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Introduction To Physical Anthropology 2013 2014 Edition 14Th Edition Jurmain Test Bank Full Chapter PDF
Introduction To Physical Anthropology 2013 2014 Edition 14Th Edition Jurmain Test Bank Full Chapter PDF
Introduction To Physical Anthropology 2013 2014 Edition 14Th Edition Jurmain Test Bank Full Chapter PDF
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
i) The bits and pieces of fossils are the remains of once living breathing animals and every trace
of early life has a fascinating story to tell.
ii) It is important to understand evolutionary history so we can place our species in its proper
biological context. This chapter reviews the evolution of vertebrates.
iii) Homo sapiens is only one of millions of species that have evolved and has only been around
for a significantly short evolutionary time.
II. How We Connect: Discovering The Human Place in the Organic World
a) Biologists deal with the complexity of the living world by grouping, or classifying organisms.
i) Classification reduces the apparent complexity and is meant to indicate evolutionary
relationships.
b) Multicelled animals are grouped into the Kingdom Animalia.
i) The Kingdom Animalia is further divided into more than 20 major phyla.
(1) The phylum Chordata includes animals with a nerve chord, gill slits (present during
development), and a notochord.
(a) Most chordates are vertebrates.
(b) The vertebrates are composed of five classes, one of which is the mammals.
c) Finer distinctions are made between categories until the level of species; which includes only
those animals that can reproduce and have viable offspring.
III. Principles of Classification
a) Taxonomy is the science of classification.
i) A few mutations in certain Hox genes in early vertebrates led to the basic limb plan seen in
all subsequence vertebrates.
ii) Basic genetic regulatory mechanisms are highly conserved in animals.
iii) Structures that are shared by species on the basis of descent from a common ancestor are
called homologies.
68
iv) Superficial similarities are a product of separate evolutionary responses, to roughly similar
functional demands.
(1) Such similarities based on independent functional adaptation and not on shared
evolutionary descent, are called analogies.
(2) The process that produces analogies is called homoplasy.
IV. Making Connections: Constructing Classifications and Interpreting Evolutionary Relationships
i) The two major schools of classification are evolutionary systematics and cladistics. In recent
years cladistics methodologies have predominated among anthropologists over the more
traditional evolutionary systematics.
(1) Comparing Evolutionary Systematics with Cladistics
(a) Both schools trace evolutionary relationships and construct classifications.
(b) Both schools recognize that organisms must be compared using specific features
(characters).
(c) Both approaches focus exclusively on homologies.
(2) These two schools differ in how characters are chosen, which groups are compared, and
how the results are ultimately interpreted.
(a) Cladistics more explicitly and rigorously defines the kinds of homologies that yield
the most useful information.
(i) Some homologous characters are more important than others.
(ii) The term primitive or ancestral means that a character is inherited from a distant
ancestor.
(b) Cladistics focuses on traits that distinguish particularly evolutionary lineages as these
are more informative than ancestral traits.
(c) Lineages that share a common ancestor are called a clade.
(i) Evolutionary groups or clades all share one common ancestor and are thus said to
be monophyletic.
(ii) Clades with more than one common ancestor are polyphyletic.
(iii) To identify a clade the characters of interest are either derived, or modified.
b) An Example of Cladistic Analysis: The Evolutionary History of Cars and Truck
i) We need to be careful, look at several traits, decide which are ancestral and which are derived
and try to recognize the complexity introduced by homoplasy.
ii) Any modification in any species is constrained by that species’ evolutionary legacy.
c) Using Cladistics to Interpret Real Organisms
i) Traditionally it was thought that birds were a quite distinct group from reptile and not
especially closely related to them.
(1) Discoveries made in the last two decades have supported the hypothesis that birds are
closely related to some dinosaurs.
(2) Two developments have influenced this change of opinion: the remarkable discoveries of
discoveries in the 1990s, and the application of cladistics methods to the interpretations
of these and other fossils.
(a) Traces of what were once feathers have been found embossed in fossilized sediments,
leading to conclude that birds are not only descendant from dinosaurs but are
dinosaurs.
(b) Certainly, the possibility of homoplasy must always be considered.
(c) Strict cladistic analysis assumes that homoplasy is not a common occurrence, in the
case of the proposed relationship between some dinosaurs and birds, the presence of
feathers looks like an excellent example of a shared-derived characteristic.
(3) Traditional evolutionary systematics illustrates the hypothesized evolutionary
relationships using phylogenetic tree.
(a) A phylogenetic tree incorporates the dimension of time.
