International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-022-02260-y

ORIGINAL PAPER

Thermal comfort conditions at microclimate scale and surface urban

heat island in a tropical city: A study on João Pessoa city, Brazil
Regiane de Souza e Silva1 · Richarde Marques da Silva1,2 · Anne Falcão de Freitas3 · Joel Silva dos Santos2,3 ·
Celso Augusto Guimarães Santos1,4 · Eduardo Rodrigues Viana de Lima2,3

Received: 22 February 2021 / Revised: 13 September 2021 / Accepted: 23 February 2022 / Published online: 1 April 2022
© The Author(s) under exclusive licence to International Society of Biometeorology 2022

Abstract
Surface urban heat islands (SUHIs) are one of the most studied phenomena in urban climates because they generate problems
for the well-being of the urban population. This study analyzed the thermal comfort conditions at microclimate scale and
SUHI for João Pessoa city, Brazil. Micrometeorological data (temperature and air humidity data) collected at 10 stations in
2011 and 2018 were used to calculate Thom’s discomfort index (TDI) for João Pessoa city. Satellite images from Landsat 5/
TM for 1991, 2006, and 2010 and Landsat 8/OLI for 2018 were used for land use and land cover classification and to iden-
tify SUHI. The obtained results highlighted that the SUHI area in João Pessoa city was 26 ­km2 and that almost half of the
heat island area was concentrated in the Geisel, Aeroclube, Valentina, Distrito Industrial, Cristo Redentor, and Mangabeira
neighborhoods. Regarding the micrometeorological data, higher values were obtained for 2018 in the dry periods (summer)
and during the day. Based on the results, a considerable increase in discomfort during the daytime was observed in urbanized
areas of the city from 2010 − 2018 due to the increase in the average temperature in João Pessoa between 1991 and 2018.

Keywords GIS · Heat islands · Microclimate · Remote sensing · Thermal discomfort · Urbanization

Introduction changes in LULC and the increase in temperatures in urban

Changes in land use and land cover (LULC) associated with
the urbanization process and climate variability are the main
factors that control urban climates (Chen et al. 2020; Wang
and Murayama 2020). LULC changes are controlled by
population growth (Zhou and Ren 2011). Currently, more
than half of the global population lives in urban areas, and
this metric is expected to exceed 60% by 2030 (Grigoras and
Uritescu 2019). One of the consequences of this problem is
* Celso Augusto Guimarães Santos
celso@ct.ufpb.br
1
Federal University of Paraíba, Postgraduate Programme
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, João Pessoa, Brazil
2
Federal University of Paraíba, Department of Geosciences,
João Pessoa, PB 58051‑900, Brazil
3
Federal University of Paraíba, Postgraduate Programme
of Development and Environment, João Pessoa,
PB 58051‑900, Brazil
4
Federal University of Paraíba, Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, João Pessoa, PB 58051‑900,
Brazil
areas due to the replacement of green areas by imperme-
able surfaces and materials, which absorb and retain a large
amount of energy (Dihkan et al. 2015).
Studies on relationships among urbanization, surface
urban heat island (SUHI) and outdoor thermal comfort in
countries characterized by hot climates are not scarce (Da
Silva et al. 2010; Abreu-Harbich et al. 2014; Litardo et al.
2020; Mohan et al. 2020). For instance, Salata et al. (2017)
reported microclimate, human thermal comfort, and health
issues, but only during heat waves for Rome city, and ana-
lyzed heat island mitigation strategies in an urban outdoor
environment. Bhati and Mohan (2018) analyzed SUHI
effects in Delhi based on weather research and forecasting
WRF v3.5 model focusing on air temperature and surface
skin temperature. He et al. (2020) investigated the influence
of the ventilation performance of the compact high-rise
gridiron precinct on SUHI and outdoor thermal comfort for
Brisbane city. Fahed et al. (2020) analyzed the impact of
SUHI mitigation measures on microclimate and pedestrian
comfort in a dense urban district of Lebanon. Mohan et al.
(2020) studied the impact of urban sprawl on SUHI and ther-
mal comfort during five decadal across Delhi.

