Master Thesis (Abdul Basit)

Impact of the Overhead Line Length on the Reactive
Power Support from Type IV Wind Turbine

Master’s Thesis in Electric Power Engineering
Abdul Basit
Department of Energy and Environment
Division of Electric Power Engineering
CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Göteborg, Sweden 2011
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Impact of the Overhead Line Length on Reactive
Power from Type IV Wind Turbine
Abdul Basit

Göteborg, Sweden 2011
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Impact of the Overhead Line Length on Reactive Power from Type IV Wind Turbine
Abdul Basit
©Abdul Basit, 2011

Chalmers University of Technology
SE-412 96 Göteborg
Sweden
Telephone +46 (0)31-772 1000
Chalmers Bibiliotek, Reproservice

Gothenburg, Sweden 2011
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Dedicated to my beloved parents
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Impact of the Overhead Line Length on Reactive Power from Type IV Wind Turbine
Abdul Basit
Abstract
The increased level of wind power penetration into the power system imposes new challenges
for the control of wind turbines that ensure better power system operation. Design of a suitable
control scheme is important for the wind farm in order to maximize the extraction of power
from the wind. The large penetration of wind power has placed some technical requirements
(Grid codes) issued by the Transmission System Operators (TSOs). These requirements typically
refer to the large wind farms connected to the transmission system, rather than smaller stations
connected to the distribution network. The advancement in power electronics have developed
large scaled wind farms i.e. double fed induction generator and full power converter (type IV)
wind turbine. They maintains unity power factor at point of common connection (PCC) during
steady state operation and are free from providing voltage stabilizing actions during abnormal
situations. But the increasing level of wind power in the power system may demand for such
action in future. The ability of the wind farm to generate or absorb the reactive power depends
on the length of the transmission line and on the strength of the grid. Wind farm requires shunt
compensators if not able to regulate the power factor during steady state condition or
stabilizing the PCC voltage during abnormal situation.
This thesis focus on reactive power control offered by type IV wind turbine when functioning as
a reactive power compensator. The ability of the controller to support the system with reactive
power is investigated as a function of the distance from the connection point. When controller
fails to provide the required reactive support due to large distance from connection point or
due to disturbance, the shunt compensator is required to provide the required support. The
modeling and the control of the type IV wind turbine system is done in PSCAD/EMTDC software.
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Acknowledgement
I offer my deepest gratitude to my examiner, Stefan Lundberg, and my supervisor, Massimo
Bongiorno, their guidance, discussions and knowledge added significantly to my graduate
experience. I appreciate their assistance in writing report and acknowledge their efforts,
support and patience without which this study would not be successful.
I am also grateful to Tarik Abdulahovic and Mebtu Beza for their interesting discussion and
valuable suggestions.
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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT VII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IX
LIST OF FIGURES XIII
LIST OF TABLES XV
CHAPTER 1 1
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION 1
1.2. PURPOSE 2
1.3. THESIS OUTLINE 3
CHAPTER 2 5
2. WIND TURBINES 5
2.1. WIND ENERGY CONVERSION 5
2.1.1. PITCH CONTROL 6
2.1.2. STALL CONTROL 6
2.1.3. FIXED SPEED WIND TURBINE 7
2.1.4. VARIABLE SPEED WIND TURBINE 8
2.2. WIND TURBINE TOPOLOGIES 9
2.2.1. TYPE I: FIXED SPEED WIND TURBINE 9
2.2.2. TYPE II: LIMITED VARIABLE SPEED WIND TURBINE 10
2.2.3. TYPE III: DOUBLE FED INDUCTION GENERATOR (DFIG) WIND TURBINE 11
2.2.4. TYPE IV: FULL POWER CONVERTER WIND TURBINE 12
2.3. FACTORS AFFECTING THE WIND POWER PENETRATION 13
CHAPTER 3 15
3. TYPE IV WIND TURBINE 15
3.1. MODELING OF THE TYPE IV WIND TURBINE FOR GRID STUDIES 15
3.2. GRID SIDE CONTROL SYSTEM 18
3.3. THE INNER CURRENT CONTROLLER 21
3.4. THE OUTER CONTROLLERS 22
3.4.1. ACTIVE POWER CONTROLLER 22
3.4.2. REACTIVE POWER CONTROLLER 23
3.4.3. VOLTAGE CONTROLLER 24
3.5. PHASE LOCKED LOOP 25
CHAPTER 4 27
4. GRID CODES FOR THE WIND FARMS 27
4.1. ACTIVE POWER REGULATION 27
4.2. REACTIVE POWER/VOLTAGE CONTROL 29
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4.3. BEHAVIOR OF THE WIND FARM DURING GRID DISTURBANCES 31
4.4. GRID CODES DEFINED FOR THIS THESIS 32
CHAPTER 5 35
5. MODELING AND CONTROL OF THE SIMULATED SYSTEM 35
5.1. SYSTEM MODEL 35
5.1.1. GRID SIDE CONVERTER 36
5.1.2. FILTER 37
5.1.3. TRANSFORMER 37
5.1.4. OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINE 38
5.1.5. GRID MODEL 39
5.1.6. STATCOM 40
5.2. CONTROL PARAMETER SETTINGS 41
5.2.1. CURRENT CONTROLLER TUNING 42
5.2.2. POWER CONTROLLER TUNING 45
5.2.3. VOLTAGE CONTROLLER 47
5.2.4. PHASE LOCKED LOOP (PLL) 49
5.3. SYSTEM BEHAVIOR 52
CHAPTER 6 56
6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 56
6.1. INTRODUCTION 56
6.2. SYSTEM CAPABILITY AND PERFORMANCE 56
6.3. REACTIVE POWER DELIVERY AS FUNCTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE LENGTH 57
6.4. REACTIVE POWER TRANSIENT RESPONSE 59
6.5. VOLTAGE CONTROLLER TRANSIENT RESPONSE 63
6.6. VOLTAGE CONTROL AS A FUNCTION LINE LENGTH AND VOLTAGE VARIATION 67
6.7. CONCLUSION 71
CONCLUSIONS 73
BIBLIOGRAPHY 75
APPENDIX A 81
TRANSFORMATION FOR THREE PHASE SYSTEM 81
APPENDIX B 84
NORMALIZED (PER-UNIT) VALUES 84
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List of figures
FIGURE 2.1: POWER CURVE: THEORETICAL (STAR) AND MEASURED (SOLID) 7
FIGURE 2.2: POWER OUTPUT FROM VARIABLE AND FIXED SPEED WIND TURBINE 9
FIGURE 2.3: TYPE I WIND TURBINE 10
FIGURE 2.4: TYPE II WIND TURBINES 10
FIGURE 2.5: TYPE III WIND TURBINE 11
FIGURE 2.6: TYPE IV WIND TURBINE 13
FIGURE 3.1: MODEL AND CONTROL OF TYPE IV WIND TURBINE 16
FIGURE 3.2: GRID SIDE CONVERTER CONTROL OF TYPE IV WIND TURBINE 17
FIGURE 3.3: ABC, ΑΒ AND DQ REFERENCE FRAMES 19
FIGURE 3.4: SIMPLIFIED MODEL OF THE FILTER, TRANSFORMER AND THE REMAINING GRID 21
FIGURE 3.5: CURRENT CONTROLLER MODEL ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
FIGURE 3.6: SIMPLIFIED CURRENT CONTROLLER MODEL 21
FIGURE 3.7: THE ACTIVE POWER CONTROLLER MODEL 22
FIGURE 3.8: THE REACTIVE POWER CONTROLLER MODEL 23
FIGURE 3.9: VOLTAGE CONTROLLER MODEL 24
FIGURE 3.10: VOLTAGE CONTROLLER MODEL WITH DROOP 25
FIGURE 3.11: PHASE LOCKED LOOP BLOCK DIAGRAM 25
FIGURE 3.12: PLL BLOCK DIAGRAM 26
FIGURE 4.1: REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENT FOR FREQUENCIES BETWEEN 49.5HZ TO 50.5HZ BY E.ON 29
FIGURE 4.2: ELTRA AND ELKRAFT REACTIVE POWER EXCHANGE REQUIREMENT AT THE PCC 30
FIGURE 4.3: REQUIRED REACTIVE POWER EXCHANGE BY NGET 30
FIGURE 4.4: REACTIVE POWER DELIVERY REQUIREMENT BY NGET 31
FIGURE 4.5: LOW VOLTAGE RIDE THROUGH REQUIREMENT BY SVKF WIND POWER PLANTS 32
FIGURE 4.6: VOLTAGE LIMIT PATTERN DURING FAULT FOR SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS BY E.ON 32
FIGURE 5.1: SIMULATION MODEL 35
FIGURE 5.2: SIMULATION MODEL IN PSCAD 36
FIGURE 5.3: THREE DC VOLTAGE SOURCE TO MODEL THE IGBT CONVERTER 37
FIGURE 5.4: OVERHEAD LINE MODEL FROM PSCAD 39
FIGURE 5.5: GRID MODEL 40
FIGURE 5.6: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE STATCOM 41
FIGURE 5.7: CURRENT CONTROLLER COMPLETE MODEL 43
FIGURE 5.8: WIND TURBINE CURRENT CONTROLLER STEP RESPONSE 44
FIGURE 5.9: STATCOM CURRENT CONTROLLER RESPONSE 45
FIGURE 5.10: STEP RESPONSE OF ACTIVE POWER 46
FIGURE 5.11: REACTIVE POWER STEP RESPONSE FROM WIND TURBINE AND STATCOM 47
FIGURE 5.12: WIND TURBINE VOLTAGE CONTROLLER RESPONSE 48
FIGURE 5.13: VOLTAGE BEHAVIOR AT PCC 49
FIGURE 5.14: BODE DIAGRAM OF PLL 49
FIGURE 5.15: PLL STEP RESPONSE 50
FIGURE 5.16: PLL POLE ZERO MAP 50
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FIGURE 5.17: PLL RESPONSE AFTER FREQUENCY JUMP 51
FIGURE 5.18: 1200 PHASE JUMP AND PLL RESPONSE TO PHASE JUMP 51
FIGURE 5.19: SYSTEM BEHAVIOR FOR ACTIVE POWER STEP 53
FIGURE 5.20: SYSTEM BEHAVIOR FOR REACTIVE POWER STEP 54
FIGURE 5.21: SYSTEM BEHAVIOR FOR GRID VOLTAGE VARIATION 55
FIGURE 6.1: REACTIVE POWER AT PCC AS FUNCTION OF LINE LENGTH 57
FIGURE 6.2: REACTIVE POWER AS A FUNCTION OF LINE LENGTH 58
FIGURE 6.3: REACTIVE POWER AT PCC WITH STATCOM SUPPORT 58
FIGURE 6.4: STATCOM REQUIRED AS FUNCTION OF LINE LENGTH 59
FIGURE 6.5: REACTIVE POWER STEP RESPONSE AND ACTIVE POWER BEHAVIOR FOR 5 KM LINE 60
FIGURE 6.6: REACTIVE POWER STEP RESPONSE FOR 10KM LINE 61
FIGURE 6.7: RESPONSE OF REACTIVE POWER STEP IN STATCOM FOR 15 KM LINE 62
FIGURE 6.8: RESPONSE OF REACTIVE POWER STEP IN STATCOM FOR 20 KM LINE 63
FIGURE 6.9: REQUIRED RESPONSE FROM THE VOLTAGE CONTROLLER 64
FIGURE 6.10: VOLTAGE RESPONSE FOR 1KM LINE WHEN GRID VOLTAGE DROPS TO 0.8P.U 65
FIGURE 6.11: VOLTAGE RESPONSE ON 5KM LINE WHEN GRID VOLTAGE DROPS TO 0.8P.U 65
FIGURE 6.12: VOLTAGE RESPONSE ON 10KM LINE WHEN GRID VOLTAGE DROPS TO 0.8P.U 66
FIGURE 6.13: VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER RESPONSE WITH STATCOM SUPPORT 67
FIGURE 6.14: VOLTAGE, ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER AT PCC FOR 1 KM LINE 68
FIGURE 6.17: REACTIVE POWER AT PCC ON 1KM LINE 70
FIGURE 6.20: AFFECT OF ACTIVE POWER REDUCTION ON 10 KM LINE 71
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List of tables
TABLE 4-1: OPERATING TIME FOR WIND POWER PLANTS BY SVK 28
TABLE 4-2: OPERATING TIME FOR WIND POWER PLANTS BY E.ON, ELTRA AND ELKRAFT AND NGET 28
TABLE 5-1: TRANSFORMER DATA FROM PSCAD 37
TABLE 5-2: OVERHEAD LINE DATA FROM PSCAD 38
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Chapter 1
1. Introduction
1.1.Background and motivation
The Issue of shortage of fossil fuels in the future and the increasing demand of electrical energy
worldwide, made the world to consider the production of electrical energy from renewable
sources [1]. Today, the main sources of electricity production are coal and coke, natural gas,
hydro, nuclear power and oil [2]. In the twentieth century production of electricity from hydro
plants gained popularity [3], but the growth eventually decreased due to the lack of good
geographical locations [4]. On the other hand, as mentioned before, the future shortage of fossil
fuels has warned the production of electricity from coal, oil and gas. This led the world to
exploit renewable sources like solar, wind, wave etc. in order to produce electrical energy to
balance the growing electricity demand [4].
Another reason for producing electrical energy from renewable sources is the concern of the
environment i.e. global warming [5]. The global warming means that the earth temperature is
increasing due to the continuous emission of carbon dioxide and also some other gases which
accelerates the greenhouse effect [5]. The global warming effect can be reduced by decreasing
the energy production from fossil fuels, either by exchanging it with environment friendly
energy sources or by decreasing the energy consumption [6].
These are some of the reasons why many countries have put up targets to increases the
electricity production from renewable sources, to achieve a more durable power system [7]. In
1990 Sweden was producing 39.3% of its energy from renewables, in 2007 it was 43.9% and the
target for 2020 is 49% [6].
Electricity production from wind power is increasing all over the world and it is expanding in
Sweden and EU to attain the directives for a durable power system [7]. The energy authorities in
Sweden have set the target in 2007, that in 2020 20TWh of wind energy will be produced from
on-shore wind farms and 10TWH from off-shore wind farms [6]. Within EU the proposals
considering renewable energy production emphasize that in 2020, 20% of the energy
production should be from renewables and 12% - 14% should come from wind power [6]. The
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CHALMERS, Energy and Environment, Maters Thesis
European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) estimates that 230 GW of wind capacity will be
installed in Europe, consisting of 190GW onshore and 40GW offshore [7].
To ensure that the growing installation of wind power does not influence the grid many
countries have put up rules (grid codes) that wind turbine or wind farm must fulfill to be able to
connect to the grid. Most of them require that wind farms should be capable of regulating
voltage or reactive power to maintain a smooth voltage profile (unity power factor) at the point
of interconnection during normal operation [8]. Also, wind farms must tolerate system
disturbances and must not trip during faults and other system disturbances. The fault ride
through (FRT) capability enables the wind farm to eliminate most concerns about tripping
during system voltage events and allows for the rapid and well-behaved recovery when system
faults are removed [8].
In most part of the world, best resources for wind generation are located far away from the load
centers [8]. They are connected to the grid via long ac transmission line, the current transfer on
the line results in reactive losses which may influence the steady state voltage [8]. For a reliable
operation of a wind farm along with the grid, it is required that the reactive power demand is
compensated. It is worth noting that as the transmission length connecting the wind farm with
the grid increases the reactive losses also increases and the need for compensation becomes
important [8].
The electrical system for wind turbines with a full power converter (type IV [9]) between
generator and the wind turbine transformer are becoming more and more popular [10]. The
type IV easily meets the reactive power support and the fault ride through demand compared
with some of the other types. The type IV wind turbine provides the required reactive power
support during steady state operation but during disturbances it might be unable to meet the
requirement. To meet the demand shunt compensation devices are employed.
1.2.Purpose
In this thesis the reactive power support provided by type IV wind turbine as a function of
transmission line length is investigated. When it fails to provide the required support, a shunt
compensator is added to the system and the improved results are compared with the former.
The goal is to identify the ability of the turbine to support the system with reactive power and
to study its contribution to the PCC voltage as a function of the distance from the connection
point. The need of shunt compensator i.e. STATCOM is to be investigated when the controller
fails to provide the reactive power during grid disturbances. The results with and without
compensators are investigated for disturbances/faults. The significant goals of this project will
be:
 Modeling and control of the grid side converter in a type IV wind turbine system
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 Modeling and control of shunt compensator (STATCOM)
 Impact of transmission line length variation on wind farm reactive power control
 Investigation of the requirement of a shunt compensator based on transmission line
length
The modeling and the control of the grid side converter and the shunt compensator is done in
PSCAD/EMTDC.
1.3.Thesis outline
This thesis is divided into 7 chapters. Chapter 2 is about the brief introduction of the Wind
Turbines. It highlights the conversion of wind energy into electrical energy, the topologies of the
wind turbine and the factors affecting the operation of wind turbines.
Chapter 3 is about the type IV wind turbine. It explains the modeling and control of the grid side
converter of type IV wind turbine.
Chapter 4 is about the requirements of connecting the wind turbine generators with the power
system i.e. ‘The Grid codes’. In this section four countries i.e. Sweden, UK, Germany and
Denmark are considered and general requirements for this thesis are listed.
Chapter 5 is about the modeling and control of the type IV wind turbine and the STATCOM in
PSCAD. This chapter also includes the modeling of the transformer, transmission line and the
grid.
Chapter 6 is about the results of the thesis simulations. It explains the transient behavior of the
reactive power and the voltage. And the steady state reactive power support offered by the
wind turbine converter and the STATCOM.
Chapter 7 is about the conclusion of the thesis.
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Chapter 2
2. Wind Turbines
This chapter describes the operational criteria of the wind turbine and the difference between
stall and pitch power regulations. It defines the constraints that affect the power production
from the wind turbines and possible ways to overcome these constraints to ensure the security
and adequacy of the power system.
2.1.Wind energy conversion