(4) Cladistic analysis shows relationships in a cladogram.
69
(a) A cladogram does not incorporate the dimension of time.
V. Definition of Species
a) The way species are first produced involves some form of isolation.
b) Ecological Species concept
i) A species is defined as a group of organisms exploiting a single ecological niche.
ii) The biological species concept emphasizes gene flow and reproductive isolation.
iii) Ecological species concept stresses the role of natural selection.
VI. Interpreting species and other groups in the fossil record is difficult.
i) As a result of recombination, each individual organism is a unique combination of genetic
material.
ii) Age changes alter overall body size as well as shape in many mammals.
(1) Researchers dealing with fragmentary remains must be alert to variations of this sort.
iii) Sexual dimorphism can result in mark variation in body size and proportions in adults of the
same species.
b) Recognition of Fossil species
i) Paleoanthropologists define species using clusters of derived traits.
(1) Some researchers called “splitters” claimed that speciation occurred frequently during
hominin evolution.
(2) Others called “lumpers” assume speciation was less common and see much variation as
being intraspecific.
c) Recognition of Fossil Genera
i) A genus is defined as a group of species composed of members more closely related to each
other than they are to species from other genus.
(1) Grouping species into genera can be subjective and is often debated by biologists.
(a) If members of two normally separate species interbreed and produce live offspring,
the two parental species are probably not very genetically different and should be
grouped in the same genus.
(2) Species that are members of the same genus share the same broad adaptive zone
(3) Teeth are the most frequently preserved parts and can often provide excellent general
ecological inferences.
VII. What Are Fossils and How Do They Form
a) Much of what we know about the history of life comes from studying fossils, which are traces of
ancient organisms.
i) The oldest fossil found so far dates more than three billion years.
ii) As the remains of microorganisms, they are extremely small and are called microfossils.
(1) Dinosaur footprints as well as much recent hominin tracks, leaf imprints and hardened
mud or similar impressions of small organisms, and even the traces of dinosaur feathers,
all of these are fossils.
(a) Theropod dinosaur feathers have been discovered in Easter China so superbly
preserved that even microscopic cell structures have been identified.
(2) The study of how bone and other material come to be buried in the earth and preserved as
fossils is called taphonomy.
VIII. Humans Are Vertebrates: Distant Connections
a) The geological time scale divides the earth’s history into eras, periods, and epochs.
i) The first vertebrates appear in the fossil record in the early Paleozoic (500 mya).
ii) Mammal-like reptiles diversified at the close of the Paleozoic (250 mya).
(1) These forms are probably ancestors of modern mammals.
b) Continental drift had profound evolutionary effects during the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic;
groups of animals were separated from each other and mammals and reptiles were redistributed
around the globe.
i) During the late Paleozoic, the continents came together to form Pangaea.
70
ii) Gondwanaland, consisting of South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and India, began
to split off from Pangaea during the early Mesozoic.
(1) The other continents (North America, Greenland, Europe, and Asia) formed Laurasia.
iii) The continents continued to move and began to assume their present positions by the end of
the Mesozoic (c. 65 mya).
c) The dominant form of land vertebrates during the Mesozoic was the reptile.
i) Most went extinct at the end of the Mesozoic due to collisions of asteroids or comets with the
earth.
ii) The earliest mammals also existed during the early Mesozoic.
(1) The first placental mammals appeared about 70 mya and were extremely successful
during the Cenozoic.
d) The Cenozoic is divided into seven epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene,
Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene.
IX. Humans Are Also Mammal: Closer Connections
a) Fossils and the study of living species can teach us about mammalian evolution.
b) Today there are over 4,000 species of mammals.
c) The Cenozoic is known as the Age of Mammals.
i) The diversification of the mammals followed the extinction of the dinosaurs and along with
birds; mammals replaced earlier reptiles as the dominant land-living vertebrates.
ii) Several characteristics related to learning became generally enlarged.
(1) In particular the cerebrum, especially the outer covering, the neocortex which controls
higher brain functions.
(2) In some mammals, the cerebrum expanded so much it constituted most of the brain
volume.
(3) This trend is further emphasized among the primates.
iii) Mammals, with very few exceptions, give birth to live young.
(1) There is considerable variation among the major groups in how mature the young are at
birth.
(a) In placental mammals (including humans), in utero development goes farthest
iv) Reptiles have homodont dentition, whereas mammals have heterodont dentition that allows
them to process a wide variety of foods.
(a) The primitive mammalian dental formula is 3.1.4.3.
