Department of Civil Engineering

Technology
ISRA University, Islamabad Campus

LABORATORY MANUAL

Course Title : Fluid Mechanics Lab

Course Code : CTFM-264
Semester :

Submitted By:

Registration No.

Submitted To:
 INDEX

Sr. NAME OF EXPERIMENT Remarks

No
1. To determine coefficient of discharge of an
Orificemeter.
2 To determine the coefficient of discharge of
Notch (V and Rectangular types)
3 To determine the coefficient of discharge of
Venturimeter.
4 Verify the Bernoulli’s Theorem.

5 Determination of viscosity of a given liquid using

Viscometer.
6 Determination of discharge using V-notch.

7 Determination of velocity through Pitot tube.

8 Certificate of completion

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 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

To determine the coefficient of discharge of an Orifice.

APPARATUS:
Orifice meter, installed on different pipes, arrangement of varying flow rate, U- tube
manometer, collecting tube tank, vernier calliper tube etc.

FORMULA: Cd
Q.ƒA2 – a2
=
A..a.ƒ2g∆h
Where
A = Cross section area of
inlet
a = Cross section area of
outlet
Δh = Head difference in manometer
Q = Discharge
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
g = Acceleration due to
gravity

THEORY:
Orifice meter are depending on Bernoulli’s equation. Orificemeter is a device used for
measuring the rate of fluid flowing through a pipe. It is a cheaper device than Venturimeter.

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 PROCEDURE:
1. Set the manometer pressure to the atmospheric pressure by opening the upper valve.
2. Now start the supply at water controlled by the stop valve.
3. One of the valves of any one of the pipe open and close all other of three.
4. Take the discharge reading for the particular flow.
5. Take the reading for the pressure head on from the u-tube manometer for corresponding
reading of discharge.
6. Now take three readings for this pipe and calculate the Cd for that instrument using formula.
7. Now close the valve and open valve of other diameter pipe and take the three reading for this.
8. Similarly take the reading for all other diameter pipe and calculate Cd for each.

OBSERVATIONS:
Diameter of Orifice meter
Area of cross section =
Area of collecting tank =
Area of nozzle =
Horizontal flat vane:
When jet is not running, position of upper disk is at=

Sr. Discharge measurement Balancing Theoretica Error in%

No. Initial Final Time Discharge Mass Force l force =(F-F’)/F’
(cm.) (cm.) (sec) Q (cm3/sec) (gm) F(dyne) F’=ρQ2/a
1.
2.
3.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Water flow should be steady and uniform.
2. The reading on the scale should be taken without any error.
3. The weight should be put slowly & one by one.
4. After changing the vane the flask should be closed tightly.

VIVA:
1. Define the terms impact of jet and jet propulsion?
2. Find the expression for efficiency of a series of moving curved vane when a jet of
water strikes the vanes at one of its tips?

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 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

To determine the coefficient of discharge of Rectangular Notch

APPARATUS:

Arrangement for finding the coefficient of discharge inclusive of supply tank, collecting tank,
pointer, scale & different type of notches

THEORY:

Notches are overflow structure where length of crest along the flow of water is accurately
shaped to calculate discharge.

FORMULA:

For Rectangular notch the Q

discharge coefficient Cd =
2 3

3 √2g BH2

Where:-
Q = Discharge
H=Height above crest level
θ= Angle of notch
B = Width of
notch

Figure: Notches
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PROCEDURE:
1. The notch under test is positioned at the end of tank with vertical sharp edge on the
upstream side.
2. Open the inlet valve and fill water until the crest of notch.
3. Note down the height of crest level by pointer gauge.
4. Change the inlet supply and note the height of this level in the tank.
5. Note the volume of water collected in collecting tank for a particular time and find out the
discharge.
6. Height and discharge readings for different flow rate are noted.