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However, there are no studies about the influence of
LULC changes on outdoor thermal comfort conditions at
microclimate scale and SUHI in Brazil (Borges et al. 2020).
In addition, the present study contributes to the analysis
of the impact of urbanization changes on the surface ther-
mal variability and on the thermal comfort under different
surfaces in a city with a humid tropical climate in Brazil.
In Brazil, the recent expansion of medium-sized cities has
increased sharply since the 1990–2000 decade (Silva et al.
2018). In João Pessoa, there have been few studies that
address the impacts of disorderly urban sprawl (Sobreira
et al. 2011). Souza et al. (2016) analyzed the influence of
LULC on surface temperature. Da Silva et al. (2018) esti-
mated future thermal comfort scenarios for João Pessoa
based on changes in air temperature and relative humidity.
However, these studies did not analyze the formation of
SUHIs considering the thermal discomfort index.
Currently, there is an abundance of thermal comfort indi-
ces in the literature, such as wind chill index (Siple and Pas-
sel 1945), discomfort index (Giles et al. 1990), and effective
temperature related to the wind function (Suping et al. 1992).
Thus, choosing a suitable index is not a simple process and
often results in a compromise between simplicity and univer-
sal applicability (Nedel et al. 2021). The Thom’s discomfort
index (TDI) is being widely used worldwide to estimate the
thermal sensation perceived by people, as it uses only two
variables, i.e., temperature and relative humidity (Marçal et al.
2019). The TDI has already been adjusted for tropical climate
ranges by Da Silva et al. (2010) and Da Silva et al. (2018)
and showed good results for Brazilian cities, as described by
Nedel et al. (2021), showing that TDI has been very realistic
regarding the thermal conditions perceived by population.
This paper analyzes the influence of urban microclimate
and the dynamics of the occupation process of LULC in the
formation of atmospheric and SUHI in a medium-sized city
with humid climate and without proper urban planning in
Brazil. Thus, this research can help in the adoption of public
policies that take into account climate dynamics at a local
scale, LULC, and urban morphology. In addition, the appli-
cation of spatial analysis techniques in urban areas that have
a recent increase in population density and verticalization,
as is the case in João Pessoa city, is necessary for studying
the connections between LULC changes, increases in surface
and atmospheric urban heat islands, and the spatiotemporal
variability of the urban microclimate.
These temperature variations at the local level trigger
problems for the well-being and health of the population
and contribute to air pollution, which becomes a challenge
for energy management and urban planning (Silva et al.
2018; Peres et al. 2018). At the level of urban planning, these
tools can be used to optimize green areas to enhance the
effects of cold islands and thus mitigate high temperatures
(Zhang et al. 2017). Given this context, the paper analyzes
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International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093
the thermal comfort and their relationship with the forma-
tion of SUHIs in João Pessoa city. As previously stated, the
research is of great relevance to the study area, as it spatial-
izes the SUHI and correlates with the production of geo-
graphic space in recent decades, taking into account public
housing policies of the federal government. Usually, other
works on urban climate approach the subject only from the
meteorological perspective.
Materials e methods
Study area
João Pessoa city has a territory of approximately 212 k­ m2 and
is located between the geographical coordinates of 7° 03′ 00″
and 07° 15′ 00″ south latitude and 34° 58′ 00″ and 34° 47′
30″ west longitude. João Pessoa has a population of 723,515
inhabitants, and the demographic density is 3,421.28 inhab-
itants/km2 (IBGE 2010). The regional climate, according to
the Köppen–Geiger climate classification, is As’ type (hot and
humid climate), with two different climatic periods: dry and
wet. The climate in João Pessoa city presents high humidity,
with an average temperature of 25 °C. The greatest rainfall
occurs between April and July (wet season) when the tempera-
ture decreases. The average precipitation is around 1,800 mm/
year (Duarte 2010). In the autumn, there is an intensification
of rainfalls. Regarding the situation of the winds, the city is
influenced by the wet winds from the southeast (trade) and the
average speed is approximately 12 m/s (Sobreira et al. 2011).
As it is in the extreme east of Brazil, with its frequency altered
by the east and northeast winds and by the intertropical conver-
gence zone, the minimum and maximum daily temperatures
range from 22 to 30 °C, and the highest temperatures occur
in dry and hotter months, precisely between September and
March (Souza et al. 2016). During the summer, the highest
relative humidity values vary between 70 and 80%.
Microclimate variability and thermal comfort
conditions
The microclimatic variability in João Pessoa city was analyzed
using daily data from 10 micro-meteorological stations. This
study used portable thermo-hygrometers (hobos U-10) to meas-
ure thermal comfort in João Pessoa city, and the geographic
distribution of the stations can be viewed in Da Silva et al.
(2018). At these micro-meteorological stations, the maximum
temperature and relative humidity data were collected at unin-
terrupted hourly intervals. Data were collected for: (a) 2011:
from January to March (dry season) and from June to August
(wet season), and (b) 2018: from January to March (dry season)
and from April to September (wet season). To carry out this
International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093 1081

