Received: 26 April 2017 Revised: 17 November 2017 Accepted: 20 November 2017

DOI: 10.1002/ldr.2863

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Land degradation effects initiated by trail running events in an

urban protected area of Hong Kong
Sai‐Leung Ng1 | Yu‐Fai Leung2 | Suet‐Yi Cheung3 | Wei Fang3

1
Centre for Environmental Policy and
Resource Management, The Chinese Abstract
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Trail degradation is a common management problem in protected areas, especially those that
2
Department of Parks, Recreation and accommodate high levels of trail users or organized sporting events. Trail running became popular
Tourism Management, College of Natural in Hong Kong in the early 2000s, with a number of trail running events involving large numbers of
Resources, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC 27695‐7106, USA
runners organized in recent years. Although trail competitions are believed to produce very
3
Department of Geography and Resource
intense impacts on trails and their surrounding environments, limited research exists to quantify
Management, The Chinese University of Hong and characterize these impacts to inform policy and management responses. This study
Kong, Hong Kong empirically examined and evaluated the impacts generated by a running competition on a remote
Correspondence trail in Hong Kong. Results indicated that a running competition can cause significant initial
S.‐L. Ng, Centre for Environmental Policy and
degradation on the trail. Although some degradation features (e.g., incision) can recover in
Resource Management, The Chinese
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. 6 months, some negative effects (e.g., soil coarsening) can persist or worsen. It is recommended
Email: slng@cuhk.edu.hk that trail running competitions should be regulated in protected areas in terms of both number
Funding information of events and number of participants. Trail maintenance is crucially important for keeping the
Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation
protected areas in good condition.
Department of Hong Kong SAR Government;
Hong Kong Research Grants Council, Grant/
Award Number: CUHK 14304114 KEY W ORDS

hiking trail, protected areas, sporting events, trail degradation, trail running

1 | I N T RO D U CT I O N Commonly reported features of degradation include track

Trails in natural areas can be viewed as disturbance corridors that can
fragment landscapes and introduce invasive species, but they are
common in many protected areas established for multiple values such
as conservation, scenic quality, and recreation. Trails provide valuable
ecosystem services such as opportunities for outdoor recreation,
physical activity and heath, and nature learning. Trails as a recreation
infrastructure in protected landscapes also serve an important function
of limiting human “footprints” or use impacts to intended linear
corridors. The quality of these ecosystem services and the perfor-
mance of trail's resource protection function are highly dependent on
the conditions of trails and their corridors. Degradation of trails,
however, is a management challenge in many protected areas (Hawes,
Candy, & Dixon, 2006). Causes are many, and they vary across
protected areas. Examples include poor trail design or alignment, lack
of maintenance, and amount and type of human traffic. These factors
also interact with pedology, topography, vegetation, rainfall, and other
environmental attributes to influence trail conditions (Leung & Marion,
1996; Marion & Wimpey, 2017; Wemple, et al, 2001; Wilson & Senley,
1994).
widening, erosion and incision, braiding, and soil compaction (Leung
& Marion, 1996). These features constitute an increasingly common
form of land degradation, even in our most valued and protected land-
scapes and habitats (Barrow, 1991; Chatterjea, 2007; Desprats et al.,
2013; Lal, 2001). Specifically, trail degradation features compromise
natural and recreational values of protected areas, are typically expen-
sive to repair, and may invite user behavior that could exacerbate the
impacts (Burde & Renfro, 1986). Trail degradation occurs in almost all
continents around the world such as the North America (Deluca,
Patterson Iv, Freimund, & Cole, 1998; Svajda, Korony, Brighton, Esser,
& Ciapala, 2016), Europe (Schaller, 2014; Tomczyk & Ewertowski,
2011), South America (Farrell & Marion, 2002), Africa (Garland,
1987), Oceania (Dixon, Hawes, & McPherson, 2004), and Asia (Napel,
2003; Schaller, 2014), including Hong Kong (Leung & Neller, 1995).
In Hong Kong, 24 country parks, accounting for approximately
40% of the Territory's land area, have been designated for the pur-
poses of nature conservation and countryside recreation. Zoning
achieved such purposes, with recreation concentrated in accessible
periphery zones and interior wilderness zones dedicated to nature
and watershed protection (Jim, 1989). The number of visitors to

