses of it.
THE END OF FORM II PHYSICS, AS PER TANZANIA SYLLABUS

By Ben Omulangira Mutalemwa
benmutalemwa@gmail.com
0752 575 000

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 Table of content ……………………………………………………..……….…..Page 1

© 2017 Ben Omulangira Mutalemwa

The Concept of Static Electricity

The Origin of Charges

The two Types of Charges

Charge acquired after rubbing

Polarization is Not Charging

The following are the methods of charging;

Note: It is only the electrons in matter which can be transferred by rubbing.

1. Consider two bodies i.e. charged body x and 2. Place x near y

Since like charges repel, unlike

3. Touch y to allow movement of electrons to the 4. Now the uncharged body y

Charging a Gold-Leaf Electroscope Positively

Conductors and Insulators

Function of a Gold-Leaf Electroscope

Dielectric is an insulating medium used between plates of a capacitor.

Mode of Action of a Capacitance

 Variable capacitor ( Air filled Capacitor)

Check Your Understanding

2. Calculate the quantity of charge in the following set capacitors

4. Calculate the total capacitance in the following diagrams

4. The distribution of electric charge in a H2O molecule is non-uniform. The more

8. On two occasions, the following charge interactions between balloons A, B and C

Equivalence Capacitance of a Combination of Capacitors

3. Distance apart of the plates.

Relative permeability (dielectric constant) of a medium

From the figure above, total voltage V= Vt = V1 + V2 + V3

From the diagram above Qt = Q1 + Q2, but: Q = CV

But: The voltage across each capacitor is the same i.e. Vt = V1 = V2 = V

Check Your Understanding

(8 x 10−6 )(4 x 10−6 )

(12 x 10−6 )(4 x 10−6 )

FR = 80 N + 120 N (to the right)

6. It is dangerous to carry a pointed umbrella when it is raining. Explain

Solve these Questions

How Lightning Happens

Structure of a lightning conductor

Mode of action of lightning conductor

Gas Station Fires

Human with static electricity

How does a positively charged rod attract a neutral object?

Why do gasoline tankers usually have metal chains at the back?

Why does lighting strike in zig – zag pattern?

(Ans:- (a) C = 2 𝜇𝐹 (b) C = 18 𝜇𝐹

Wire crossing (can be

Battery (multiple cells) Supplies electrical energy

Rheostat (variable resistor) Control amount of

Fuse Breaks the circuit if

Current in simple circuit is the same at all points.

Ohm’s circuit Diagram

A graphical representation of Ohm's law. The graph of voltage against current

Therefore a resistance of 1ohm is obtained when a p.d of 1V cause a current of 1A to flow in

mega-ohm MΩ 1MΩ = 106Ω R3 = 5MΩ

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

Points to Note: for a single loop or simple circuit.

From the figure above, Vt = V1 + V2