study, only wind speed and radiation data from INMET mete- Ub − Ua 1
orological station were used. To determine the thermal comfort K= × × 100 (2)
Ua T
conditions, Thom’s discomfort index (TDI) (Thom 1959) was
used, which is obtained by the following equation: where Ua and Ub are the same type of land area at the begin-
ning and end of the monitoring period, respectively, and T is
TDI = T − (0.55 − 0.005RH ) × (T − 14.5) (1) the period of time from time a to b.
where T is the air temperature (°C) and R ­ H is the relative
humidity of the air (%). Land surface temperature retrieval
To characterize the degree of discomfort in this study,
TDI values (°C) were adapted for João Pessoa city and To determine land surface temperature retrieval, we used
adjusted to local conditions based on Marçal et al. (2019), the thermal infrared bands from different types of Landsat
such as (a) somewhat comfortable: 22 ≤ TDI ≤ 25, (b) images (band 6 of Landsat 5 and bands 10 and 11 of Landsat
uncomfortable: 25 ≤ TDI ≤ 28, (c) very uncomfortable: 8). Firstly, we converted digital numbers of images to top
28 < TDI < 31, and (d) beginning of emergency state: of atmospheric spectral radiance. For Landsat 5, the pixel
TDI ≥ 31. After processing and spatializing the data, the values were converted from digital number units to radiation
results were analyzed and discussed from the perspective of values (Landsat 2011) as follows:
the spatiotemporal scale defined by the climatological series (
Lmax 𝜆 − Lmin 𝜆
)
(3)
( )
and satellite images available for the work. L𝜆=
Qcal max − Qcal min
Qcal − Qcal min + Lmin 𝜆