Land Degrad Dev. 2017;1–11. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ldr Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1
2 NG
country parks increased significantly from 2.36 million in 1976 (Hong
Kong Country Parks Authority, 1997) to 11.07 million in 2014 (Agricul-
ture, Fisheries and Conservation Department, 2016b). The country
parks attract visitors because of their beautiful scenery, fresh air, and
as places for outdoor recreational activities (Cheung, 2013; Jim,
1989). Like other urban protected area systems, country parks in Hong
Kong generate a multitude of benefits to its 7.3 million urban popula-
tion and tourists (Trzyna, 2014).
For the convenience and benefit of visitors, a network of trails,
consisting of four long hiking trails (total length = 298 km) and 63 short
trails such as family walks and educational trails, have been established
in the country parks (Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Depart-
ment, 2016a). Not only do these trails serve the recreation role, they
are also an essential strategy for nature conservation by directing
and restricting visitor use pressure to trail corridors. As such, judicious
planning of trail networks and maintenance of their conditions are
crucial for both recreation and conservation objectives.
In the early days, hiking and leisure walking were the most popular
recreational activities performed by country park visitors (Jim, 1989).
Degradation of highly popular hiking trails was identified and assessed
(Leung & Neller, 1995). Trampling was believed to be the most
prevalent impact of recreation. After trail running was introduced to
Hong Kong in the early 2000s, individual trail runners started to appear
on various hiking or walking trails in country parks. As trail running has
gained popularity in Hong Kong, organized trail running events, such as
trail running competitions, have emerged in recent years, some with
large numbers of participants. The number of trail running events
increased dramatically from 10 in 2008 to 64 in 2015 (Asia Trail
Magazine, 2015). Furthermore, these events have continued to grow
in size. For example, KOTH Taipo Mountain Marathon attracted 204
participants in 2005, increasing to 545 in 2014 (King of The Hills,
2015). Action Asia Events‐Lantau had 116 participants in 2007 and
554 in 2014 (Action Asia Events, 2015a). Because organized trail
running competitions have proved to be profitable (registration fees
can be as high as US$400 per participant), there is a growing number
of requests from competition organizers to open more trails for such
events.
This situation poses new challenges to country park and trail
managers in Hong Kong. First, trail runners are believed to produce
more intensive trampling impacts on the trail when compared to other
trail users such as hikers. Second, hiking trails, which originally were
designed for hikers, may not be able to absorb impacts caused by com-
petitive trail runners. Third, the impacts may be further exacerbated
because a trail running event involves a large number of trail runners
in a very short period of time (i.e., 1 or 2 days). To manage trails
effectively, managers need to obtain timely and reliable information
on trail conditions and rates of degradation (Cole, 2004; Marion &
TABLE 1 Sampling scheme of the study
Time framework
Before the competition
1 day after the competition
1 month after the competition
7 months after the competition
ET AL.
Leung, 2011). However, no scientific data are available as no efforts
have addressed this issue in Hong Kong.
Similar trends of adventure racing and sporting events have also
been reported in other countries such as Australia, New Zealand, and
the United States (Burgin & Hardiman, 2012; Marion, Arredondo, &
Eagleston, 2016; Newsome, 2014). Although the existing literature
provides plentiful information about the impacts caused by hikers or
hiking activities (Marion & Wimpey, 2017), there is a limited number
of studies that empirically investigate the impacts caused by organized
trail running or other sporting events. Marion et al. (2016) identified
only a few published papers on this topic, and none employed a
before‐and‐after study design. To fill this gap, Marion et al. (2016)
applied quadrat assessment of ground vegetative cover, exposed soil,
and litter cover before and after three adventure racing events in the
eastern United States. They identified significant decreases in litter
cover in all three events, but vegetation loss and increased soil expo-
sure only occurred in a small number of quadrats. Given the soaring
trends of adventure racing events and their conservation ramifications,
Newsome (2014) emphasized the importance of appropriate policy
development and research in response to such events in protected
areas.
To address the research and practical needs, this study adopted a
before‐and‐after approach to empirically examine and evaluate the
impacts caused by a trail running competition in a Hong Kong country
park. Specifically, the objectives of this study are threefold: one, to
quantify the nature and extent of impacts caused by a trail running
competition; two, to identify prolonged or extended impacts after
the competition; three, to evaluate whether or the trail will recover
after 7 months. Results and findings of this study can provide refer-
ence for the management of protected areas in Hong Kong and other
countries in the world.
2 | METHODS
2.1 | Study design and location
As mentioned, this study adopted a before‐and‐after approach to
examine and evaluate the impacts caused by a trail running competi-
tion event (Table 1). Baseline conditions were studied 3 weeks before
the event and immediate impacts 1 day after the event. By comparing
the measurements and samples immediately before and after the
event, it is possible examine the immediate and initial impacts caused
by the competition. A third measurement was conducted 1 month
after the competition to identify prolonged or worsening impacts.
The last measurement was conducted 7 months after the competition
to evaluate to what extent the trail can recover.
Scenario represented
Baseline
Immediate impacts caused by the competition
Prolonged impacts caused by the competition
The recovery of the trail
NG ET AL. 3