OBSERVATIONS:
Breath of tank =
Length of tank =
Height of water to crest level for rectangular notch is =
Height of water to crest level for V notch =
Height of water to crest level for Trapezoidal notch =
Angle of V notch =
Width of Rectangular notch =

Type of Volume in time Q Q Level

Notch tant L/SEC M3/SEC Above the Cd
Notch

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make the water level surface still, before takings the reading.
2. Reading noted should be free from parallax error.
3. The time of discharge is noted carefully.
4. Only the internal dimensions of collecting tank should be taken for consideration and
calculations.

RESULTS:

The value of Cd for rectangular notch……

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VIVA:

1. Differentiate between :-
 Uniform and non-uniform flow
 Steady and unsteady flow
2. Define notch?

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 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. 3

To determine the coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter

APPARATUS:
Venturimeter, installed on different diameter pipes, arrangement of varying flow rate, U-
tube manometer, collecting tube tank, vernier calliper tube etc.
Formula Used:-
Q. √A2 — a2
Cd =
A. a. ƒ2g∆h
Where
A = Cross section area of
inlet a = Cross section area of
outlet
Δh = Head difference in manometer
Q = Discharge
Cd= Coefficient of discharge
g = Acceleration due to gravity

THEORY:

Venturimeter are depending on Bernoulli’s equation. Venturimeter is a device used for

measuring the rate of fluid flowing through a pipe. The consist of three part in short
1. Converging area part
2. Throat
3. Diverging part

PROCEDURE:
1. Set the manometer pressure to the atmospheric pressure by opening the upper valve.
2. Now start the supply at water controlled by the stop valve.
3. One of the valves of any one of the pipe open and close all other of three.
4. Take the discharge reading for the particular flow.
5. Take the reading for the pressure head on from the u-tube manometer for corresponding
reading of discharge.
6. Now take three readings for this pipe and calculate the Cd for that instrument using formula.
7. Now close the valve and open valve of other diameter pipe and take the three reading for this.
8. Similarly take the reading for all other diameter pipe and calculate Cd for each.

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OBSERVATIONS:
Diameter of Venturimeter =
Area of cross section =
Venturimeter =
Area of collecting tank =

Discharge Manometer reading

Initial Fina Difference Tim Discharge H1 H2 H2- Δh=13.6(H2- Q. √A2 − a2
(cm.) l e H1 H1) Cd=
A. a. ƒ2g∆ℎ
(cm) (sec)

RESULTS:

PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Keep the other valve closed while taking reading through one pipe.
2. The initial error in the manometer should be subtracted final reading.
3. The parallax error should be avoided.
4. Maintain a constant discharge for each reading.
5. The parallax error should be avoided while taking reading the manometer.

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VIVA:
1. Venturimeter are used for flow measuring. How?
2. Define co efficient of discharge?
3. Define parallax error?
4. Define converging area part?
5. Define throat?
6. Define diverging part?

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 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Verify the Bernoulli’s Theorem. .

APPARATUS:
In order to complete the experiment, we need a number of pieces of equipment.
1. Hydraulic bench
2. Venturi type Bernoulli Flow Apparatus with Column Manometers P
3. Pitot Static Tube
4. Stop watch

Main Parts of Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit:

 Manometeric tubes panel

 Purge valve
 Regulating Flow control Valve
 Convergent- Divergent Tube
 Pitot Tube

THEORY:
Bernoulli’s theorem states that when there is a continues connection between the particle of
flowing mass liquid, the total energy of any sector of flow will remain same provided there
is no reduction or addition at any point.
Formula Used: 𝑃1 𝑉12
H1 = 𝑧1 + +
𝖶 2g
PROCEDURE:
 Place the apparatus on top of the bench and connect the hydraulic bench water outlet
to the test apparatus with the Apparatus outlet control value open the Apparatus
 Now adjust the flow to get a constant head in the supply tank to make
flow in and out flow equal.
 Under this condition the pressure head will become constant in the piezometer tubes.
 Note down the quantity of water collected in the measuring tank for a given interval of
time.
 Compute the area of cross-section under the piezometer tube.
 Compute the area of cross-section under the tube.
 Change the inlet and outlet supply and note the reading.
 Take at least three readings as described in the above steps.