The sun is heating the earth and the air, and due to fact that the air masses heats up differently,
they will move to achieve balance [6]. This movement is recalled as the wind blows. The kinetic
energy of the wind is therefore a renewable source, which is captured by the wind turbine and
converted into electrical energy. The energy available in the wind increases with the wind speed
and so as the power output from the wind turbine. At low wind speeds, 3–4 m/s the wind
turbines are cut off. The wind turbines are best operated at the wind speed of 8–14 m/s. Wind
turbines are operated at the rated power for wind speeds around 14 m/s by means of pitch
control or stall control. At higher wind speeds, above 25 m/s the wind turbines are usually shut
down for protection [11].
When the wind passes through the turbine the wind speed decreases, the amount of decrease
in the wind speed is the energy extracted from the wind by the wind turbine. The wind turbine
cannot extract all the energy from the wind. The power extracted by the wind turbine is given
by (2.1) [6];
𝑚̇
𝑃𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = (𝑣12 − 𝑣22 ) (2.1)
2
where 𝑚̇ denotes the mass flow rate of the air (𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑣), 𝑣1 is the velocity of the wind before
the blades, 𝑣2 is the velocity of the wind after the blades, 𝜌 is the density of the air and 𝐴 is the
swept area of the blades.
(2.1) is usually rewritten as (2.2) [12];
1
𝑃 = 2 𝐶𝑝 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 (2.2)
where 𝐶𝑝 is the power coefficient of a wind turbine.

From (2.2) it can be noticed that extracted power is proportional to:
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 the density of the air. The density is lower at mountains and at high temperatures and
results a lower power.
 the swept area. With a larger swept area of the blades more power will be extracted.
 the cube of wind speed. It is important to choose a suitable place for the wind turbine, a
place with high average wind speed.
The power coefficient of a wind turbine (𝐶𝑝 ) is a measure how efficiently the wind turbine
converts the wind energy into the electrical energy. According to Albert Betz wind turbine could
not convert more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy [13]. If
wind turbine converts 70% of the mechanical energy into electrical energy, than 𝐶𝑝 of this wind
turbine is 0.7*0.593=0.41. Good wind turbines have generally 𝐶𝑝 in the range of 0.35-0.45 [13].
The power output at high wind speeds is limited by either pitch control or stall control.
2.1.1. Pitch control

In the pitch control, the blades are turned to or from out of the wind to regulate the power
output. The advantages of this type of control are [14];
 good control of the power
 the power is regulated close to the nominal power of the generator
 the turbine can be shut down during an emergency.
The disadvantage is the complex pitching control [14].
2.1.2. Stall control

Stall regulation is the simplest and the cheapest method of limiting the power capture at higher
wind speeds [14]. They use simple form of blades. The blades profile is aerodynamically
designed such as when wind speed exceeds safe limit, the angle of attack of the airfoil to the
wind stream is increased, and the laminar flow is replaced by turbulence on the top side of
airfoil which stalls the rotation of the turbine [15]. In stall control wind turbines the blades are
slightly twisted along its longitudinal axis to ensure that blades stall gradually [15]. The
advantages are that it is simple, cheap and avoids the introduction of moving parts into the
rotor, while the disadvantage is the reduction of the output power from the wind at higher wind
speeds [15].
The stall regulation or pitch regulation controls the power coefficient of the wind turbine, hence
controlling the output power. Figure 2.1 [16] shows the mechanical power output from the
wind turbine, (2.2) gives us the theoretical output power while measured output power is taken
from [16]. The theoretical output power is calculated for:
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𝐶𝑝,𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.48
𝐴 143m2
𝜌 1.225 kg/m2
𝑣 0-20m/s
Figure 2.1: Power curve: theoretical (star) and measured (solid)

It can be seen from figure 2.1, that theoretical power and the measured power have the same
output power for lower wind speeds but as the wind speed rises the theoretical power continue
to increase but the measured power is restricted due to the pitch or stall regulation which
reduces the power coefficient of the wind turbine, thereby limiting the output power from the
wind turbine.
Electrical system for wind turbines can be divided into two groups, fixed speed and variable
speed. Fixed speed wind turbines are robust, simple and cheap [14]. While, most of the newly
installed wind turbines are the variable speed wind turbines. They use power electronics and
provide maximum efficiency at different wind speeds [17].
2.1.3. Fixed speed wind turbine

The rotor of a fixed speed wind turbine moves with a fixed speed regardless of the wind speed.
The rotor speed is determined by the grid frequency, gear box ratio and generator design. Fixed
speed wind turbines shown in figure 2.3 are mostly equipped with induction generator directly
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connected to the power grid along with a soft starter and capacitor banks. The soft starter
prevents the inrush currents during start sequence and capacitor banks provide the reactive
power compensation.
To increase the power production from these wind turbines, two sets of windings are used. One
winding is used at low wind speeds, typically eight poles, and the other winding is used at higher
wind speeds, typically four or six poles. Advantages of fixed speed wind turbine are robust,
simple and cheap. The disadvantages are the high consumption of reactive power, mechanical
stress and limited control of power quality. The variations in wind speed are transmitted to the
mechanical torque which results in a variation of power output to the grid leading to large
variations in voltage if the grid is weak.
2.1.4. Variable speed wind turbine

Variable speed wind turbines are now dominating in the new installations. The rotor speed
varies with the wind speed keeping the tip speed ratio constant, corresponding to the maximum
power coefficient. Power electronics is involved in the operation of the variable speed wind
turbines. The generator is connected to the grid via converters which control the generator
speed, thereby absorbing the power variation caused by the variation in wind speed.
Advantages of a variable speed wind turbines are higher efficiency, better power quality and
less mechanical stresses. While the disadvantages are the cost, losses in power electronics and
complex control.
Comparing the variable and fixed speed wind turbine, as shown in the figure 2.2 [16], the output
power from both of the wind turbines are the same. But as the wind speed increases, the
variable speed wind turbines reach to its rated output power quickly than the fixed speed wind
turbine and able to keep the output power constant for higher wind speed than the rated
speed. While the fixed speed wind turbine not able to keep the power constant for wind speed
higher than rated wind speed. The wind turbine is cut off when wind speed reaches to the cut
off speed.
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Figure 2.2: Power output from variable and fixed speed wind turbine
2.2.Wind turbine topologies

The electrical system for wind turbines can be categorized into four main types
I. Fixed speed
II. Limited variable speed
III. Double Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)
IV. Full power converter
2.2.1. Type I: Fixed speed wind turbine

The fixed speed wind turbine is shown in the figure 2.3 [18]. Induction generator is used in this
type of wind turbine, along with gear box, soft starter and capacitor banks. The grid has fixed
frequency and the speed of the turbine is settled by the gear box ratio and by the number of
poles in the generator. The use of soft starter and the capacitor banks are explained in section
2.1.3 along with the rotor speed and the set of poles of the induction generator. To enhance the
power production some of type I wind turbine are equipped with two generators that can
operate at two different wind speeds. The power production from type I wind turbine at higher
wind speed can be limited by either stall or pitch regulation, but stall regulation is the common
way to limit the output power from the type I wind turbine. Advantages and disadvantages are
listed in section 2.1.3.
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Pout, Qout
Gear
Box
IG
Transformer
Soft starter
Generator Grid
Capacitor
banks
Figure 2.3: Type I wind turbine
2.2.2. Type II: Limited variable speed wind turbine

The limited variable speed wind turbine is shown in figure 2.4 [18] is a fixed speed wind turbine
where a variable resistance is connected to the rotor circuit of the induction generator. With
this variable resistance the total rotor resistance of the induction generator can be varied and
thereby slip of the generator. The variation in slip is limited by the increased losses at high rotor
resistance values and therefore this is only used to reduce the mechanical stresses in the drive
train.
Large induction generators draw reactive power from the grid and the consumption increases
with the active power production. Capacitors are installed at the terminals of the induction
generator, such as type 1 and type 2, to provide the reactive power to the induction generator.
Variable
rotor
resistance
Pout, Qout
Gear
Box IG
Transformer
Soft starter
Generator Grid
Capacitor
banks
Figure 2.4: Type II wind turbines
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2.2.3. Type III: Double Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) wind turbine
The double fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine as shown in figure 2.5 [18] is a variable
speed wind turbine type which uses a frequency converter of partial ratings. The generator is
called double fed as it has two sets of windings; the stator winding is connected directly to the
grid while the rotor winding is connected to the frequency converter. The rating of the
converter is an economical issue. The frequency converter is normally rated at approximately
30% of the nominal generator power and it provides the reactive power compensation and
smooth the grid connection [19]. The range of dynamic speed control depends on the size of
frequency converter, typically it is -40% to +30% of the synchronous speed [19]. The difference
between the mechanical and electrical frequency is compensated by the converter. The
frequency generated by the converter is imposed on the frequency of the rotating field of the
rotor, so that superimposed frequency remains constant, regardless of rotor speed [20].
The type III wind turbine can be operated in the over synchronous or sub synchronous speed
range. In sub synchronous speed range the power is fed into the rotor from the grid, while in
over synchronous speed range the slip power is fed into the grid [20]. It can separately control
the active and reactive power by controlling the magnitude and phase of the AC in the rotor
circuit, i.e. the generator can be operated with any required power factor [20].
PR Pf
iR +
if
u
_ dc
Cdc
Power Electronic Converter
ef
is Pout, Qout
Gear
DFIG
Box es
Transformer
Figure 2.5: Type III wind turbine

The type III wind turbine has several advantages; it independently controls the rotor
magnetizing current, thereby decoupling the active and reactive power control [20]. It is not
necessary for a type III wind turbine to be magnetized from the power grid; it can also be
magnetized from the rotor circuit. Type III wind turbine is capable of absorbing and producing
the reactive power to provide voltage stability support in weak power system [21]. The
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drawbacks of a type III wind turbine are the requirement of the slip rings, complicated
protection system and the fault ride through requirement.
2.2.4. Type IV: Full power converter wind turbine