(2) Teeth have the greatest likelihood of becoming fossilized.
(3) The vast majority of available fossil data for most vertebrates, including primates,
consists of teeth.
v) Mammals (and birds) maintain a constant internal body temperature (they are endothermic).
X. The Emergence of Major Mammalian Groups
a) The three major subgroups of mammals are monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals.
i) The monotremes are the most primitive mammals because they lay eggs.
ii) In marsupials, the young are born extremely immature and complete their development in the
mother’s pouch.
iii) Placental mammals nourish the fetus with a specialized tissue, the placenta.
(1) The placenta permits a longer gestation period resulting in a more completely developed
central nervous system in the fetus.
XI. Processes of Macroevolution
a) Macroevolutionary mechanisms operate more on the entire species than on individuals, or
populations, and they take much longer to have a noticeable impact than microevolution.
b) An adaptive radiation is the rapid expansion and diversification of new life forms into new
ecological niches.
i) A species will diverge into as many variations as allowed by its adaptive potential and the
adaptive opportunities of the available niches.
71
(1) The rapid expansion of placental mammals during the late Mesozoic and throughout the
Cenozoic is an example of adaptive radiation.
c) Generalized and specialized characteristics
i) Another aspect of evolution closely related to adaptive radiation involves the transformation
of generalized characteristics into specialized characteristics.
(1) Traits that are adapted for many functions are generalized.
(2) One that is limited to a narrow set of functions is said to be specialized.
(3) Generalized and specialized can also refer to the entire organism.
(a) Species that are generalized have the greatest adaptive potential.
XII. Working Together: Microevolution and Macroevolution
a) Macroevolution takes much longer than microevolution to occur.
b) Several species of very early hominins evolved over more than four million years, initially
separating from their common ancestor and eventually adapted to ground-living niches.
i) These changes clearly reflect macroevolutionary processes.
c) Recently, some modern human populations adapted in just a couple of thousand years to living at
high altitudes.
i) This was made possible by changes in particular genes.
ii) This is a good example of microevolution.
d) Natural selection is influenced by how fast the environment is changing.
i) Fossil and molecular evidence indicate that gradual and rapid changes have occurred in the
evolution of both plant and animal species.
e) In general accordance with modern synthesis and as indicated by molecular evidence,
microevolution and macroevolution should not be considered separately.
Learning Objectives
After reading Chapter 5, the student should be able to:
1. Compare microevolution and macroevolution and explain how they are similar and how they differ.
2. Describe the main animal classifications and explain how humans fit into such classifications as
vertebrates and as mammals.
3. Compare and contrast the more traditional classification approach (evolutionary systematics) with
that of cladistics.
4. Explain what a fossil is and describe how different kinds of fossils are formed.
5. Define the major characteristics of mammals, especially those of placental mammals.
6. Explain how species are defined by biologists and how they originate from prior species.
Student Exercises
Activities and Assignments
1. Most students are interested in dinosaurs. You can draw them into a discussion of the adaptive
radiation of the mammals (including the primates) by presenting the current hypotheses concerning
the extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous. One place to find current information is
on the University of California Museum of Paleontology website http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/.
2. Students often think that the fossil record generally lacks transitional forms. For a discussion of
transitional forms in the fossil record see http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/.
3. The tabloid press often presents fantastic stories about primate and human evolution such as “bat
boy”, the famous half-bat half-boy, or the “discovery” of Adam and Eve’s skeletons. These stories
can provide the basis for serious and meaningful class discussion, not only the biological fallacies
presented, but the distortion of evolutionary principles that routinely find their way to supermarket
check-out stands. Also, always keep your eyes open for these stories and begin building your own
collection!
Media Suggestions
1. Check out PBS Series Great Transformations for a complete overview of macroevolution and
speciation (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8-51F8ng1SA).
2. The PBS Evolution series offers a documentary on the process of extinction, including an overview of
geological processes and the effects on life forms and adaptation
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uaqkK_ozp_E)
3. Visit the PBS Evolution website for a variety of short videos, teaching resources, and student
activities on the topics of these videos (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/).
4. A short video explains the process of speciation and macroevolution, making references to
Creationists attacks and giving scientific examples of these concepts
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oDJksG3gKw).
3. Animals with a nerve cord along the back and gill slits during some developmental stage are called
a. insects.
b. invertebrates.
c. chordates.
d. metazoans.
e. trilobites.