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 TABLE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Reading of
piezometric tubes
Area of cross
section under the
foot of each point
Velocity of water
under foot of each
point
V2/2g
p/ρ
V2/2g + p/ρ

PRECAUTIONS:
 When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of piezometer
tubes, note the mean position carefully.
 Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.

RESULTS:

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Briefly explain the various terms involved in Bernoulli’s equation?
2. Assumption made to get Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation by mad

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 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO. 5

Determination of Viscosity of Liquids

THEORY:
The viscosity of liquid is a resistance to flow of a liquid. All liquids appear resistance to flow
change from liquid to another, the water faster flow than glycerin, subsequently the viscosity
of water less than glycerin at same temperature. Viscosity occurs as a result of contact liquid
layers with each other. The viscosity is measuring by Ostwald viscometer.
Relative Viscosity is the ratio of the absolute viscosity of the fluid on the viscosity of water at
a certain temperature The viscosity coefficient is force (dyne) necessary to move the layer of
liquid 1 cm2 in speed 1 cm/sec on another layer of liquid and the distance between them is
1cm.

CHEMICALS AND MATERIALS:

1- Ethanol
2- Glycerin
3- Di water
4- Baker
5- Ostawld viscometer
6- Pipet

PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the viscometer by the water and ethanol and dry it.
2. Put a certain amount of liquid in the large bulge viscometer and pull it by pipette until
the small bulge is full.
3. Put viscometer vertically in the water bath at the desired temperature.
4. Let the liquid to flow through the capillary tube with run time when the liquid reaches
the mark shown on the viscometer and then stopped time when the liquid reaches the
bottom mark.
5. Repeat the experiment and record the results (take average of results).
6. Repeat the experiment to other liquids.
7. Change the temperature and calculate the viscosity.

Calculations:

Calculate the viscosity by the relationships

: η1 η2 = t1d1 t2d2
η1 is viscosity of liquid 1.
η2 is viscosity of water 0.891 poise.
t1 flow time of liquid 1.
t2 flow time of water.
d1 density of liquid 1. 12
d2 density of water 0.997 g/cm3 .
We can calculate the Relative Viscosity by the relationships:
𝑛1
nrelative =
𝑛𝐻20
Liquid 1: ethanol (density of ethanol = 0.789 g/cm3 )

Temperature (Cᴼ Time (Sec.) Average time Viscosity (poise) Relative

) Viscosity
25
30
35
Liquid 2: glycerin (density of glycerin = 1.261 g/cm3 )
25
30
35

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 Date:
EXPERIMENT NO 06
To determine the coefficient of discharge of v – notch

APPARATUS:
V-Notch equipment, Bucket , Inclined manometer , stop-watch.

THEORY:
The V-notch weir is a triangular channel section, used to measure small discharge values. The
upper edge of the section is always above the water level, and so the channel is always
triangular simplifying calculation of the cross-sectional area. V-notch weirs are preferred for
low discharges as the head above the weir crest is more sensitive to changes in flow
compared to rectangular weirs.

By applying Bernoulli equation (conservation of energy equation) to a simplified flow model

of V-notch, we can develop the following relationship:

PROCEDURE:
(1) Fill the overhead tank & maintain constant overflow.

(2) Start filling the v-notch tank with water up to the v-notch.,& obtain steady state.

(3) Allow water to flow through v-notch after getting steady state.

(4) Measure the head of water above v-notch from inclined manometer.

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(5) Note down volumetric flow rate through v-notch.

(6) Similarly take readings for different flow rate & head over the v-notch.