The competition “MSIG HK50 – 2015” was a 1 day event, orga-

nized by Action Asia Events on November 8, 2015 (Action Asia
Events, 2015a). The event attracted 423 participants (Action Asia
Events, 2015b). The length of the route was 50 km. It started at the
Peak Road Garden, passed through five country parks (namely, Lung
Fu Shan Country Park, Pok Fu Lam Country Park, Aberdeen Country
Park, Tai Tam Quarry Bay Country Park, and Tai Tam Country Park),
and ended at Wong Nai Chung Reservoir Park (Figure 1). In recent
years, these country parks have become popular for organized sport
events. For instance, only in Tai Tam Country Park, 6 trail running
events have been taken place from September to December 2015
(Wang, 2015).
Because Hong Kong experiences a subtropical monsoon climate
with an average annual rainfall of approximately 2,400 mm, secondary
woodland is generally established in the country park. Vegetation is
characterized by a few exotic wood species (e.g., Acacia confusa and
FIGURE 2 Gradient of studied trail
Lophostemon confertus), mixed with some broad‐leaf woods and shrub
species. The area is dominated by granite, but tuff can be found above
2.2 | Sampling, assessment, and statistical analysis
the elevation of 300 m.
A segment of the competition route (length = 1,059 m, eleva- An integrated sampling scheme, consisting of systematic point
tion = 201–460 m, aspect = north facing; Figure 1) located at Tai sampling and census‐based sampling established in the trail research
Tam Country Park was selected for this study for two reasons. First, literature (Marion & Leung, 2011; Mende & Newsome, 2006; Nepal,
no running competition has ever taken place on this trail segment 2003), was adopted to assess the trail conditions in this study. The
before. Second, this segment is not popular among hikers and other systematic point sampling records trail condition at sampling points
users because it is relatively remote and steep in gradient (Figure 2). distributed at a fixed interval along a trail with a random start (Leung
Therefore, by controlling the precedent condition of the trail and elim- & Burroughs, 2015; Marion & Leung, 2011). There were 38 sampling
inating the effects from hikers, the results can more accurately reflect points in the studied trail and 27 points in control trail. At each sam-
the impacts generated by the trail running competition. Parallel to the pling point, tread morphology (width and incision), surface composi-
studied trail, another trail segment (length = 447 m), similar and parallel tion, and soil compaction were determined using the methods as
to the studied trail but not part of the competition, was selected as a described by Marion and Leung (2011). Topographic variables (grade
control. Both the control and studied trails are unpaved and not regu- and aspect of trail and terrain) were also recorded for reference.
larly maintained by the authority. In other words, these trails will not Among these sampling points, the top 5‐cm soil samples were
be repaired unless obvious degradation is identified. collected from 11 points in the studied trail and 7 points in control trail,