5. Structural similarities shared by species that are acquired by descent from a common ancestor are
a. analogies.
b. homologies.
c. acquired.
d. uncommon.
e. uninformative of evolutionary relationships.
6. Structural similarities between species that are based on common function and not on common
evolutionary descent are called
a. acquired.
b. generalized.
c. non-adaptive.
d. analogies.
e. homologies.
7. The evolutionary process that produced analogous structures in New and Old World monkeys is
called
a. speciation.
b. homology.
c. homoplasy.
d. founder effect.
e. random selection
74
ANS: C REF: 110 DIF: Conceptual OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup
9. Structural similarities shared by a wide array of distantly related species that are inherited from a
common ancestor, such as the number of bones in the forelimb, are termed
a. specialized.
b. ancestral (primitive).
c. adaptive radiations.
d. analogies.
e. derived (modified).
10. Traits that reflect specific evolutionary lineages and can be informative of evolutionary relationships
are called
a. ancestral (primitive).
b. acquired.
c. derived (modified).
d. convergent characters.
e. analogies.
11. When assessing evolutionary relationships, one approach is to interpret patterns of ancestral
(primitive) and derived (modified) characteristics. This approach is called
a. taxonomy.
b. phylogeny.
c. classification.
d. cladistics.
e. metamorphosis.
12. In grouping organisms together in a cladistic classification, the most important characteristics are
those that are
a. ancestral.
b. derived (modified).
c. primitive.
d. analogous.
e. homologous.
75
ANS: B REF: 114 DIF: Factual OBJ: 3 MSC: Pickup
13. The presumed evolutionary link between theropod dinosaurs and birds is based on
a. island dwarfing phenomenon.
b. general analogous characteristics.
c. a few shared ancestral characteristics.
d. derived (modified) characteristics such as the presence of feathers in both lineages.
e. evidence of hybridization between the two.
20. One possible test for classifying contemporary animals into genera is to check for results of
hybridization between:
a. individuals of different species.
b. individuals of the same species.
c. individuals of the same order.
d. two males only.
e. two females only.
21. The first vertebrates appear in the fossil record during the
a. Pleistocene.
b. Paleozoic.
c. Paleocene.
d. Mesozoic.
e. Cenozoic
77
23. The moving of continents on sliding plates on the earth surface is called:
a. continental drift.
b. geological timescale.
c. Pangaea.
d. adaptive radiation.
e. ring of fire.
24. Reptiles were the dominant form of land vertebrate during the
a. Cenozoic.
b. Paleozoic.
c. Mesozoic.
d. Precambrian.
e. Permian.
ANS: D REF: 125 (Figure 5.9) DIF: Factual OBJ: 4 MSC: New
27. The adaptive radiation of the mammals occurred mostly during the
a. Pleistocene.
b. Mesozoic.
c. Quaternary.
d. Cenozoic.
e. Paleozoic.
32. In _________ the young are born in an extremely immature state and complete development in their
mother’s external pouch.
a. placental mammals
b. monotremes
c. marsupials
d. reptiles
e. rodents
79
33. The rapid expansion and diversification of groups of organisms into newly available ecological niches
is termed
a. generalization.
b. homology.
c. parallel evolution.
d. an adaptive radiation.
e. specialization.
34. The diversification of reptiles facilitated by the evolution of the reptilian egg is a good example of
a. parallel evolution.
b. specialization.
c. homology.
d. adaptive radiation.
e. devolution.
35. Several species of very early hominins evolved over four million years, this is a clear example of:
a. microevolution
b. macroevolution
c. ancient synthesis
d. punctuated equilibrium
e. sexual dimorphism
36. Some modern human populations adapted in just a couple thousand years to living at high altitudes,
this is a clear example of:
a. microevolution
b. macroevolution
c. ancient synthesis
d. punctuated equilibrium
e. sexual dimorphism
True/False Questions
2. There are more than 20 major groups called phyla within the kingdom animalia.
80
ANS: True REF: 108 DIF: Factual OBJ: 2 MSC: New
4. If dinosaurs and birds both evolved feathers independent of one other, then the presence of feathers
would be considered a homoplasy in both lineages.
5. Both the recognition species concept and the ecological species concept include natural selection as a
factor in separating species from one another.
9. The Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene are all epochs of the Mesozoic.
10. The mammals achieved rapid evolutionary success because they possessed several characteristics
related to learning and general behavioral flexibility.
1. Explain how we connect to other species. What is the human place in the organic world?
ANS: Answer not provided REF: 108 DIF: Conceptual OBJ: 1
MSC: New
2. Describe the principles of classification, including the differences in homologies, analogies, and
homoplasy.