The full power converter wind turbine is shown in the figure 2.6 [18] and this technology is
usually adopted in newly installations [22]. The type IV wind turbine decouples the generator
from the grid [23]. The machine side converter controls the generator by operating it at
optimum rotor speed and the grid side converter controls the dc link voltage and the reactive
power to the grid [22]. The system can operate with variable rotational speed of the turbine and
gives maximum efficiency than other types of wind turbine for a wind speed below 8-9m/s. For
wind speed above 8-9m/s the turbine operates at ‘fixed’ speed, the speed is varied around the
‘maximum’ speed to reduce the mechanical stresses. The efficiency level of type IV wind turbine
is high than other type of wind turbines during partial loading situation, this is where wind
turbine operate most of their life, close to nominal value over wide range of speed, thereby
producing much higher energy yield [24].
The type IV wind turbine can control the power factor easily; it can use all the current to
generate active or reactive power, so it can independently control the active and reactive power
flow to the grid. This also allows them to feed the grid with 100% reactive power during faults,
which gives greater fault tolerance and fault ride through capability [24].
The introduction of the variable speed wind turbines have the advantages of increased energy
capture, reduced mechanical stresses and aerodynamic noise [23]. In variable speed systems,
the direct drive wind power system for its inherent advantages has begun to get more and more
attention [10]. Type IV wind turbine can utilize induction generator, synchronous generator or
permanent magnet synchronous generators [23]. High speed gear box is coupled to the
induction machine, however, synchronous machine and permanent magnet synchronous
machines have been designed as multi pole machines in order to avoid high speed generator
and gear box.
Most of the type IV wind turbines are directly driven by multi pole permanent magnet
synchronous generator (PMSG) for power generation [24]. The converter connects the
generator to the grid, which provides the flexibility to control the active and the reactive power.
This scheme saves the gear box which has high failure rate [20]. It improves the efficiency of the
system, suppresses the noise, improves system reliability and operational life and reduces the
maintenance cost. With direct drive wind power system, the full power converter technology
has been developed and applied, which makes the wind generator to operate at 0–150% of the
rated speed [25]. The primary advantage of a PMSG is that they do not require any external
excitation current.
12
Pout, Qout
+
PMSG u
_ dc
Cdc
Transformer
Full Power Converter
Grid
Figure 2.6: Type IV wind turbine
2.3.Factors affecting the wind power penetration

Wind farm faces numerous challenges like voltage control, reactive power management and
behavior during grid disturbances [26]. Wind power plants when connected to the grid, must
ensure that it does not affect the voltage level and the stability of the system, these rules are
provided by transmission system operators (TSOs) to the plants owners for the security of the
power system and are known as grid codes. Power quality relates to factor which describes the
variation of the voltage level, as well as the distortion of the voltage and current waveforms
[27]. The most common power quality problems to the wind power plants are the slow voltage
variation, voltage dips, flickers and harmonics which are briefly described below with their
probable solutions [19] [20] [27].
Slow voltage variation
Slow voltage variation can be defined as changes in the rms voltage occurring in the time span
of minute or more. National standards often state allowable variations in normal voltage over
an extended period, for instance 24 hours. IEC publication 38 recommends 230/400 V as the
standard voltage for 50 Hz system and the voltage at the user’s terminal must not differ more
than ±10% from the nominal voltage [28]. Slow voltage variation is due to the variation in the
load or generation [29,19]. In case of wind farms, the voltage variation is not only due to
variation in the wind, but also during start or emergency stop in heavy wind conditions, the
power goes momentarily from zero to full and vice versa causing the variations in the voltage
[28]. To control voltage variation it requires continuously reactive power adjustment [30].
Depending on the reactive power requirement and speed of operation, the voltage control is
required from the wind turbine generators and additional shunt capacitor or shunt
compensation may also be required [30].
Voltage dips
Voltage dips are defined according to IEEE Std. 1159-1995 [31], a voltage dip is the reduction of
0.1pu to 0.9pu in the rms voltage with duration of a half cycle to 1 minute at the power
frequency. Voltage dips can be caused due to transformer energizing, capacitor bank switching,
13
starting of large induction machines and short circuit faults in the transmission and distribution
system. It is normally expressed in terms of duration and retained voltage (usually expressed as
the percentage of nominal rms voltage remaining at the lowest point during a dip). Most of the
grid codes require that a wind turbine must remain connected to the system during voltage dip.
To ride through the voltage dip the wind turbine must provide reactive power and as explained
in the section 2.2, the type IV wind turbine has good fault ride through capability.
Flicker
Flicker is evaluated according to the IEC 60868 standard [32] [33]. Flicker is the random or
repetitive visible change in the intensity of incandescent lamps due to variation in
the rms voltage between 90 and 110% of nominal voltage [34]. The likelihood of flicker increase
as the size of the changing load becomes larger with respect to the short circuit power at the
point of common connection [35]. Flicker can be caused due to, for example, steel mills using
large electric motors or arc furnaces on a distribution network or output power fluctuates from
wind turbines connected to a weak grid. The power fluctuation are either periodic (due to tower
shadow effect) or random (due to wind gusting), resulting in corresponding fluctuations of the
voltage magnitude. The voltage fluctuations have the frequency range of 0.5 and 35 Hz [36]. The
[37] use type IV wind turbine for flicker mitigation by varying the dc link voltage which smoothes
the three phase active power oscillations.
Harmonics
Wind turbines with power electronics inject harmonic currents with frequencies that are
multiples of the fundamental frequencies into the grid [19] [27]. The harmonic distortion can be
quantified by total harmonic distortion (THD). These harmonic currents distort the voltage
waveform. For connecting the variable speed wind turbines to the grid, it is relevant to ensure
that the harmonic currents are sufficiently limited. This can be achieved by installing filters to
remove the harmonics.
The above problems to the wind turbine are mainly due to the weak grid and with the probable
solutions discussed above, the network can also be strengthen with installation of new lines.
Installation of new lines is a straight forward way which strengthens the network and thereby
reduces some of the described problems. But this method is very costly and becomes
uneconomic in many cases.
Usually the wind farm operates at unity power factor. Flexible AC transmission (FACTS) devices
are usually used to control the reactive power if needed. The type III and IV wind turbines can
provide a controllable reactive power and therefore they could be used as the FACTS devices if
they are allowed to regulate. If the wind farm can provide the amount of reactive power needed
then there is no need for FACTS devices and thereby investment can be saved.
14
Chapter 3
3. Type IV wind turbine

The goal of the thesis is to identify the ability of the wind turbine to support the power system
with the reactive power, and from the discussion in chapter 2, the type IV wind turbine if
required has the ability to feed the grid with 100% of reactive power. Therefore, the type IV
wind turbine is used in this thesis for the voltage control at PCC. In this chapter the modeling of
the type IV wind turbine is discussed along with their control.
3.1.Modeling of the type IV wind turbine for grid studies

The type IV wind turbine along with its control is shown in the figure 3.1 [10] [19] [38]. The
turbine blades extract power from the wind and this mechanical power is transformed into
electrical power through PMSG. The back to back converter that can be recognized as machine
side converter and generator side converter decouple the PMSG from the power system. As
mentioned in section 2.2.4, the machine side converter controls the generator speed while the
grid side converter controls the dc link voltage and the reactive power to the grid. The machine
side converter and the grid side converter are separated through dc link capacitor and braking
resistor.
The dc link capacitor stores the energy generated from the wind which is then transformed by
the grid side converter. The resistor RBR is controlled by power electronics switch SBR as shown in
the figure 3.1. The terminal voltage changes during faults (e.g. voltage dips or voltage swells).
During voltage dips there is an excess of power in the DC link that cannot be exported to the
grid. Also, during voltage swells the power starts to flow from grid which should be discarded.
The excess amount of energy is dumped in the braking resistor to restore the balance and to
protect the dc link capacitor and the control of the drive. The braking resistor balances the
active power and prevents the dc link voltage from rising excessively [38].
The back to back converters with twelve switches, as shown in figure 3.1, give rise to number of
harmonics, depending on the switching frequency and the modulation scheme. These
harmonics are eliminated through filter, as discussed in section 2.4. The step up transformer on
15
the grid side step up the voltage from the converter and sends the extracted power from the
wind to the PCC.
Machine side Grid side
DC
Pmachine Pgrid
link
SBR Transformer
Filter
PM Grid
RBR
Iabc Vabc
Udc Uabc
anemometer PWM PWM
Speed Current Power

MPPT dq to abc
controller controller calculation
Idq θ
Current
abc to dq PLL
controller Vd,Vq=0
Id,ref Iq,ref
DC link
Reactive power or
voltage
Voltage controller V*dq
controller
Vdq
U*dc
Q* Q
Figure 3.1: Model and Control of Type IV wind turbine

The type IV wind turbine system is controlled by machine side controller and grid side
controller. The machine side controller controls the speed of the generator. It consists of
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) controller, speed controller and current controller.
MPPT determines the optimum rotor speed for each wind speed to obtain maximum rotor
power [39]. The anemometer provides the wind power reference signal to the MPPT controller
that generates the speed reference signal for the speed controller and controls the rotor speed
of the PMSG. The output signal of the speed controller is the reference signal for the current
controller. Its output through PWM generates the driving signal for the machine side switches.
As mention earlier, the grid side controller controls the dc link voltage and the reactive power
flow to the grid. It consists of dc link voltage controller, voltage or reactive power controller and
current controller. The dc link controller regulates the dc link voltage and maintains the power
balance on both sides. The voltage at the PCC is controlled by either reactive power controller
or voltage controller. The dc link voltage controller and reactive power/voltage controller
generates the current references signal for the current controller whose output through PWM
drives the grid side switches of the type IV wind turbine.
16
As discussed earlier, the focus of this thesis is the reactive power control to the grid. Due to this
and the slow active power variation from the machine side converter, the above system shown
in figure 3.1 is simplified by changing the DC link capacitor with DC source and DC link voltage
controller to the active power controller which gets its reference based on actual wind
condition. The new system is shown in the figure 3.2 with grid side controller i.e. active power
controller, reactive power/voltage controller and current controller.
Grid side
converter
DC Grid
link
Filter
iabc Transformer
vabc
abc abc Vpcc
uabc θ θ
dq dq
PWM id iq Power vd vq
calculation
u*abc
PLL
abc
θ P Q
dq
θ
ud uq
iq ωl - vd vq
+
ωl id Current
+ + controller
PI PI
Reactive
power
id - - controller Q
iq
+ +
Id,ref
-
+
PI PI Q,ref
Active Iq,ref
power -
controller P
+ Vpcc
switch
P,ref
-
+
LPF Vpcc,ref
Voltage
power
controller
Figure 3.2: Grid side converter control of TYPE IV wind turbine
17
3.2.Grid side control system
The grid side control system is shown in figure 3.2 and it is designed as a cascaded control
system. It comprises of inner current controller and outer active power and voltage/reactive
power controllers. The inner current controller controls the current through the filter and
transformer. The filter and transformer are modeled as series RL circuit and the equations
describing this can be expressed as:
𝑑𝑖𝑎
𝑢𝑎 = 𝑅𝑖𝑎 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑣𝑎 (3.1)
𝑑𝑖𝑏
𝑢𝑏 = 𝑅𝑖𝑏 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣𝑏 (3.2)
𝑑𝑖
𝑢𝑐 = 𝑅𝑖𝑐 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡𝑐 + 𝑣𝑐 (3.3)
The instantaneous active and reactive current at the PCC are [40]:
𝑃 = 𝑣𝑎 𝑖𝑎 +𝑣𝑏 𝑖𝑏 +𝑣𝑐 𝑖𝑐 (3.4)
1
𝑄= [𝑣 (𝑖 − 𝑖𝑏 ) + 𝑣𝑏 (𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑐 )+𝑣𝑐 (𝑖𝑏 − 𝑖𝑎 )] (3.5)
√3 𝑎 𝑐
The VSC is controlled in dq reference coordinate system. Power invariant transformation is used
in which the magnitude equals to the line to line rms voltage and rotates with the grid speed
(ω= 2𝜋f). The voltage and the current are transformed from abc to αβ and then to the dq. The
transformation from abc to αβ is called Clarke’s transformation and the transformation from αβ
to dq frame is known as Park’s transformation. The dq effectively represents the voltages,
currents and powers in two phase DC variables which makes it easier to assess these variables
during transients [41].
The dq reference frame is also known as rotating synchronous reference frame. The angle (θ) is
used for the transformation from αβ to dq. Phase locked loop (PLL) is used to track the angle (θ)
of the grid voltage and thereby obtaining the transformation angle (θ). The choice is made to
align the grid voltage on either the d axis or the q axis i.e. voltage reference or flux reference. If
voltage reference frame is used then, 𝑣𝑞 = 0 during steady state operation at synchronizing
point. The abc, αβ and the dq reference frame are shown in figure 3.3, where grid voltage is
aligned on d axis.
18
β-axis
q-axis
b-axis
ub(t) uβ(t) d-axis ω(t)
uq(t) ud(t)
θ
uα(t) α-axis, a-axis
ua(t)
uc(t)
c-axis
Figure 3.3: abc, αβ and dq reference frames

The Clark’s and Park’s transformation can be understand from figure 3.3, consider the three
phase voltages 𝑢𝑎 , 𝑢b and 𝑢𝑐 and assume no zero sequence component exists. The space vector
representation of 𝑢𝑎 , 𝑢b and 𝑢𝑐 are shown in (3.6), (3.7) and (3.8).
2
𝑢𝑎 = 𝑘 𝑢𝑎 𝑒 𝑗0
⃗⃗⃗⃗ (3.6)
3
2𝜋
2 𝑗
𝑢𝑏 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 3
𝑘 𝑢𝑏 𝑒 3 (3.7)
4𝜋
2 𝑗
𝑢𝑐 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 3
𝑘 𝑢𝑐 𝑒 3 (3.8)
where k is a scaling factor and explained in appendix A.