FIGURE 1 Map of studied and control trails

4 NG
to determine soil texture and soil aggregate size because of their rele-
vance to plant ecology and the erodibility of soil (Dane & Topp, 2002).
The census‐based sampling records all occurrences of features or
significant problems along the trails (Leung & Burroughs, 2015; Marion
& Leung, 2011). Along the trail, degradation features, such as rills and
gullies, multiple parallel treads, and root exposure, were recorded and
described if they were longer than 0.5 m. The dimensions, coverage,
and location of those features were recorded for evaluating the trail
condition.
All valid data were input to SPSS 22.0 for statistical analyses.
Descriptive statistics and cross‐tabulations were used to summarize
the data. Analysis of variance and post hoc test were used to evaluate
the difference among the data of baseline, 1 day, 1 month, and
7 months after the competition.
3 | RESULTS
3.1 | Tread morphometry
Initially, both control and studied trails were very narrow, whereas
the former was 37.8 cm and the latter was 40.7 cm on average
(Figure 3). In the studied period of 7 months, the average tread width
of the control trail did not exhibit significant change, ranging from
37.4 to 43.9 cm (F = 1.332, p = .27). The average tread width of
the studied trail did not increase significantly immediately after the
competition either (from 40.7 to 46.8 cm; F = 0.546, p = .11), but it
continued to widen to 50.0 cm after 1 month (F = 3.700, p = .03).
Because the initial trail width was sufficient for only one person to
pass through, a runner would trample on the trailside vegetated zone
if they needed to overtake another runner. Although the vegetation
initially may be damaged by the runners, its senescence and loss
requires additional time. This study indicated that 1 month was long
enough to manifest the effect. The tread average width returned to
FIGURE 3 Tread width of control and studied trails
ET AL.
46.2 cm after 7 months, indicating that the trail was in the process
of recovery.
The running competition also resulted in greater tread incision.
Initially, the maximum incision of control (3.0 cm) and studied trails
(2.8 cm) was comparable (F = 1.077, p = .30; Figure 4). In the studied
period of 7 months, the maximum incision of the control trail did not
change much, fluctuating between 2.6 and 3.0 cm (F = 0.137,
p = .94). However, the maximum incision of the studied trail was signif-
icantly deepened from 3.0 to 4.6 cm (F = 10.595, p = .016) after the
competition. The results indicated that very intensive impacts can be
produced by a running competition as a large number of runners
concentrate to run on a trail within a very short period of time. The
removal of surface materials and soil compaction caused by trampling
translated into increased maximum incision. After the competition,
the accumulation of litter, deposited sediments, and other materials
may “compensate” for the tread incision. The maximum incision
decreased to 4.1 cm after 1 month (F = 4.543, p = .032) and was
3.3 cm after 7 months (F = 0.893, p = .365), respectively.
3.2 | Surface composition
Seasonal changes in vegetation play an important role in determining
the surface composition of trails. In October 2015, 68.1% of the
control trail's surface was exposed soil, and 22.2% of the surface was
covered by litter (Figure 5). As the winter came, falling leaves contrib-
uted to an increased size of tread area covered by litter (32.7% in
November 2015 and 37.8% in December 2015) and at the same time
a decreased size of exposed soil surface (51.7% in November 2015
and 52.8% in December 2015). Because of the limited supply of falling
leaves in summer, the surface covered by litter reduced to 14.7% and
the area of exposed soil increased to 76.3% in June 2016, respectively.
For the studied trail, it is clear that the pattern of seasonal change of
tread surface was disrupted by the running competition. Because
removal of litter caused by intensive trampling of the runners (Plate 1),
NG ET AL.
FIGURE 4 Maximum incision of control and studied trails
FIGURE 5 Surface composition of control and studied trails
the surface covered by litter was reduced from 30.4% to 24.4%, and the
area of exposed soil surface increased from 48.6% to 53.2% after the
competition. The accumulation of falling leaves during winter increased
the area covered by litter to 42.3% and reduced the exposed soil
surface to 40.8% in December 2015. Because of less supply of falling
leaves in summer, the surface covered by litter reduced to 27.2%, and
the area of exposed soil surface increased to 53.9% in June 2016.
3.3 | Soil properties
For both control and studied trails, the soil compaction value at the
center part of the tread was much higher than that at the edge. In
the studied period of 7 months, the degree of soil compaction at
5
the tread center of the control trail did not vary much, ranging from
5.64 to 5.96 kg/cm2 (F = 0.035, p = .99; Figure 6). However, the soil
compaction at the tread center of the studied trail increased from
7.50 to 9.04 kg/cm2 (F = 0.149, p = .197) after the running competi-
tion and then further to 10.00 kg/cm2 after 1 month (F = 1.077,
p = .046). After 7 months, the value returned to the original level
(7.52 kg/cm2). The soil compaction at the tread edge was not much
different between control and studied trails. The results indicated
that the running competition caused significant problem of soil
compaction at the tread center only. Nevertheless, it was not to say
that there was no obvious effect from the running competition at
the edge area of the tread because widening of the trail implied
shifting of the edge.
6 NG ET AL.