GRAPHS:
Q = CD 8/15 tanΘ/2 √2g H5/2 Q = K H5/3 ; K = CD 8/15 tanΘ/2 √2g

logQ = logK + 5/2logH (1) log H vs. log Q. Obtain intercept & slope.

RESULT:

The value of discharge coefficient of v-notch obtained from,

CD = . Graph: CD = .

OBSERVATIONS:
(1) Angle of v-notch Θ = 680

(2) Angle of inclined manometer, 𝖺 = 310

(3) Temp of water, t = °C.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Volume of water collected, Inclined manometer
Sr No. Time , t sec.
m3 reading.

1.

2.

3.

4.

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CALCULATIONS:
(1) Volumetric flow rate, Q = Vol. of water collected/time,t sec.

= m3 / sec.

(2) Height of water in tank, H = Inclined manometer Reading x sin 𝖺

= mt.

(3) Discharge coefficient, CD = (15 /8) Q . 1/tanΘ/2 √2gH5

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 Date:

EXPERIMENT NO 07

Determination of velocity through Pitot tube

THEORY:
Pitot tubes are used in a variety of applications for measuring fluid velocity. This is a
convenient, inexpensive method for measuring velocity at a point in a flowing fluid. Pitot
tubes (also called pitot-static tubes) are used, for example, to make airflow measurements in
HVAC applications and for aircraft airspeed measurements.

Static pressure is what is commonly called simply the pressure of the fluid. It’s a measure of
the amount that fluid pressure exceeds local atmospheric pressure. It is measured through a
flat opening that is parallel with the fluid flow.

Stagnation pressure is also a measure of the amount that fluid pressure exceeds local
atmospheric pressure, but it includes the effect of the fluid velocity converted to pressure. It
is measured through a flat opening that is perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow and
facing into the fluid flow.

Dynamic pressure (also called velocity pressure) is a measure of the amount that the
stagnation pressure exceeds static pressure at a point in a fluid. It can also be interpreted as
the pressure created by reducing the kinetic energy to zero.

Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that (2) is just at the inlet of
the Pitot-tube and point (1) is far away from the tube.
Let P1= intensity of pressure at point (1)
v1 = velocity of flow at (1)
P2= pressure at section (2)
V2 = velocity at point (1), which is zero
H= depth of tube in the liquid
h= rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface.
Applying Bernoulli’s equations at point (1) and (2), we get

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But as points (1) and (2) are on the same line and v2 =0.
P1/g= pressure head at (1) = H and P2/g= pressure head at (2) = (h+H)
Substituting these values, we get

This is theoretical velocity.

Actual velocity is given by, V2 = Cv√(2gh)
Where Cv= Co-efficient of Pitot-tube

REQUIRED EQUIPMENT:
• Wind Tunnel
• Manometer
• Pitot Tub

PROCEDURE:
I. To calibrate a Pitot Tube
II. Properly mount the pitot tube in the wind tunnel
III. Connect the two tubes of the pitot tube to the manometer
IV. Start the wind tunnel
V. Slowly increase the speed of the wind tunnel from 0 m/s to 18 m/s
VI. Record the values of differential pressure on the manometer against wind speed
VII. Plot the graph of differential pressure against wind speed in MATLAB
VIII. Perform regression analysis on MATLAB and obtain a mathematical relationship
between the independent and dependent variables.
IX. Ideally, you should get a second order polynomial relationship. (pt− ps ═ pv2∕2)
X. Plot the ideal relationship assuming air density to be 1.225 kg/m3
XI. Plot the experimentally obtained relationships onto the ideal relationship graph.
XII. Also plot the error plot i.e. the difference between the ideal and empirical results.
XIII. What are the possible reasons for the error?

OBSERVATIONS AND READINGS:

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 CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION

It is certified that Mr.

Reg No. , student of BSC Civil
Engineering Technology has completed the laboratory work of ―Fluid
Mechanics Lab CTFM-264‖ in due course of time.

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