Adding (3.6), (3.7) and (3.8) form complex space vector.
2𝜋 4𝜋
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢 𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝑎 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑢𝑐 = 𝑘 (𝑢𝑎 𝑒 𝑗0 + 𝑢𝑏 𝑒 𝑗 3 + 𝑢𝑐 𝑒 𝑗 3 ) = 𝑢𝛼 + 𝑗𝑢𝛽
𝑢𝑏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ (3.9)
3
Equation (3.9) is known as Clark’s transformation and the transformation is shown in appendix
A. Also the Park’s transformation (3.10) is shown in detail in appendix A.
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢 𝑢 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = 𝑢𝑑 + 𝑗𝑢𝑞 (3.10)
The controller is tuned in dq reference frame because [42]
19
 It is easier to analyze a system with DC than AC quantities
 better assessing the voltage, current and power behavior during transient states when
the steady state is DC, compared with transients αβ which rotates at 50 Hz
 a system with states of DC quantities can use integral controllers to remove errors
The equations shown in (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3) will be transformed to dq reference frame based
on the Clark’s Park’s transformation. These equations are represented in space vector form
below.
2𝜋 4𝜋
2
𝑢 𝑠 = 3 𝑘 (𝑢𝑎 𝑒 𝑗0 + 𝑢𝑏 𝑒 𝑗 3 + 𝑢𝑐 𝑒 𝑗 3 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑖𝑎
2
(𝑅𝑖𝑎 + 𝐿 + 𝑣𝑎 ) 𝑒 𝑗0 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑡
𝑢𝑠 = 3
𝑘 ( 𝑑𝑖 2𝜋
𝑑𝑖 4𝜋 ) (3.11)
(𝑅𝑖𝑏 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡𝑏 + 𝑣𝑏 )𝑒 𝑗 3 + (𝑅𝑖𝑐 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡𝑐 + 𝑣𝑐 )𝑒 𝑗 3
2𝜋 4𝜋
2
𝑅 (𝑖𝑎 𝑒 𝑗0 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑒 𝑗 3 + 𝑖𝑐 𝑒 𝑗 3 ) +
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢𝑠 = 3 𝑘 ( 2𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 ) (3.12)
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝐿( 𝑑𝑡𝑎 𝑒 𝑗0 + 𝑑𝑡𝑏 𝑒 𝑗 3 + 𝑑𝑡𝑐 𝑒 𝑗 3 ) + (𝑣a 𝑒 𝑗0 + 𝑣𝑏 𝑒 𝑗 3 + 𝑣𝑐 𝑒 𝑗 3 )
𝑑𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢 𝑠 = (𝑅(𝑖⃗⃗𝑠 ) + 𝐿( 𝑑𝑡 ) + (𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑠 )) (3.13)
𝑑𝑖𝛼 +𝑗𝑖𝛽
𝑢𝛼 + 𝑗𝑢𝛽 = (𝑅(𝑖𝛼 + 𝑗𝑖𝛽 ) + 𝐿( 𝑑𝑡
) + (𝑣𝛼 + 𝑗𝑣𝛽 )) (3.14)
Equation (3.11) in αβ form is shown in (3.14). The equation in αβ is transformed into dq frame
through Park’s transformation. From (3.10) the (3.13) can be transformed in dq frame as
𝑑𝑖 𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗𝑠 −𝑗𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = (𝑅(𝑖⃗⃗𝑠 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 ) + 𝐿( 𝑑𝑡 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑠 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 ))
) + (𝑣 (3.15)
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖𝑞
𝑢𝑑 + 𝑗𝑢𝑞 = 𝑅(𝑖𝑑 + 𝑗𝑖𝑞 ) + 𝐿 ( 𝑑𝑡𝑑 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑡
) − 𝜔𝑖𝑞 + 𝑗𝜔𝑖𝑑 + 𝑣𝑑 + 𝑗𝑣𝑞 (3.16)
𝑑𝑖𝑑𝑞
𝑢𝑑𝑞 = 𝑅(𝑖𝑑𝑞 ) + 𝐿 ( 𝑑𝑡
) − 𝑗𝜔𝑖𝑑𝑞 + 𝑣𝑑𝑞 (3.17)
And the active and reactive powers from 3.2 and 3.3 are:
3 3
𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 2𝐾2 (𝑣 ⃗⃗𝑖∗ ) = 2𝐾2 {(𝑣𝑑 𝑖𝑑 + 𝑣𝑞 𝑖𝑞 ) + 𝑗(−𝑣𝑑 𝑖𝑞 + 𝑣𝑞 𝑖𝑑 )} (3.18)
The constant K depends on the transformation and explained in Appendix A. In this thesis power
3
invariant transformation is used where 𝐾 = √2. Then voltage oriented (3.10) will look [42]
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢 𝑢 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = 𝑈𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = 𝑈 (3.19)
𝑖 = ⃗⃗𝑖𝑠 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = √3𝐼𝑒 𝑗(𝜃−𝛾) 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = √3𝐼𝑒 −𝑗𝛾 (3.20)
Where U in (3.19) is the line to line rms voltage and I in (3.20) is the rms value of the current.
20
3.3.The Inner Current Controller
The inner current controller is a PI regulator designed for the simplified system shown in figure
3.4.
i
R L
u v
Figure 3.4: Simplified model of the filter, transformer and the remaining grid
The R and L in the simplified model shown in figure 3.4 is the resistance and inductance of the
filter and transformer and the remaining grid is assumed infinitely strong, as a voltage source.
The RL system in dq is expressed in (3.17) in which the 𝑣𝑑𝑞 is the back emf of the grid voltage as
shown in figure 3.4 while 𝜔𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑞 will give cross coupling between the d and q component of the
current. This system can be modeled in block diagram as shown in figure 3.5, it is the current
controller model, in which 𝑣𝑑𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑞 are the feed forward terms to cancel the effect of
back emf and cross coupling.
vdq
et u’dq - udq idq

idq,ref 1
+ Fc(s)
- + sL+R+jωL
+
ωLIdq
Figure 3.5: Current controller model

We will assume that feed forward terms cancels the effect of back emf and cross coupling. It will
simplify our system as shown in figure 3.6 and the transfer function for the system block is
𝑖 (𝑠) 1
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑢𝑑 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐿+𝑅 (3.21)
𝑑
idq,ref et u’dq udq 1 idq

+ Fc(s)
- sL+R
Figure 3.6: Simplified Current Controller model
21
To derive the controller parameters the above closed loop system is considered to be first order
system, then
𝛼𝑐
𝐹𝑐 𝐺 𝛼𝑐 𝑠
𝑇𝐹 = = = 𝛼 (3.22)
1+𝐹𝑐 𝐺 𝑠+𝛼𝑐 1+ 𝑐
𝑠
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝛼𝑐 −1 𝛼𝑐 𝑘𝑖,𝑐
→ 𝐹𝑐 = 𝐺 = (𝑠𝐿
+ 𝑅) = 𝑘𝑝,𝑐 + (3.23)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑘𝑝,𝑐 = 𝛼𝑐 ∗ 𝐿 (3.24)
𝑘𝑖,𝑐 = 𝛼𝑐 ∗ 𝑅 (3.25)
Where, αc is the bandwidth of the current controller. The rise time of the first order closed loop
system is given by the relation:
ln 9
𝛼𝑐 =
𝑡𝑟,𝑖
3.4.The outer controllers
3.4.1. Active power controller

The active power delivery to the grid from the wind turbine is controlled by the DC link voltage
controller, but as mentioned earlier, in this thesis work an active power controller will be used
instead. According to section 3.1, the active power reference ‘Pref’ is extracted power from the
wind during steady state condition. The active power is controlled at the point of
synchronization. Since transformation is power invariant and voltage oriented, the active power
at the point of synchronization is given by (3.26), assuming perfect synchronization of the dq
system, i.e 𝑣𝑞 = 0.
𝑃 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑖𝑑 (3.26)
For the design of the active power controller, (3.26) is assumed to describe the system to be
controlled. For the design it is also assumed that the inner current controller is much faster than
the outer controller and thereby it can be assumed that the current reference is equal to the
actual current. With these the assumptions the system and the active power controller can be
shown as in figure 3.7.
Pref et Id,ref Id P
+ Fp ’’1'’ Vd
-
Current System
controller
Figure 3.7: The active power controller model
22
The closed loop transfer function, from Pref to P, is designed to be first order system with gain 1
and it can be expressed as (3.27). Where αp corresponds to the bandwidth of the active power
controller and is taken smaller than the bandwidth of current controller.
𝛼𝑝
𝐹𝑝 𝑣𝑑 𝛼
𝑇𝐹𝑝 = 1+𝐹𝑝 𝑣𝑑
= 𝑠+𝛼𝑝 = 𝑠
𝛼𝑝 (3.27)
𝑝 1+
𝑠
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝛼𝑝 1 𝑘𝑖,𝑝
→ 𝐹𝑝 = 𝑠
(𝑣 ) = 𝑘𝑝,𝑝 + 𝑠
(3.28)
𝑑
as 𝑣𝑑 at point of synchronization equals to the line to line rms voltage, so

α 𝛼𝑝
K i,p = v p = 𝑉 (3.29)
d 𝐿𝐿,𝑟𝑚𝑠
3.4.2. Reactive power controller

The reactive power delivery to the grid is controlled by either reactive power controller or
voltage controller. This section discusses the reactive power controller and next section will be
about voltage controller. The reactive power reference ‘Qref’ is provided to keep the zero
reactive power exchange at the PCC during steady state condition until TSO demands. The
reactive power is controlled at the point of synchronization, PCC and since the power invariant
transformation and voltage oriented system is used the reactive power can be expressed at the
point of synchronization as
𝑄 = −𝑣𝑑 𝑖𝑞 (3.30)
assuming the perfect synchronization of the dq system, i.e 𝑣𝑞 = 0. For the design of the reactive
power controller, (3.30) is assumed to describe the system to be controlled. It is also assumed
that the inner current controller is much faster than the outer controller and thereby it can be
assumed that the current reference is equal to the actual current. With these the reactive
power controller can be shown in figure 3.8.
Qref et Iq,ref Iq Q
+ Fq ’’1'’ -Vd
-
Current System
controller
Figure 3.8: The reactive power controller model

The closed loop transfer function, from Qref to Q, is designed to be first order system and it can
be expressed as (3.31). Where αq corresponds to the bandwidth of the reactive power controller
and is taken smaller than the bandwidth of current controller.
23
𝛼𝑞
−𝐹𝑞 𝑣𝑑 𝛼𝑞 𝑠
𝑇𝐹𝑞 = 1−𝐹𝑞 𝑣𝑑
= 𝑠+𝛼 = 𝛼𝑞 (3.31)
𝑞 1+
𝑠
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝛼𝑞 1 𝑘𝑖,𝑞
→ 𝐹𝑞 = 𝑠
(− 𝑣 ) = 𝑘𝑝,𝑞 + 𝑠
(3.32)
𝑑
𝛼𝑞 𝛼𝑞
𝐾𝑖,𝑞 = − 𝑣 = − 𝑉 (3.33)
𝑑 𝐿𝐿,𝑟𝑚𝑠
3.4.3. Voltage controller

The voltage controller is used to control the voltage at the PCC. The voltage controller will react
to any disturbances at PCC voltage by changing the reactive current according to the
requirement. The voltage is controlled at the point of synchronization, PCC and the voltage at
these points can be expressed as
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑧 = (𝑖𝑑 + 𝑗𝑖𝑞 )(𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋) (3.34)
𝑣𝑑 + 𝑗𝑣𝑞 = (𝑖𝑑 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑞 𝑋) + 𝑗(𝑋𝑖𝑑 + 𝑅𝑖𝑞 ) (3.35)
When assuming the perfect synchronization of the dq system, i.e 𝑣𝑞 = 0 and R to be very small
with respect to the reactance that it can also be ignored than
𝑣𝑑 = (𝑖𝑑 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑞 𝑋) ≈ −𝑖𝑞 𝑋 (3.36)
where, 𝑣 is the voltage at the point where it is controlled, 𝑖 is the current in the line and 𝑧 is the
thevenin equivalent impedance of the point. The (3.36) can also be used for controlling the
voltage at the PCC. For the design of the voltage controller, (3.36) is assumed to describe the
system to be controlled. It is also assumed that the inner current controller is much faster than
the outer controller and thereby the current reference is equal to the actual current. With these
the voltage controller can be shown in figure 3.9.
Vref,pu et Iq,ref pu Iq pu Vpu

+ Fv 1 X pu
-
Current
System
controller
Figure 3.9: Voltage controller model

The closed loop transfer function, from Vref to V, is designed to be first order system and it can
be expressed as
𝛼𝑣
𝐹𝑣 𝑋 𝛼
𝑇𝐹𝑣 = = 𝑠+𝛼𝑣 = 𝑠
𝛼 (3.37)
1+𝐹𝑣 𝑋 𝑣 1+ 𝑣
𝑠
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝛼𝑣 1 𝑘𝑖,𝑣
→ 𝐹𝑣 = ( )
𝑠 𝑋
= 𝑘𝑝,𝑣 + 𝑠
(3.38)
𝛼𝑣
𝐾𝑖,𝑣 = 𝑋
(3.39)
24
Where αv corresponds to bandwidth of the voltage controller and is considered smaller than the
bandwidth of current controller.
The voltage controller is designed for the real system that has ac transmission line with weak
grid. For voltage to be controlled at the PCC, the equivalent impedance equals to the reactance
of grid weakness as the parallel branch reactance is high due to overhead line and transformer.
The voltage needs to be better controlled during disturbances and will require STATCOM when
grid side converter fails to do so. But, then the integrators of the two voltage controller will start
to fight and stability of the system will be lost. For better load sharing between the two voltage
controllers and to increase the regulation range, droop is added to the voltage controller. The
voltage controller will behave then as a low pass filter. The controller model will then look like
k
-
Vpcc,ref -- et
Fv Iq,ref Iq Vpcc Vpcc,ref et
LPF Iq,ref Iq Vpcc
+ 1 X + 1 X
- -
Figure 3.10: Voltage controller model with droop
3.5.Phase locked loop