PLATE 1 Removal of litter along the trail by trail runners (left: before the competition; right: after the competition). [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

FIGURE 6 Soil compaction at the center part of control and studied trails

Among the soil samples collected from the field, more than half are
sandy‐clay loam, and the others mainly are either sandy clay or loam
soil. Sandy soils are characterized by a relatively high content of sand
and usually a low fertility (Brady & Weil, 2002). Soil texture of the con-
trol trail did not change much in the 7‐month study period (Figure 7).
For the studied trail, the sand content increased suddenly after the
competition and then gradually increased in during the ensuing
7 months. The soil coarsening was probably because fine particles
were dislodged and then removed by trampling directly or natural
forces such as gravity and water.
The trail running competition might also result in the breakdown
of soil aggregates, although statistically the change was not significant.
Although the mean weight aggregate diameter of the control trail did
not change significantly in the studied period (ranging from 1.55 to
1.77 mm), the aggregate diameter of the studied trail decreased from
2.49 (before the competition) to 2.26 mm (1 day after the competition)
and then further to 2.13 mm (1 month after the competition) and
2.08 mm (Figure 8).
3.4 | Degradation feature inventory
The inventory of degradation features along the trail provides valuable
information about the overall conditions of the trail. A few rills and
gullies, exposed tree roots, visitor‐created informal trails, and other
NG ET AL.
FIGURE 7 Soil texture of control and studied trails
FIGURE 8 Mean weight aggregate diameter of control and studied trails
features were found along both control and studied trails before the
event (Figure 9). The total number of degradation features found in
the control trail was less than that of the studied trail. Furthermore,
the scale and size of the features found in the control trail were smaller
and less severe when comparing with those in the studied trail, indicat-
ing that the control trail received less impacts than the studied trail
even if there were no running event. Nevertheless, the number of deg-
radation features along the control trail and their conditions did not
change much in the studied period, indicating that no new degradation
features were created without a running event. For the studied trail,
the running competition effectively created new tree root exposure
or exacerbated existing occurrences of exposed roots. Visual evidence
attributes this to the removal of surface materials such as litter and
topsoil caused by intensive trampling of the runners (Plate 2). The
7
number of tree root exposure occurrences increased from 15 (before
the competition) to 32 (after the competition), and the number
remained unchanged until the end of the studied period. Specifically,
the longest root exposure was 188 cm in length. No parallel trails
and perpendicular side‐trails were created by the runners, probably
because the competition regulations required runners to remain on
the designated route.
4 | DISCUSSION
This study empirically examined and characterized impacts caused by a
trail running competition event, contributing to the void of empirical
literature. Results indicated that impacts generated by runners were
8 NG ET AL.