81
ANS: Answer not provided REF: 109-110 DIF: Factual OBJ: 2
MSC: New
4. Using the example of the evolutionary history of cars and trucks, apply cladistics analysis to another
organism.
ANS: Answer not provided REF: 114-117 DIF: Applied OBJ: 3
MSC: New
7. Explain the complexity of the definition of species, include a discussion of the process of speciation
and define the biological species concepts.
ANS: Answer not provided REF:117-119 DIF: Conceptual OBJ:6
MSC: New
8. Explain the differences in intraspecific versus interspecific variation of recognition of fossil species.
Discuss the difference between splitters and lumpers.
ANS: Answer not provided REF: 120-121 DIF: Factual OBJ:4
MSC: New
10. Explain how scientists interpret species and other groups in the fossil record. Provide one example
from the textbook
ANS: Answer not provided REF: 119-120 DIF: Factual OBJ:4
MSC: New
11. What are the influences of long-term continental drift on the evolution of terrestrial life forms?
ANS: Answer not provided REF: 124-128 DIF: Conceptual OBJ: 4
MSC: Pickup
82
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nou eigenlijk was, daar begreep ie niet veel van.—
Lezen had ie nooit geleerd. Z’n moeder was ’r ’n paar
maal mee begonnen, heel in ’t begin van z’n ziekte,
aan z’n bedje. Maar ’t lukte niet. Gebeden had ze’m
ingestampt, ’n brok hier en daar uit den katechismus,
en die zei ie maar altijd in-zich-zelf òp. Ze hadden ’m
gezeid, moeder en de kapelaan, op z’n vraag, waar ie
heen ging, als ie dood was, dat ie in den geluksstaat
zou komen. Op dàt idee bedacht ie allerlei vreemde
dingen, heerlijke kinder-zaligheidjes. Maar toch had hij
soms hevigen angst voor ’t sterven, omdat ie niet altijd
zeker voelde, of ie daarna z’n vader en moeder en z’n
zusjes, al z’n zusjes, die ie zoo stil lief had, wel
dadelijk zou zien. Den laatsten tijd zelfs schreide ie
veel meer in z’n ledekantje dan vroeger, omdat ie zich
zoo uitgeput voelde, niet meer in staat was, nu en dan
op te zitten. En dàt juist wou ie zoo graag, want hij had
gezien, hoe dol veel plezier ’t z’n vader deed; en hoe
ruwer, angstiger Kees raasde, als ie weer
achteruitgegaan was.
Het was alles heel vaag en heel vreemd voor ’m, maar
toch lichtend en glanzend in z’n kinder-verbeelding.—
Z’n gepeinzen over God den Heere, Jezus, en den
Heiligen Geest overdauwden met wond’ren stillen
luister z’n kindergeluk van ’t sterven. In z’n donker
hoekje, waar z’n ledekant rammelde, en z’n
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regende ’t voor zijn zielsverrukte oogjes, warmgoud
licht. Z’n mystieke geloofsgloed, omweefde ’m van z’n
lichtend binnen uit; hij voelde zich stijgen in ’t
goudgestard azuur, en handwuiven deed ie naar z’n
vader, z’n moeder en zusjes. En hooger, hooger
zweefde ie òp, door engeltjes gestuwd in een trillende
sfeer van dampend goud, omwolkend z’n handen, z’n
oogen, z’n beentjes in wond’ren nevel; hooger, al
hooger in ’t wemelende azuur; verstèrvend van de
aarde, maar òplevend naar den Heere.
[Inhoud]
ELFDE HOOFDSTUK.
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Nou waa’s die tug ’n dief hee? Nou joa! dà geld.… die
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genot, veur sain.… heuldegoar veur sáin!.….….…..
[Inhoud]
II.
Maar hij wist niet waar dat zat! Weer schroefde ie, dan
[411]rechts, dan links, handen in glibberig zweet,
onvast, en plots draaide de lens meè.—
Hij juichte even gesmoord van bang genot. Los.. los!
nou sou die d’r sain.… Maar weer onder ’t
losschroeven bleef de lens vastzitten. Nou gloeide
toch ’t koper glad in z’n zweethanden en sulde ie
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vloekte, trampelde.… Wat noù weer? Hij keek, maar
kon niets vinden. Alleen zat ’t ding met ’n vreemd
zijstangetje van onder in driehoek, nog maar ’n heel
klein eindje vast op den schroefdraad.