The dq system of the wind turbine control system needs to be synchronized with the phase of
the voltage, so that the active and reactive power controllers function properly. It can be
synchronized either by integrating the grid frequency (i.e. 50 Hz), or by zero crossing detection
or by PLL. Using a PLL is the best technique as it copes with the voltage dips, phase jumps, phase
imbalance, noisy signals etc. in an efficient way [42]. The block diagram of the PLL is shown in
the figure 3.12
abc Vα Vd ω=2*pi*fbase
Va αβ
PI
Vb +
Kp+ Ki/s θ
Vc αβ Vβ dq + 1/s
Vq
Figure 3.11: Phase Locked Loop block diagram

The input to the PLL is the grid phase voltage and the output is the tracked phase angle (θ) of
the grid voltage vector, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣 𝑠 = |𝑣|𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑔 . As, the controller is voltage oriented, the PLL will put 𝑣𝑞 to
zero during steady state condition and locks the phase with the grid voltage phase i.e. 𝜃𝑔 = 𝜃 in
25
steady state condition. By expressing the grid voltage in αβ as ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣 𝑠 = |𝑣|𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑔 , a magnitude and
phase, the q component of the grid voltage can be calculated as
𝑣𝑞 = 𝐼𝑚{|𝑣|𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑔 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 } = 𝐼𝑚{|𝑣|𝑒 𝑗(𝜃𝑔 −𝜃) } (3.40)
𝑣𝑞 = 𝐼𝑚{|𝑣|(cos(𝜃𝑔 − 𝜃) + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑔 − 𝜃))} = |𝑣|𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑔 − 𝜃) (3.41)

By assuming that the angle difference is very small this can be approximated as
𝑣𝑞 = |𝑣|𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑔 − 𝜃) = |𝑣|(𝜃𝑔 − 𝜃) (3.42)
The block diagram will now become
ω=2*pi*fbase
θg + θ
+ vmag PI + 1/s
+
Figure 3.12: PLL block diagram

The transfer function from θg to θ is expressed as
𝐾 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑔
(𝐾𝑝,𝑃𝐿𝐿 + 𝑖,𝑃𝐿𝐿 )( ) Kp,PLL 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑔 s+Ki,PLL 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑔
𝑠 𝑠
𝑇𝐹𝑃𝐿𝐿 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑖,𝑃𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑔 = (3.43)
1+(𝐾𝑝,𝑃𝐿𝐿 + )( ) 𝑠2 +𝐾𝑝,𝑃𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑔 𝑠+𝐾𝑖,𝑃𝐿𝐿𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑔
𝑠 𝑠
The transfer function is tuned to have double pole at α PLL and the gains of the PLL are selected
as [43].
2𝛼𝑃𝐿𝐿
𝐾𝑝,𝑃𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑔
(3.44)
𝛼2
𝐾𝑖,𝑃𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉 𝑃𝐿𝐿 (3.45)
𝑚𝑎𝑔
26
Chapter 4
4. Grid Codes for the Wind Farms

The penetration of wind energy into the power system is significantly increasing and it has led
the TSOs to put some technical requirements on the connection of wind plants to the power
system [44]. These technical requirements are termed as ‘Grid codes’, whose objective is the
operational reliability and the quality of supply to the power system [45]. The first aim is a fault-
free operation of the grid and the second is the operation of a plant according to the demand of
the consumers [45]. The grid codes form a technical basis of the grid connection agreement
[45].
It was a common practice in the past to disconnect the wind farm during network faults [21].
But today wind farms can be delivering large amount of power to the grid and a disconnection
of the wind farms can affect the grid performance and stability. Therefore, during network
faults the wind farms are required to remain connected to the power system for a certain
period of time, as defined in the grid codes. To mitigate grid problems the grid code includes
regulatory requirements for [46]
 Active power regulation
 Voltage control
 Supply of reactive power
 Fault ride-through capability
This chapter presents an overview of four countries grid codes and provides a brief comparison
of them. The following grid codes are covered
 The Swedish grid codes from Svenska Kraftnät(SVK) [47]
 The German grid code from E.ON Netz [45].
 The Denmark grid code from Eltra and Elkraft [48]
 The Great Britain grid code from national grid electricity transmission (NGET) [49].
The overview and comparison will be used for
4.1. Active power regulation

The rated power of a wind farm is the sum of the rated powers of all generating units combined
under one grid connection. The wind farm must not have any unacceptable effect on the grid.
27
The generators must be allowed to start in a normal operation mode and synchronize with the
load. The active power regulation is not the scope of this thesis and therefore highlighted
briefly. The wind farm should provide the rated power for specific grid voltage and frequency.
SVK, E.ON, Eltra and Elkraft and NGET place some restrictions on active power output and the
operating time due to variation in the voltage and the frequency. They are listed in table 4.1 and
table 4.2
Table 4-1: Operating time for wind power plants by SVK
Frequency (Hz) Voltage (%) Power output
47.5 – 49 95 – 105 < 5 % reduction
49 – 51 90 – 105 Retained
51 – 52 95 – 105 Reduced
Table 4-2: Operating time for wind power plants by E.ON, Eltra and Elkraft and NGET
Eltra and Elkraft E.ON NGET

Frequency
(Hz)
V(%) P(%) Duration V(%) P(%) Duration V(%) P(%) Duration
47-47.5 - - - - - - 20 sec
47.5-48 85% ≤10min

95%
+10%
48-49 100%
to -5%
49-49.5 100%
Continuous operation
+17%
-12% to 15%
to 90%
100%
±10%
+10%
49.5-50.5 +10%
100%
to -5%
100%
-5% to
90%
-10%
50.5-51.5
+10% - - -
51.5-52 100%
to -5%
3min
52-53 - - - - - -
28
4.2. Reactive power/Voltage control
Wind power plants connected to the SVK system should be capable of controlling the voltage
automatically to ±5% of the nominal voltage. The voltage control should work with the reactive
power i.e. Mvar/kV. Wind farms shall be designed so that the reactive yield can be adjusted to
zero at the PCC [47].
Wind farms in E.ON network must fulfill the reactive power requirement as shown in the figure
4.1 along with the active power output as a basic requirement. E.ON defines the reactive power
exchanged for the active power output in the grid connection agreement, depending on the
requirement of the grid. The wind farms should not alter the reactive power exchange from
2.5% of the grid connection capacity. During switching the voltage change must be less than 2%.
Higher values are permissible for generating plants that are used for base loads. If the
generating plant is not running but it is consuming active power from the grid, it must maintain
a power factor of 0.95(inductive) at the PCC.
1.2
1.15
Line to line voltage (p.u)
1.1
1.05 Operating point

inside the solid
1 line
0.95
0.9
0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2
Power factor
Figure 4.1: Reactive power requirement for frequencies between 49.5Hz to 50.5Hz by E.ON
Wind farms connected to the Eltra and Elkraft system shall be equipped with reactive power
compensation ensuring that the reactive power (as mean value over 10 seconds) is kept within
the control band shown in figure 4.2 at the PCC. The amount of reactive power that a wind farm
can take up or supply, shall be made available to the system operator during reactive power
unbalance. In such situation the wind farm shall not observe the control band but should
contribute to keep the agreed voltage or reactive power at the PCC.
29
1
Active power (p.u)

Control Band
0
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
Reactive power (p.u)
Figure 4.2: Eltra and Elkraft reactive power exchange requirement at the PCC
According to NGET, wind-turbine generator units must be capable of supplying rated active
power output at any point between 0.95 lagging or leading power factor. It can be seen from
figure 4.3 that a lagging power factor of 0.95 should be possible to keep for active power
between 20% and 100%. A leading power factor should be possible when the active power is
above 50% and it should reduce linearly when active power falls from 50% to 20%.
120
Point A(in Mvar):
100 0.95 leading power factor at rated MW
output
Rated MW (%)
80 Point B(in Mvar)

0.95 lagging power factor at rated MW
60 output
Point C(in Mvar)
40 -5% of rated MW output
Point D(in Mvar)
20 +5% of rated MW output
Point E(in Mvar)
0 -12% of rated MW output
A E C 0 D B
MVAr
Figure 4.3: Required Reactive power exchange by NGET
The NGET has set criteria for the response of reactive power as shown in the figure 4.4. When a
reactive power of 1p.u is demanded, the maximum allowable dead band is 200ms, 90% of the
reactive power should be achieved in 1 second and at the end of 2 seconds the system settles to
within ±5% of the reactive power demand. The SVK haven’t imposed such criteria for the
30
response in reactive power, but in the future some restriction on the response of reactive
power demand could come [9].
1.00
90% of required After 2s the
0.90 steady state
reactive power
change should response should
0.80
occur is 1s be with 5% of the
change in value.
0.60
0.40
0.2s maximum
dead band
0.20
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
Time (sec)
Figure 4.4: Reactive power delivery requirement by NGET
4.3. Behavior of the wind farm during grid disturbances

Wind power plants connected with SVK system have to remain connected to the network and
are not allowed to disconnect from the grid if the grid voltage is above the curves shown in
figure 4.5. The wind power plants shall be capable to cope and retained their operation during
transient voltage variations in the network.
E.ON doesn’t allow the generating plant to disconnect during phase swinging/power oscillation
nor allow them to stimulate these phenomena. When synchronous or asynchronous generating
plants are connected to the grid a three phase faults must not cause instability or disconnection
from the grid when grid voltages are on or above the curves as shown in figure 4.6. The fault is
cleared when the generator resumes normal operation and not simply after fault clearance. The
generating plant must expect the transients after re-closure of the breakers. The re-
synchronizing and reactive power intake must take place in a way that the generating plant
meets the suitable requirements at PCC.
If the voltage at the PCC on E.ON network falls and remain at level of or below 85% of the
reference value and the reactive power feeds the wind farm, then after 0.5 sec the generating
plant must be disconnected from the grid and the disconnection will be from the generator
circuit breaker. If the voltage on the low voltage side falls and remains at or below 80% of the
lower value of voltage band then one quarter of the generators must disconnect from the grid
after 1.5sec, next quarter after 1.8 sec, next quarter after 2.1 sec and the last quarter after 2.4
31
sec. If the voltage on the lower side of a generator rises and remains at or above 120% then the
generator are disconnected from the grid after 100ms.
120
100
Voltage (100%)
80
60 Large wind power plants
40 medium and smal wind

power plants
20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time (sec)
Figure 4.5: Low voltage ride through requirement by SVKF wind power plants
120
100
Voltage (100%)
80
Synchronous generating
60 plants
40 Asynchronous generating
plants
20
0
0 0,15 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time (sec)
Figure 4.6: Voltage limit pattern during fault for synchronous generators by E.ON
4.4. Grid codes defined for this thesis
In this thesis the technical requirements for the wind power plants have been revised. The new
sets of regulation are imposed on steady state voltage, voltage behavior during disturbances
and the reactive power contribution by the wind turbine at PCC. These regulations are
32
 Wind power plants should be capable of controlling the voltage at PCC to ±5% of the
nominal voltage
 Power factor at the PCC should be in between 0.95 underexcited to 0.95 overexcited
during normal operation
 90% of the demanded reactive power should be achieved in one second
 Should be capable of Low Voltage Ride Through
 Wind turbine shall support the voltage at PCC with reactive power during disturbances
The wind turbine should follow these sets of regulations in this thesis. If wind turbine is not able
to control the PCC voltage due to large length of transmission line or due to grid disturbances,
then STATCOM is installed at the PCC to increase the reactive power support.
33
34
Chapter 5
5. Modeling and Control of the simulated

system
This chapter covers the system modeling and the implementation of the control system of the
grid side converter of a type IV wind turbine. The system is modeled in PSCAD/EMTDC software
along with its controls. The prepared model of transformer and overhead line is taken from the
PSCAD library.
5.1. System model

Type IV wind turbine
Generator side Grid side

converter converter Pout, Qout
PCC
PMSG Grid
Filter Overhead
Transformer transmission
DC line
link
Generator Grid side

side controller
controller Transformer
Filter
STATCOM
STATCOM
controller
Figure 5.1: Simulation model
Figure 5.1 shows the simulation model of the system that has been studied during this thesis.
The grid side converter of the on shore type IV wind turbine is simulated in this thesis as
discussed in chapter 3 and it comprises of the switches, filters and a transformer. The extracted
power from the wind is delivered to the PCC by an overhead line. As mentioned in section 1.2,
35
the purpose of this thesis is to study the ability of the turbine to support the system with
reactive power and its contribution to the PCC voltage as a function of the overhead line length.
If the reactive power is too small then it is needed to add STATCOM to fulfill the grid code
requirement. The STATCOM is connected at the PCC as shown in figure 5.1 and the model is
composed of switches, filter and a transformer. As the objective is to study the reactive power
support from wind farm of 80MW, so instead of many small ones one large wind turbine of 80
MW is designed in this simulation. The grid side model implemented in PSCAD is shown in figure
5.2 and the rest of the section explains the different component of this simulated model.
Figure 5.2: Simulation model in PSCAD
5.1.1. Grid side converter