FIGURE 9 Degradation features in control and studied trails

PLATE 2 Evolution of a tree root exposure (left: before the competition; center: after 1 day; right: after 1 month). [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

similar to those produced by hikers (e.g., Leung & Neller, 1995; Svajda
et al., 2016), although the intensity and rate of the impact produced by
the former were much higher than the latter. Similar to hikers, runner‐
produced impacts on the trail originated from their trampling actions.
Trampling outside the tread removed surrounding vegetation resulting
in widened treads (Cole, 1987; Lau, 1999). When a runner tramples
inside the tread, surface materials (i.e., litters and fine sediments) are
pulverized, dislodged, and removed, whereas underlying tread
substrates (i.e., soil) are compacted (Cole, 1987; Lau, 1999). These
impacts are evident by six indicators, including tread width, tread
incision, surface composition, soil compaction, soil texture, and
aggregate size, which are commonly used to evaluate the impacts
caused by hikers. In other words, with some small modifications,
established protocols for monitoring trail conditions experiencing hik-
ing use can be applied to monitoring the effects of trail running events
(Marion et al., 2016).
Adopting a before‐and‐after approach, this paper found that a 1‐
day running competition could produce various immediate impacts
on the trail, some of which were more prominent than the others.
Table 2 summarizes impacts generated by trail runners on the trail.

TABLE 2 A summary of impacts generated by the running competition

Indicator Immediate effect (after 1 day) Tendency after 1 month Tendency after 7 months