The IGBT switches as mentioned in section 3.1 will produce harmonics along with its
fundamental. The harmonics will depend on the switching frequency and modulation scheme.
But in this thesis simulation we are more interested in the fundamental voltages and currents
then the harmonics. Therefore the grid side converter is modeled as an ideal converter, with no
losses and no harmonic injection into the system. This is done by replacing the IGBT switches
and a DC link with a DC sources taken from the PSCAD library. DC sources inject the output
voltage from the controller into the circuit. The implemented converter model is shown in figure
5.3.
36
Figure 5.3: Three DC voltage source to model the IGBT converter
5.1.2. Filter
The simulated model will have no harmonics but in real system the fundamental voltage also
pass through the filter. To have the same effect as that of the real system for the fundamental
voltages and currents, L filter is designed for this thesis simulation. The L filter connects the
converter to the transformer. The reactance (XL) of the filter is taken as 0.2 pu of Zbase [50] of the
converter and has internal resistance of 0.1 time of XL. Where the Zbase is calculated as
2
𝑈𝐿𝐿−𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = (5.1)
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
5.1.3. Transformer
The transformer boosts the voltage level and transfers the extracted power from the wind to
the grid over the transmission line. But in this thesis simulation we are interested in only the
impact of the transformer and therefore the 1:1 transformer is implemented here. The
transformer model is taken from the PSCAD library and it is configured as Y-Y with the star point
solidly grounded for simplicity. The transformer is modeled without losses and the used
parameters are shown in table 5.1
Table 5-1: Transformer data from PSCAD
Transformer Data Ratings Transformer Data Ratings
Transformer MVA 100MVA Secondary winding type Y
Base operation frequency 50Hz Positive sequence reactance 0.1p.u
Primary voltage 33kV No load losses 0
Secondary voltage 33kV Copper losses 0
Primary winding type Y
37
5.1.4. Overhead transmission line
The overhead transmission line delivers the extracted power from the wind to the PCC. In this
simulation it connects the transformer to the PCC. The overhead line model is taken from the
PSCAD library and it is shown in figure 5.4 which comes from the PSCAD. The line is modeled for
a steady state frequency of 50Hz, a line to line rms voltage of 33 kV and has ratings of 100 MVA.
Based on this data the transmission line, when fully loaded, has to carry a current of 3 kA. The
Aluminum conductor steel re-enforced (ACSR) conductors used in the line have a radius of 47
mm and DC resistance of 23.1 mΩ. As 3 kA is high current for the selected conductor, bundled
conductors are used in the overhead line model. The tower configuration of the transmission
line is shown in figure 5.4, having two shielding wires on the top. The spacing between the
components of the overhead line and the used parameters for the model are shown in table
5.2.
Table 5-2: Overhead line data from PSCAD
Tower data
Tower type Steel lattice
Tower height 20 m
Number of grounding conductors Two
Height of all conductors from ground 15 m
Horizontal spacing between phases 3m
Conductor data
Conductor type Aluminum conductor steel re-enforced (ACSR)
Conductor geometric mean radius 0.047 m
Conductor DC resistance 0.0231 ohm
Sag for all conductors 5m
Number of sub conductors in bundle 3
Bundle configuration Symmetrical
Bundle spacing 0.4572 m
Grounding wire data
Ground wire name ½” high steel strength
Ground wire radius 0.0055245 m
Ground wire DC resistance 2.8654 ohm/km
Sag for ground conductor 5m
Height of ground wire above lowest conductor 5m
Spacing between grounding wires 5m
38
Figure 5.4: Overhead line model from PSCAD
5.1.5. Grid model

The grid to which the wind farm is connected to is modeled as a thevenin equivalent circuitry
shown in figure 5.5. Where Vs is the no load voltage of the grid, VPCC is the voltage at PCC and Rg
and Lg are the resistance and inductance of the grid respectively. The resistance and inductance
of the grid are calculated from the short circuit capacity (SCC) of the grid in the PCC. For weak
grid the ratio between the short circuit capacity (SCC) and the ratings of the wind farm is
between 3 and 5 [51] and for this work a SCC ratio of 3 is used. The impedance of the grid can
be calculated as
𝑉2
𝑍𝑠𝑐𝑐,𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 = 𝑆𝐿𝐿,𝑟𝑚𝑠 5.2
𝑠𝑐,𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑
where, 𝑋𝑔 = 0.998⦁𝑍𝑠𝑐𝑐,𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 [52] and 𝑅𝑔 = √(𝑍𝑠𝑐,𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 )2 − (𝑋𝑔 )2 .
39
Lg Rg
VPCC
AC Vgrid
Figure 5.5: Grid model
5.1.6. STATCOM
The static compensator (STATCOM) is a VSC system, whose primary function is to exchange
reactive power with the AC system. It can be used to increase line transmission capacity,
enhance voltage stability or voltage regulation, and if provided with an energy source it can also
supply active power to the loads in case of blackouts. The schematic diagram of the STATCOM is
shown in the figure 5.6 is connected in shunt with the wind farm at the PCC. A comparison
between the type IV wind turbine when is providing reactive power regulation and the
STATCOM reveals that
 The STATCOM is a special case of controlled VSC
 Active power flow is zero, as the STATCOM is meant only for reactive power regulation
and Is,d ref is set to zero
 Is,q ref is obtained from the reactive power/voltage controller and this can be used to
control the voltage at the PCC
The control system for the STATCOM is designed as the grid side converter of the type IV wind
turbine, with the active power reference set to zero. The PLL synchronizes the dq-system of the
controller with the voltage at the PCC and the voltage vector is oriented in the d direction in
steady state. The STATCOM is modeled as an ideal system in the same way as the type IV wind
turbine. The IGBT VSC converter is modeled as three dc voltage sources that inject voltage from
the current controller into the circuit. The filter and the transformer of the STATCOM are
modeled as RL circuit, as we proposed for the wind turbine. The reactance of the inductor is
selected to be 0.2p.u and the resistance to be 0.1p.u of this value (the same as for the wind
turbine). The dc link voltage is selected to 59.3kV, which gives the maximum voltage limited to
36.3kV. The base power for the filter design is 100MVA even if a small STATCOM is used. The
current limiter is used to change the rating of the STATCOM.
40
PCC
FPC wind
turbine
STATCOM GRID
DC
link
Filter E,abc
is,abc Transformer
abc abc
us,abc θ θ
dq dq Vpcc
PWM Power Es,d Es,q

is,d is,q
calculation
u*s,abc
PLL
abc
θ P Q
dq
θ
us,d us,q
is,q ωl - + Es,d Es,q + +

ωl is,d Current
+ + controller
PI PI
Reactive
power
is,d - - controller Q
is,q
+ +
-
+
PI Q,ref
Isd,ref = 0 Isq,r
ef
Vpcc
switch
-
+
LPF Vpcc,ref
Voltage
controller
Figure 5.6: Schematic diagram of the STATCOM

From figure 5.6, the voltage regulator is designed with a current droop of five percent for:
 Better load sharing between parallel VSCs i.e. for better control of voltage between the
parallel voltage controllers of FPC wind turbine and the STATCOM
 Reduces the size of STATCOM accepting some error on bus voltage
5.2. Control parameter settings

The performance of the system depends on the settings of the control parameters. The grid side
converter and the STATCOM can be controlled either in αβ or dq reference frame. In this project
the synchronous reference frame (dq) is considered, having two cascaded loops. The inner loop
41
controls the filter current and the outer loop regulates the power; thus controlling the active
and reactive power flow to the grid.
The active and reactive powers in the dq reference frame are shown in (3.4) and (3.5). It can be
seen from the equations that the active and reactive power flow, during steady state condition,
is controlled by controlling the d and q component of the current. The aim of the wind turbine
controller is to transfer all the active power extracted by the wind turbine to the grid and keep a
unity power factor at PCC, unless the TSO demands for reactive power. Also the aim of the
STATCOM controller keeps the reactive power flow to the converter to zero unless the TSO
demands another power factor. When STATCOM is used it should help the wind turbine with
reactive power support, sharing the reactive power load.
Stability analysis is important for analyzing the performance of the system. It investigates the
degree of stability of the system i.e. the amount of overshoot and the settling time of the
controller at a step input. In the following section the parameters selection for the controllers
are shown and the controller response for the step in the active power, reactive power and the
voltage.
5.2.1. Current controller tuning

The proportional and integral gain for the PI current controller are calculated as (3.24) and
(3.25) i.e.
𝐾𝑝𝑐 = 𝛼𝑐 • 𝐿 𝐾𝑖𝑐 = 𝛼𝑐 • 𝑅
The d and q component of the current controller have the same gain. The resistance and
inductance of the filter for which the current controller is designed are 0.2167Ω and 6.9mH for
both the wind turbine and the STATCOM. As a rule of thumb, the bandwidth of the current
controller is taken as one tenth of the switching frequency. In this work the converter are not
modeled with switching components and due to this there are no switching frequency to use for
the selection of the current controller bandwidth. In high power converters, like the wind
turbine converter, the switching frequency is usually in 1kHz range and for a STATCOM it is
usually 1.2kHz. However, the bandwidth of the wind turbine current controller selected here is
slower than the mentioned switching frequencies. i.e. 𝛼𝑐,𝑊𝑇 = 300 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 and the bandwidth
of the STATCOM to 𝛼𝑐,𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 500 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
The controller gains are 𝐾𝑝𝑐,𝑊𝑇 = 2.07, 𝐾𝑖𝑐,𝑊𝑇 = 65, 𝐾𝑝𝑐,𝑊𝑇 = 3.45 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝑖𝑐,𝑊𝑇 = 108.35. The
complete model of current controller is shown in figure 5.7. The implemented system is a power
invariant and the output of the current controller Uconv is limited to 1.1•VLL,rms. This saturation
block will limit the output of the current controller and the error will persist for long duration.
This will give an undesired side affect of integral windup and it leads to large overshoots and
42
huge settling times as the integrator will integrate the error. To avoid such affect an anti wind
up strategy has employed. The saturation block and the anti-windup are shown in figure 5.7.
1 +
Kp
- System
+
1 Usync Usync
Ki
s
+ + M M - i
iref + 1
Kp
+ + Uconv Ucon_Lim sLf + Rf
- - P P +
i
ωo jLf jωLf
Figure 5.7: Current controller complete model

The step response in the d and q component of the current controller is shown in the figure 5.9.
It shows that the system is critically damped, having no overshoot and having the rise time
(10% to 90%) of 7.5 ms for the wind turbine controller and 4.39 ms for the STATCOM. The rise
time of a first order system can be calculated as
ln(9)
𝑡𝑟𝑖 =
𝛼
where α is the bandwidth of the first order system. For the wind turbine controller t ri is 7.32 ms
and for the STATCOM is 4.39 ms, which corresponds to the simulated rise time of the simplified
system shown in figure 3.4. The step response is shown in figure 5.9.
43
Figure 5.8: Wind turbine current controller step response
44
Figure 5.9: STATCOM current controller response
5.2.2. Power controller tuning

The active power controller controls the active power transfer to the grid from the dc side of
the wind turbine converter. The controller is a PI regulator whose inputs are the reference
active power and the instantaneous active power at the point of consideration, while its output
is the d-component of the reference current (id), which goes to the d component of the current
controller. The reactive power controller of the wind turbine and the STATCOM controls the
reactive power flow out of the converter and STATCOM. The PI controller inputs are the
reference reactive power and the instantaneous reactive power at the point of consideration.
While, the output is the iq reference going into the q component of the current controller.
45
The closed loop diagrams of the power controller are shown in the figure 3.7 and figure 3.8 and
the proportional and integrator gains are calculated as (3.29) and (3.33), i.e.
𝛼𝑃 𝛼𝑞
𝐾𝑝,𝑃 = 0, 𝐾𝑖,𝑃 = 𝑉 , 𝐾𝑝,𝑄 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝑖,𝑄 = 𝑉 .
𝐿𝐿,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐿𝐿,𝑟𝑚𝑠
The active power controller is the outer controller and when it is designed it was assumed to be
much slower than the current controller. As a rule of thumb, the bandwidth of the outer
controller is taken to be 10 times slower than the inner controller. The bandwidth of the active
power controller (αp) is selected to 30 rad/sec, which gives the integral gain of 0.909. The step
response of the active power controller is shown in figure 5.11 and from the figure the rise time
can be measured to 67ms, which is apparent to the response of the 1st order system
ln(9)
𝑡𝑟𝑖,𝑃 = = 71 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
30
Figure 5.10: Step response of Active power

The reactive power controller of the wind turbine and the STATCOM is the outer controller and
it is designed much slower than the current controller. The bandwidth of the reactive power
controllers of wind turbine and STATCOM (αq,WT and αq,STATCOM) are selected to be 30 rad/sec
and 50 rad/sec, which gives the integral gain of 0.909 and 1.515 respectively. The step response
of the reactive power controllers are shown in figure 5.12 and from this figure the rise time can
be measured to 69 ms and 38 ms, which is apparent to the response of the 1st order system
ln(9) ln(9)
𝑡𝑟𝑖,𝑄,𝑊𝑇 = = 71 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 and 𝑡𝑟𝑖,𝑄,𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑂𝑀 = = 41 𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
30 50
46
Figure 5.11: Reactive power step response from Wind turbine and STATCOM
These step responses are recorded for simplified model of the system shown in figure 3.4 where
the grid is stiff.
5.2.3. Voltage controller

The voltage controller controls the voltage at one point in the system by injecting or absorbing
reactive current in that point. In this work the voltage controller of the wind turbine and the
STATCOM controls the voltage at the PCC. The closed loop diagram of the voltage controller
with droop characteristics is shown in figure 3.10 and the controller gain is selected according to
(3.21) i.e.
47
𝛼𝑉,𝑊𝑇
𝐾𝑝,𝑉 = 0 𝐾𝑖,𝑉,𝑊𝑇 = 𝑋𝑡ℎ
𝛼𝑉,𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑂𝑀
𝐾𝑝,𝑉 = 0 𝐾𝑖,𝑉,𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑂𝑀 = 𝑋𝑡ℎ
The voltage controller is the outer controller and when it is designed it was assumed to be much
slower than the current controller. The bandwidth of the voltage controller of the wind turbine
and the STATCOM (αV,WT and αV,STATCOM) is selected to 30 rad/sec and 50 rad/sec respectively
and gives the integral gain of 8.27 and 13.78. These voltage controllers of the wind turbine and
the STATCOM have droop of 3% and 5% respectively. The Xth is the thevenin equivalent
impedance at the PCC between two parallel branches. The impedance of the one branch equals
to the Xg and the other consists of the over head line impedance, transformer and the filter
which is quite high, that gives the equivalent impedance Xth almost equal to Xg.
During disturbances on the grid the voltage at the PCC changes and the voltage controller has to
regulate the reactive power delivery accordingly. The response of the wind turbine voltage
controller when the grid voltage varies is shown in figure 5.12. While figure 5.13 shown the
combined response from the STATCOM and the wind turbine. These responses are recorded
from the system implemented in the PSCAD. The voltage controller due to droop characteristics
will not able to reach to its reference value as can be seen from the figure.
Voltage response
e_ref e
1.0050
1.0000
0.9950
Voltage [p.u]
0.9900
0.9850
0.9800
0.9750
Time [s] 0.350 0.400 0.450 0.500 0.550 ...
...
...
Figure 5.12: Wind Turbine voltage controller response
48
Figure 5.13: Voltage behavior at PCC
5.2.4. Phase locked loop (PLL)