Tread width Widened Getting worse Recovered

Incision Deepened Recovering Recovered
Surface composition Bared soil surface Recovering Recovered
Compaction Increased Getting worse Recovered
Soil texture Coarsened Persisting Persisting
Aggregate Broken down Persisting Persisting
Degradation features Created Persisting Persisting
NG ET AL.
First, the tread morphometry was changed as tread width and incision
were significantly increased immediately after the competition.
Second, the competition caused immediate change of the tread surface
as manifested by the removal of litter and creation of degradation
features, such as tree root exposure. Similar changes have also been
reported by Marion et al. (2016). Third, the trampling actions of
runners caused changes of soil physical properties including coarsening
of soil texture, aggregate breakdown, and increasing the degree of soil
compaction. Similar observations have been reported by Marion
(2006). The importance of soil degradation must not be
underestimated. Soil coarsening and compaction may restrict plant
growth and also has implications on surface water runoff (Lau, 1999).
Breakdown of soil aggregate may decrease water infiltration and
hydraulic conductibility that in turn increase surface sealing and
susceptibility for erosion (Ribeiro, de Lima, Curi, & de Oliveira, 2013).
Another concern from both park managers and researchers is the
change of trail condition and whether the trail can recover? Do the
impacts persist or even become worse? If the trail can recover, when
will it start? When will the full recovery take place? This may be the
first study that offers insights to the above questions in light of empir-
ical assessment results. For all types of trail degradation, once they are
created, they persist for at least 1 month. Although some types of trail
degradation can recover within a few months, others persist for much
longer period as found in past trampling research (Cole, 1987, 2004).
Results from this study suggest that some types of trail degradation
can persist longer than 7 months and surrounding vegetation plays
an important role in the process of recovery. Not only did vegetation
prevent the trail from further widening, it also contributed materials
(i.e., litter) for the recovery of the trail. Nevertheless, the recovery
was primarily restricted to the tread surface only; it did not help the
recovery of trail structure. Soil properties, such as soil texture and
aggregate size, did not improve even after 7 months. Changes to soil
properties appear to be more long‐term or even permanent (irrevers-
ible) (Dupouey, Dambrine, Laffite, & Moares, 2002), and any increment
of impacts may accumulate to the precedent damages (Lal, 2001).
Facing these challenges, there are a few recommendations for the
management of country parks in Hong Kong and other protected area
systems with similar demands. First, it is necessary and important to
regulate organized sporting or racing events in country parks. The
related management agency should carefully assess the application of
competition events in order that no significant impacts would be gen-
erated from these events. Specifically, four factors should be consid-
ered, including the type of extreme sports, number of events,
number of participants, and the sustainability of proposed routes.
Although it is impossible to stop trail running or similar sports events
in country parks, it is possible for the authority to reject the application
of large‐scale running events on sensitive trails. Alternatively, the
authority can approve events only if they take place on sustainable
trails (e.g., routes that can effectively contain foot traffic or trail treads
with higher rock or gravel substrates). As gleaned from this study, any
running event with more than 300 participants should be prohibited on
unpaved trails with a mean width less than 1 m. Second, there are no
specific trail design standards in Hong Kong (e.g., widths, gradients,
and material used) for sport events from a resource conservation per-
spective. As a result, many trails or segments in Hong Kong may be
9
vulnerable and unable to absorb impacts generated by extreme sports-
men. Experience on sustainable trail design and building should be
consulted for potential adoption locally (Basch, Duff, Giordanengo, &
Seabloom, 2007; Hesselbarth, Vachowski, & Davies, 2007). For exam-
ple, it is suggested that trails with higher rock or gravel substrates are
likely to be less vulnerable to trampling impacts. Considering the situ-
ation of Hong Kong, running events held on paved trail would be
encouraged. Third, scientific data are important for effective and sus-
tainable trail management by minimizing event participants' impacts.
However, the current management practice is reactive with the focus
on fixing the trail degradation rather than preventing or minimizing
impacts proactively through planning and monitoring. Last but not
least, trail maintenance is crucial for keeping the protected areas in
good condition. Once trail impacts have occurred, degradation
features should be promptly identified and repaired to prevent from
further deterioration by natural forces or visitors circumventing these
features. In some occasions, closure of heavily damaged trails,
relocation, and/or reconstruction of designated trails may be the
solutions (Marion, 2006).
This study confirms that traditional protocols established for
monitoring trail conditions under hiking use can be applied to monitoring
effects of other uses, such as trail running, horse riding, and mountain bik-
ing, in protected areas (Leung & Burroughs, 2015; Marion et al., 2016;
Marion & Leung, 2011; Pickering, Hill, Newsome, & Leung, 2010). As
more data are accumulated, our understanding of this form of land degra-
dation improves across a range of trail‐based activities. Many urban
protected areas near population centers are public assets that face
tremendous demand for a growing diversity of outdoor recreation
activities. Conflicting use and appropriate use of protected area resources
are therefore as much an environmental issue as a social one. There is an
urgent need for guidelines or standards that can assist managers in formu-
lating trail management plans and decisions, and these decisions would be
more defensible if they are informed by scientific research and empirical
evidence (Marion et al., 2016; Newsome, 2014).
5 | CO NC LUSIO N
This study intended to fill the knowledge gap about trail running
events as an emergent land use by quantifying the impacts and their
recovery with a before‐and‐after approach. Past studies suggest
that the impacts generated by runners are similar to those produced
by hikers. The present study revealed that the intensity and rate of trail
impacts by an organized running event were significant as compared to
the controls. The event produced various types of impacts to the trail
that had not recovered after 7 months. This study pointed to the
importance of surrounding vegetation in the recovery process of the
degraded trail. The evidence from this study points to the need for
cautious permitting, planning, and management of organized sport
events in protected areas with respect to event size (e.g., number of
participants), trail routes, environmental conditions, and appropriate
actions to contain traffic and assist in recovery. By doing so, trails in
protected areas would be able to sustain its recreation and resource
protection functions without turning into another form of land
degradation.
10
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by a grant (CUHK 14304114) from the
Hong Kong Research Grants Council. The authors would like to thank
the staff of Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department of
Hong Kong SAR Government for logistics assistance in the field. Thanks
are given to students of the Chinese University of Hong Kong who
assisted in field and laboratory work. The constructive comments pro-
vided by the editor and five anonymous reviewers have significantly
improved the clarity and overall quality of this paper. The English editing
provided by Dr. Chelsey Walden‐Schreiner is greatly appreciated.
ORCID
Sai‐Leung Ng http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9367-8539
RE FE R ENC E S
Action Asia Events (2015a). Our events. http://www.actionasiaevents.
com/our‐events/past‐events/(Accessed October 2015).
Action Asia Events (2015b). 2015‐MSIG HK50 series—Hong Kong Island
50 km finish timing. http://www.actionasiaevents.com/assets/images/
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How to cite this article: Ng S‐L, Leung Y‐F, Cheung S‐Y, Fang
W. Land degradation effects initiated by trail running events in
an urban protected area of Hong Kong. Land Degrad Dev.
2017;1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2863