The PLL is designed having settling time to be ten periods of grid frequency ωn=2π*5 Hz [53] and
with damping ratio (ξ) of 1. From (5.1) the PLL gain can be calculated to, Kp,PLL = 63 and Ki,PLL =
986.
To check the response of the PLL, the bode diagram of the closed loop transfer function is
plotted in figure 5.14. The controller is working in the dq reference frame. The negative
sequence rotates at 100 Hz and from bode diagram the magnitude is 10% at 100 Hz. So, the PLL
is working fine restricting 90% of the negative sequence of voltage.
Figure 5.14: Bode diagram of PLL
Figure 5.15 and figure 5.16 shows the step response and the pole zero map of the PLL closed
loop transfer function shown in figure 3.11. There is an overshoot of 15% in the step response
49
due to presence of the zero in the transfer function. The poles and zero are on the negative real
axis, ensuring the system is stable and damped.
Figure 5.15: PLL step response
Figure 5.16: PLL pole zero map

To check the reliability of the PLL some tests have been done by applying frequency and phase
shift steps to the grid voltage. A frequency step was applied to the grid voltage i.e. the
frequency of the grid is shifted from 50 Hz to 51 Hz and the response of the PLL is shown in
figure 5.17 where the maximum angle error is 17.4 radians and the settling time of 54msec. The
PLL was able to track the phase of grid voltage and thereby make Vq = 0 at the point of
synchronization. Figure 5.18 shows the results when phase step of 120o is applied to the three
phase grid voltage. It can be seen that the PLL was able to track the angle ‘θ’ of the grid with the
settling time of 32msec and maximum angle error of -32 radians. The angle error will cause the
deviation in the voltage and in the power from the reference values and are explained in the
next section.
50
Figure 5.17: PLL response after frequency jump
120 degree phase jump
Va Vb Vc
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
Voltage [kV]
10.0
5.0
0.0
-5.0
-10.0
-15.0
-20.0
Time [s] 0.35830 0.35840 0.35850 0.35860 0.35870 ...
...
...
Figure 5.18: 1200 phase jump and PLL response to phase jump
51
5.3. System behavior
The behavior of the system can be studied for the step in active power, reactive power and drop
in the grid voltage which will act as the voltage step for the voltage controller. The response of
the PLL at synchronizing point and the active power, reactive power and the voltage at the PCC
is recorded for these step changes.
The active power step of 10MW is applied and the response of the active power, reactive power
and the voltage at the PCC is shown in the figure 5.19 along the PLL response at synchronizing
point. The active power at the PCC increases as the first order exponential function. The PLL
losses its synchronization with the grid voltage and it results in increase in the angle error as
shown in the figure. The PLL tracks the grid voltage and makes the angle error almost to zero in
0.2 seconds. This disturbance in the angle error produces the variation in the reactive power
and the voltage at the PCC and they dies out when PLL puts the error back to zero. The steady
state reactive power flow to the grid decreases when the active power step is applied. It is due
to the increase in the reactive losses when the flow of current increases in the system.
The response of the PLL at synchronizing point and the active power, reactive power and the
voltage at PCC are shown in the figure 5.20 for the step of 10MVAr in the reactive power. The
reactive power and the voltage at PCC behaves as the first order exponential function for
reactive power step while the PLL fails to track the voltage and it is shown as the deviation in
the angle error. This deviation in the angle error will cause the disturbance in the active power
which dies out when PLL puts the angle error to zero. Comparing the figure 5.19 with the figure
5.20, it is to mention that the reactive power step will boost the voltage but will not cause any
deviation in the steady state active power flow but the step in the active power will cause the
reactive losses in the system due to which the steady state voltage and the reactive power will
decrease at the PCC.
The behavior of the voltage, active and reactive power at the PCC and the PLL at synchronizing
point are shown in the figure 5.21 when voltage controller responds to the grid voltage
variation. The drop in the grid voltage will drop the active power and the voltage at PCC and the
PLL loses its synchronism. The voltage controller respond by increasing the reactive current and
the reactive power rises exponentially at the PCC. It will increase the active power back to its
previous steady state value. The voltage at the PCC doesn’t reach to its reference value due to
the droop characteristic in the voltage controller. And the PLL puts the error back to zero in 50
msec.
52
Response for Active pow er step
P_grid
20.0
16.0
Active Power [MW]
12.0
8.0
4.0
0.0
V_grid
33.080
Grid Voltage [kV]
33.040
33.000
32.960
Q_grid
10.20
Reactive power [MVAr]
10.00
9.80
9.60
9.40
angle error
0.0150
angle error [radians]
0.0100
0.0050
0.0000
-0.0050
Time[s] 2.00 2.10 2.20 2.30 2.40 2.50 2.60 2.70 2.80 ...
...
...
Figure 5.19: System behavior for active power step
53
Response for Reactive pow er step
P_grid
0.075
0.050
Active Power [MW]
0.025
0.000
-0.025
-0.050
-0.075
-0.100
-0.125
V_grid
33.00
Grid Voltage [kV]
32.80
32.60
32.40
Q_grid
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
angle error
0.0000
-0.0020
-0.0040
Time[s] 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 ...
...
...
Figure 5.20: System behavior for reactive power step
54
Response for grid voltage variation
P_grid
20.10
Active Power [MW]
20.00
19.90
19.80
19.70
19.60
19.50
19.40
19.30
V_grid
33.00
Grid Voltage [kV]
32.90
32.80
32.70
32.60
32.50
32.40
Q_grid
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
angle error
0.070
0.060
0.050
0.040
0.030
0.020
0.010
0.000
-0.010
Time[s] 0.900 0.950 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 ...
...
...
Figure 5.21: System behavior for grid voltage variation
55
Chapter 6
6. Results and discussion

6.1. Introduction
The transmission system operators (TSOs) demand wind farms to maintain a power factor in the
specified range during normal operation. They maintain zero reactive power exchange at the
PCC during normal operation. The reactive power controls the PCC voltage through reactive
power controller i.e. MVAr/kV. Also, the PCC voltage can be controlled through voltage
controller that is implemented in this thesis along with reactive power controller.
The VSC can independently control the active and reactive power. In this chapter, the
performance and capability of the wind farm is studied as a function of the transmission line
length. The ability of the wind farm to transfer reactive power to PCC as a function of its length
is investigated. When line length increases from certain level the wind farm converter starts
taking reactive power from the grid. The shunt compensator is installed at PCC that can
maintain zero reactive power to the converter. This chapter also studies the dynamic response
of the reactive power controller when TSO requires reactive power from the wind farm.
The reactive current in the system is controlled either by reactive power controller or voltage
controller. The voltage controller controls the voltage at the PCC and responds to any variation
in voltage. This chapter also studies the dynamic response of the voltage controller for any
change in PCC voltage, the voltage support from the wind farm as a function of line length and
voltage variation.
6.2. System capability and performance

System capability can be stated as the ability of the system to deliver maximum power to the
PCC while meeting the requirements of the grid codes i.e. the maximum power delivery to the
PCC without causing any inadequate effect on the grid performance. In this section the
maximum reactive power transfer to the PCC as a function of the transmission line length is
studied when wind farm is delivering active power of 80MW. The reactive power at the PCC as a
function of the transmission line length is shown in the figure 6.1.
56
Reactive power at PCC as a function of
transmission line length
15
Reactive power (MVAr) 10

5
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-10
-15
-20
-25
Transmission line (km)
Figure 6.1: Reactive power at PCC as function of line length

From figure 6.1 it is observe
 For transmission line length of 12km, 80 MW can be delivered to the PCC keeping the
zero or positive reactive power transfer to the PCC
 For larger length of the transmission line the reactive losses in the line increases and
reactive power starts flowing from the grid to the wind turbine converter
We can notice that the reactive losses increases with the line length. When wind farm is not
able to maintain positive or zero reactive power transfer at PCC it requires shunt compensator
(STATCOM). The reactive power delivery from the wind farm and the size of the STATCOM
require as a function of transmission line is explained in the next section.
6.3. Reactive power delivery as function of transmission line length

The maximum amount of reactive power delivery from the wind turbine converter and the
retained reactive at the PCC as a function of the transmission line is shown in figure 6.2, while
80MW of the active power is transferred to the PCC. The wind farm converter provides the
maximum reactive power support, while the retained reactive power at the PCC decreases as
the reactive losses increases in the line. The wind farm converter is able to deliver reactive
power or retain zero reactive power transfer at the PCC up to line length of 12 km. But further
increase in the transmission line will increase the reactive losses and the reactive power at the
PCC becomes negative i.e. it starts flowing towards the converter.
57
50
40

30
20
10 FPC output
0 PCC
-10 0 10 20 30 40
-20
-30
Transmision line length [km]
Figure 6.2: Reactive power as a function of line length

The wind farm system shall maintain zero reactive power exchange during normal operation.
For higher transmission line lengths it require shunt compensator at the PCC that can provide
reactive power compensation and maintain at least zero reactive power transfer at the PCC as
shown in the figure 6.3.
50
40
30
20
PCC
10
Converter output
0
STATCOM support
-10 0 10 20 30 40
-20
-30
Transmission line length [km]
Figure 6.3: Reactive power at PCC with STATCOM support

The reactive losses increase with its length and huge compensation is required to compensate
these losses. The support from the STATCOM required as a function of line length is shown in
the figure 6.4. It can be seen that 5MVAr is required from STATCOM when transmission line
length is 5km and the requirement rises to 50MVAr for line length of 35 km. Further increase in
the line length will require huge size of STATCOM and might be uneconomical.
58
60
50
40
MVAr 30
20 STATCOM ratings
10
0
15 20 25 30 35
Transmission line length [km]
Figure 6.4: STATCOM required as function of line length
6.4. Reactive power transient response

The wind farm maintains zero reactive power transfer at PCC while delivering the active power
during normal operation, but due to increasing penetration of wind power in the power system
TSO may demand for additional reactive power. The NGET has set criteria for the reactive power
step response as explained in chapter 4. In this thesis the step response in the reactive power
shouldn’t alter the criteria set by the NGET.
The maximum step in the reactive power is applied that can be provided by the wind farm
converter when PCC is at unity power factor. The response of the reactive power, voltage and
the active power at the PCC is shown in figure 6.5 for 5 km line and in figure 6.6 for 10 km line.
The reactive power and voltage at PCC has neither overshoot nor oscillations and takes almost
200 ms in reaching its reference value following the NGET criteria. A small disturbance in the
active power is due to PLL angle error as explained in section 5.3. These responses are recorded
when wind farm is operating without STATCOM. For higher line lengths the STATCOM is
connected at the PCC and the step in reactive power is applied from the reactive power
controller of the STATCOM.
59
Figure 6.5: Reactive power step response and active power behavior for 5 km line
60
Figure 6.6: Reactive power step response for 10km line
For zero reactive power transfer at PCC, the wind farm and the STATCOM provides reactive
power of 34.57 MVAr and 5 MVAr respectively while delivering 80 MW of the active power on
15 km line length. If a step in reactive power is applied from the STATCOM, the behavior of
active and reactive power and the voltage at PCC is shown in the figure 6.7. The active power
responds in the same manner as that of 5 and 10 km line. The voltage and the reactive power at
PCC have no overshoot and takes almost 300 ms in reaching its final value. The oscillation is due
61
to parallel operation of the reactive power controller of STATCOM and wind farm having
different bandwidths.
Figure 6.7: Response of reactive power step in STATCOM for 15 km line

For zero reactive power transfer at the PCC on 20 km line, the wind farm converter and the
STATCOM provides reactive power of 35.66 MVAr and 11.38 MVAr respectively. If a reactive
power step is applied from the STATCOM, the active power, reactive power and the voltage at
the PCC respond in same manner as that of the 15 km line.
62
Figure 6.8: Response of reactive power step in STATCOM for 20 km line
6.5. Voltage controller transient response

The voltage controller regulates the voltage at the PCC by controlling the reactive current and
responds to any variation at PCC. The ideal response from the wind farm voltage controller is
shown in figure 6.9, when the grid voltage drops the reactive current from the converter rises to
boost the voltage at PCC to its nominal value. However, the support from the voltage controller
depends on the amount of the reactive power that can be offered by the converter and on the
grid strength.
63
Figure 6.9: Required response from the Voltage controller
The transient response of the voltage at PCC and the reactive power at synchronization point
when voltage at PCC drops to 0.8 pu are shown in figure 6.10, 6.11 and 6.12 for 1 km, 5 km and
10 km transmission line respectively. The wind turbine is delivering 80 MW of the active power
to the PCC. The response on 1 km and 5 km line has no overshoot and small oscillations with a
rise time of 20 ms, while on 10 km line there is a small overshoot and has a rise time of 11 ms.
The increase in the transmission line reduces the response time, though the reactive power at
the point of synchronization remain at the same level. The increase in line length increases the
reactive losses and decreases the available reactive power that can be delivered to PCC. The
difference between the required and available reactive power changes the rise time.
64
Figure 6.10: Voltage response for 1km line when grid voltage drops to 0.8p.u
Figure 6.11: Voltage response on 5km line when grid voltage drops to 0.8p.u
65
Figure 6.12: Voltage response on 10km line when grid voltage drops to 0.8p.u
As the transmission line increases, the wind farm not able to provide the required reactive
power support and demands shunt compensator i.e. STATCOM. The size of the STATCOM
depends on the transmission line length as explained earlier, on magnitude of the voltage
variation at the PCC and on the strength of the grid. The transient response of the voltage at
PCC with STATCOM is shown in the figure 6.13 that has neither overshoot nor oscillation with
response time (51 ms) quick than the one shown in the figure 6.9 (110 ms).
The wind farm and STATCOM voltage controller support during disturbances is discussed in next
section. It depends on length of transmission line, voltage variation at PCC and on grid strength.
Huge STATCOM are required to handle variation on larger length line. These STATCOM being
expensive restricts us to study the voltage controllers for grid voltage variation of 0.7 pu with
maximum transmission line of 10 km.
66
Figure 6.13: Voltage and reactive power response with STATCOM support
6.6. Voltage control as a function line length and voltage variation

The wind farm voltage controller controls the voltage at the PCC by controlling the reactive
current. The steady state voltage at the PCC are shown in figures 6.14, 6.15 and 6.16 for 1 km, 5
km and 10 km transmission line respectively when grid voltage drops to different levels. These
figures also show the active and reactive power at the PCC. The support from the wind farm
decreases with the increase of transmission line. As the length of the line increases it results in
more losses and less reactive power transfer to the PCC to support the voltage. The wind farm
converter delivers 80MW of the active power to the grid and supports the system with reactive
power when grid voltage drops. But when it drops to 0.7 pu the reactive power demand rises to
a level that wind farm converter hit its current and voltage limits that results in the reduction of
the active power delivery to the PCC.
67
V, P and Q at PCC active power reactive power
34 90
80
33
70
MW & MVAr at PCC

32
60
PCC voltage[kV]
31 50
30 40
30
29
20
28
10
27 0
35 30 25 20 33 29.7 26.4 23.1
Grid Voltage [kV] Grid volatge (p.u.)
Figure 6.14: Voltage, active and reactive power at PCC for 1 km line
V, P and Q at PCC active ppwer reactive power
90
34 80
70
MW & MVAr at PCC
32
PCC voltage [kV]
60
30
50
28 40
26 30
24 20
22 10
0
20
33 29.7 26.4 23.1
35 30 25 20
Grid Voltage (p.u.)
Grid voltage [kV]
Figure 6.15: Voltage, Active and Reactive power at PCC for 5 km line
68
V, P and Q at PCC Active power Reactive power
90
34 80
70
MW & MVAr at PCC

32
60
PCC voltage [kV]
30
50
28
40
26
30
24 20
22 10
20 0
35 30 25 20 33 29.7 26.4 23.1
Grid voltage [kV] Grid Voltage (p.u.)
Figure 6.16: Voltage, Active and Reactive power at PCC for 10 km line
The TSOs require fault ride through capability from wind farms and doesn’t demand to boost
the voltage to a certain level during faults. But in this thesis the wind farm system boosts the
voltage at PCC to a level say 0.9 pu retaining the active power delivery during faults. The shunt
compensator (STATCOM) is required most of the times to provide the required support. The
STATCOM required to cope with disturbances on 1 km line is shown in the figure 6.17. This
figure shows the reactive support provided by the wind farm converter and by the STATCOM
that keeps the voltage to 0.9p.u at PCC and retains the active power delivery of 80MW.
Figure 6.18 and 6.19 shows the required STATCOM support and the contributions from wind
farm converter at PCC on 5 km and 10 km line. The increase in the line length and voltage drop,
demands larger sized STATCOM. The reactive power at PCC from wind farm converter reduces
from 40MVAr to 32MVAr and to 14MVAr as the transmission line increases from 1km to 5km
and to 10km and when grid voltage is 0.7 pu which shows the increase in reactive losses with
transmission line length.
69
Transmission line = 1km
Active power = 80MW
50
MVAr required at PCC

40
30
Wind farm
20 converter
10 STATCOM
0
1 0.9 0.8 0.7
Grid Voltage (p.u.)
Figure 6.17: Reactive power at PCC on 1km line
Transmission line = 5km

Active power = 80MW
35
30
25
20 Wind Farm
15 converter
10
STATCOM
5
0
1 0.9 0.8 0.7
Grid Voltage (p.u.)
Transmission line length = 10km

Active power transfer = 80MW
60
50
40
30 Wind Farm
converter
20
10 STATCOM
0
1 0.9 0.8 0.7
Grid Voltage (p.u.)
70
To cope with large voltage variation on long length line huge STATCOM is required, which
means enormous investment. The size of the STATCOM can be reduced if TSOs allow the wind
farm to decrease its active power production during faults in order to increase the reactive
power support from the wind farm converter. The reduction in active power production reduces
the line losses and wind farm converter can feed the system with more reactive power as shown
in figure 6.20. When grid voltage is at 0.7 pu, the active power reduction increases the reactive
power support from the wind farm converter and reduces the requirement from the STATCOM.
Grid Voltage = 0.7 pu

60
50
40
30
Wind Farm converter
20 STATCOM
10
0
80 60 40
Active power [MW]
Figure 6.20: Affect of active power reduction on 10 km line
6.7. Conclusion
The amount of reactive power delivered to the PCC by wind farm converter depends on the
transmission line length. The losses increase with its length thereby decreasing the reactive
power delivery to the PCC. Shunt compensators are needed when length of line increases to a
level that it starts taking reactive power from the grid. The size of the shunt compensator
depends on the length of the transmission line, voltage variation and on strength of the grid.
The wind farm controls the reactive power through reactive power controller but by using the
voltage controller the wind farm can provide the quick support as it monitors the voltage at the
PCC.
71
72
Conclusions
This thesis studies the ability of the turbine to support the system with reactive power and its
contribution to the PCC voltage as function of the distance from the connection point. The need
of STATCOM is investigated when turbine fails to provide the required support due to large
distance from the connection point. The type IV wind turbine is used in this thesis which
decouples the generator from the grid and independently controls the active and reactive
power flow to the grid, thus giving greater fault tolerance and fault ride through capability.
In order to study the behavior of the system, the grid side converter of type IV wind turbine is
modeled in PSCAD/EMTDC software and prepared model of transformer and overhead line is
taken from its library. The cascaded control of the grid side converter is based on power
invariant and voltage oriented dq-frame, with inner current controller and outer voltage and
power controllers. The focus of this thesis is reactive power control so the system is simplified
by changing the IGBT switches and DC link capacitor with DC switches while the DC link voltage
controller with active power controller. The reactive power is controlled either by reactive
power controller or voltage controller.
The results of this thesis are shown in chapter 6, where the ability of type IV wind turbine to
deliver maximum reactive power to the PCC as a function of overhead line length is discussed.
STATCOM is required when reactive power due to large overhead line length starts to flow
towards wind farm converter from the grid. The STATCOM ratings depends on the length of the
overhead line. Also STATCOM is required most of the times to support the system voltage
during faults.
It can be concluded from the results of this thesis that
 Type IV wind turbine can maintain unity power factor for transmission line length up to
12 km
 Shunt compensation is required for higher transmission line length
 The size of the shunt compensator depends on the length of the line, the voltage
variation on the grid and the grid strength
 The reactive power support from the wind turbine can be increased by reducing the
active power output (if TSOs allow it) which reduces the required reactive support from
STATCOM
73
74
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80
Appendix A
Transformation for three phase system

I. Transformation from 3 phase (abc ) to 2 phase (α-β) system
Three phase system consisting of Ua, Ub and Uc, can be described as an equivalent two phase
system Uα and Uβ. The three phase/two phase transformation is given by:
2 1 1 𝑢𝑎 (𝑡)
𝑢 (𝑡) −3 −3
[ 𝛼 ] = 𝐾[3 1 1 ] [𝑢𝑏 (𝑡)] (A.1)
𝑢𝛽 (𝑡) 0
√3 √3 𝑢𝑐 (𝑡)
The inverse transformation is given by:

1 0
𝑢𝑎 (𝑡) 1 √3 𝑢 (𝑡)
[𝑢𝑏 (𝑡)] = 𝐾 − 2
1 𝛼
2 [ ] (A.2)
𝑢𝛽 (𝑡)
𝑢𝑐 (𝑡) 1 √3
[− 2 − 2]
The scaling constant K depends on the application. The three standards are:
Amplitude invariant scaling: K=1
3
Power invariant scaling: K = √2
1
RMS-value scaling: K =
√2
In this thesis work, power invariant transformation is used, so (A.1) and (A.2) becomes:
√
2
−
1
−
1 𝑢𝑎 (𝑡)
𝑢 (𝑡)
[ 𝛼 ]=[ 3 √6 √6] [𝑢 (𝑡)]
𝑏 (A.3)
𝑢𝛽 (𝑡) 1 1
0 𝑢𝑐 (𝑡)
√2 √2
2
√ 0
𝑢𝑎 (𝑡) 3
𝑢𝛼 (𝑡)
[ 𝑏 ]= − 1
𝑢 (𝑡) 1 [ ] (A.4)
√6 √2 𝑢𝛽 (𝑡)
𝑢𝑐 (𝑡) 1 1
[ − √6 −
√2 ]
81
The three phase voltage system and the voltage system in αβ are shown in the figure A.1. The
ratio of the peak value in αβ to the peak in abc gives the value of scaling factor K.
Figure A.1: Voltage system in abc and αβ
II. Transformation from αβ to d-q coordinate system

In the αβ plane, the vector rotates with angular frequency of 𝜔(𝑡) in positive direction for
positive three phase system. While in dq plane, the coordinate system rotates with angular
frequency of 𝜔(𝑡) in the positive direction and the voltage component remains constant, which
gives easier analysis and control of the system and determine of the transients.
Figure A.2: voltage vector at time t and t+dt
The transformation from positive sequence αβ to dq and the inverse can be written as:
𝑢𝑑𝑝 (𝑡) cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑢𝛼 (𝑡)
[ ]=[ ][ ] (A.5)
𝑢𝑑𝑞 (𝑡) −sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑢𝛽 (𝑡)
82
𝑢 (𝑡) cos 𝜃 −sin 𝜃 𝑢𝑑𝑝 (𝑡)
[ 𝛼 ]=[ ][ ] (A.6)
𝑢𝛽 (𝑡) sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑢𝑑𝑞 (𝑡)
The voltage in abc, αβ and dq is shown in the figure A.2:
Figure A.2: Voltage vector is three coordinates
The instantaneous active and reactive power can be written as:

𝑃 = 𝑢𝑎 𝑖𝑎 +𝑢𝑏 𝑖𝑏 +𝑢𝑐 𝑖𝑐 (A.7)
1
𝑄= [𝑢𝑎 (𝑖𝑐 − 𝑖𝑏 ) + 𝑢𝑏 (𝑖𝑎 − 𝑖𝑐 )+𝑢𝑐 (𝑖𝑏 − 𝑖𝑎 )] (A.8)
√3
Power invariant transformation from abc to dq, we get

𝑃 = 𝑢𝑑 𝑖𝑑 + 𝑢𝑞 𝑖𝑞 (A.9)
𝑄 = −𝑢𝑑 𝑖𝑞 + 𝑢𝑞 𝑖𝑑 (A.10)
83
Appendix B
Normalized (Per-Unit) values

It is common practice to use per unit values in electric power engineering. Normalization is done
on set of base values, which accounts for the normal operation of the system. The base values
for the voltage and the power are
𝑈𝑏 = 33𝑘𝑣 (B.1)
𝑆𝑏 = 100𝑀𝑉𝐴 (B.2)
Ub is the line to line rms value of the grid voltage and Sbase is the rating of transformer. The base
value of the current, considering power invariant scaling is given by:
2𝐾2 𝑆𝑏 𝑆
𝐼𝑏 = = 𝑈𝑏 = 3.03𝑘𝐴 (B.3)
3 𝑈𝑏 𝑏
The base value of the impedance is then obtained as:

𝑈𝑏 𝑈𝑏2
𝑍𝑏 = = = 10.89𝛺 (B.4)
𝐼𝑏 𝑆𝑏
84

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Impact of the Overhead Line Length on the Reactive

Power Support from Type IV Wind Turbine

Department of Energy and Environment

©Abdul Basit, 2011

Department of Energy and Environment

Chalmers Bibiliotek, Reproservice

2.1.Wind energy conversion

where 𝐶𝑝 is the power coefficient of a wind turbine.

2.1.1. Pitch control

2.1.2. Stall control

Figure 2.1: Power curve: theoretical (star) and measured (solid)

2.1.3. Fixed speed wind turbine

2.1.4. Variable speed wind turbine

2.2.Wind turbine topologies

2.2.1. Type I: Fixed speed wind turbine

Figure 2.3: Type I wind turbine

2.2.2. Type II: Limited variable speed wind turbine

Figure 2.4: Type II wind turbines

Power Electronic Converter

Figure 2.5: Type III wind turbine

2.2.4. Type IV: Full power converter wind turbine

Figure 2.6: Type IV wind turbine

2.3.Factors affecting the wind power penetration

3. Type IV wind turbine

3.1.Modeling of the type IV wind turbine for grid studies

Speed Current Power

Figure 3.1: Model and Control of Type IV wind turbine

Figure 3.2: Grid side converter control of TYPE IV wind turbine

ub(t) uβ(t) d-axis ω(t)

uα(t) α-axis, a-axis

Figure 3.3: abc, αβ and dq reference frames

where k is a scaling factor and explained in appendix A.

et u’dq - udq idq

Figure 3.5: Current controller model

idq,ref et u’dq udq 1 idq

Figure 3.6: Simplified Current Controller model

3.4.The outer controllers

3.4.1. Active power controller

Figure 3.7: The active power controller model

as 𝑣𝑑 at point of synchronization equals to the line to line rms voltage, so

3.4.2. Reactive power controller

Figure 3.8: The reactive power controller model

3.4.3. Voltage controller

Vref,pu et Iq,ref pu Iq pu Vpu

Figure 3.9: Voltage controller model

Figure 3.10: Voltage controller model with droop

3.5.Phase locked loop

Figure 3.11: Phase Locked Loop block diagram

𝑣𝑞 = 𝐼𝑚{|𝑣|(cos(𝜃𝑔 − 𝜃) + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑔 − 𝜃))} = |𝑣|𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑔 − 𝜃) (3.41)

Figure 3.12: PLL block diagram

4. Grid Codes for the Wind Farms

4.1. Active power regulation

47.5 – 49 95 – 105 < 5 % reduction

Eltra and Elkraft E.ON NGET

47.5-48 85% ≤10min

1.05 Operating point

Active power (p.u)

80 Point B(in Mvar)