where Lλ is the spectral radiance (W/m2·sr·µm), Qcal is

Classification and analysis of LULC changes the calibrated gray pixel value based on DN, Qcal min is the
minimum pixel value in gray levels (DN = 1), Qcal max is the
In this study, satellite images were used to estimate LST and maximum pixel value in gray levels (DN = 255), Lmin λ is
LULC classification over an interval of 27 years (Table 1). the minimum spectral radiance (3.2 W/m2·sr·µm), and Lmax λ
LULC classification used in this study was based on Cunha is the maximum spectral radiance (12.65 W/m2·sr·µm). For
et al. (2021). Five LULC classes were classified: (a) barren the Landsat 8 images, the LST was determined by Eq. 4
soil, (b) built-up area, (c) shrub vegetation, (d) rainforest, (Landsat 2015):
and (e) water bodies. To assess the accuracy, a total of 560
samplings were collected at different points. The sizes of L𝜆 = ML Qcal + ΔL (4)
the training samples for each class were as follows: water where ML is the multiplicative factor of resizing each band
bodies = 10, barren soil = 115, shrub vegetation = 157, built- (3.3420 × ­10−4) and ΔL is the additive factor for resizing each
up area = 170, and rainforest = 113. To assess the quality of band (0.1000). After that, the spectral radiance was calcu-
the classification, the user’s accuracy, producer’s accuracy, lated using the following equation:
kappa coefficient, commission error, and omission error
were used (Cunha et al. 2020). L = Lmin + (Lmax − Lmin ) × DN∕255 (5)
The urban expansion change rate and dynamic changes
in the spatial structure of the LULC for a particular time where L is spectral radiance, Lmin is 1.238, Lmax is 15.600,
sequence can be quantitatively described using the LULC and DN is the digital number. After, the radiance was con-
single dynamic change parameter (K). K is a key index for verted to brightness temperature based on:
evaluating land use changes and can improve comparisons K2
of regional differences (Wu et al. 2016). K is defined as TB = ( )
K1 (6)
follows: 1n[ L
+ 1]

Table 1  Characteristics of Images Dates Sun elevation (°) Sun azimuth (°) Land Scene Geometric
Landsat images used in this cloud cloud RMSE
study cover cover model

Landsat 5 1991/11/05 57.22 107.41 17% 26% 5.75 m

Landsat 5 2006/26/08 55.61 59.21 5% 14% 6.65 m
Landsat 5 2010/10/08 63.21 88.45 4% 20% 6.47 m
Landsat 8 2018/28/09 61.28 89.57 9% 18% 6.01 m

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1082 International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093

where TB is the brightness temperature, K1 is a calibration Results and discussion

constant (set to 607.76), and K2 is another calibration con-
stant (set to 1260.56). Analysis of thermal comfort conditions
Spectral radiance model was used to retrieve surface tem-
perature from Landsat 5/TM. In order to determine surface Table 2 shows the average annual values of air temperature,
temperature from Landsat 8/TIRS, bands 10 and 11 were relative humidity, and TDI at ten meteorological stations.
used following the split window method, as proposed by During the period, there was an increase in air temperature at
McClain et al. (1985): all analyzed stations and a reduction in the relative humidity
values. The results showed a positive increase in the average
LST = 1.035 × TB10 + 3.046 − (TB10 − TB11) − 10.93
(7) TDI values between the years analyzed for all monitored
stations, with the exception of P01, which features natural
where LST is the land surface temperature and T ­ B10 and
thermal comfort. The largest increases occurred at P09 and
­TB11 are brightness temperatures of bands 10 and band 11,
P08 stations, which are densely populated. In the case of
respectively.
P09, the neighborhood had an increase in population den-
sity and more rapid verticalization in the studied period and
Spatial determination of SUHI has had an increase in urban density and impermeable soil
covering in recent years. The results also pointed out that the
The determination of the SUHIs of the LST-based surface
TDI values ranged from 25.69 to 25.54 and that the P03 and
was analyzed using the hotspot analysis (HSA) function
P10 stations had the highest discomfort values in 2011. For
proposed by Ord and Getis (1995). This method analyzes
2018, the highest values of TDI were registered in P09 and
the presence of hot spots (high grouped values) and cold
P04 stations, with values of 26.86 and 27.03, respectively.
spots (low grouped values). To assess the impact of LULC
The results show that the ten micro-meteorological stations
change on the SUHI effect, the hotspot change pattern was
in João Pessoa city have representative features and the TDI
linked to LULC change over time. More information about
can be used to analyze thermal comfort and is an indicator
using the HSA can be obtained in Tran et al. (2017). This
of the biometeorological standard.
study is divided into four stages: (a) LULC classification,
Table 3 presents the results of the TDI in the daytime
(b) LST calculation, (c) SUHI detection, and (d) thermal
and nighttime shifts at each analyzed station. In 2011, the
comfort using TDI. Figure 1 shows the proposed flowchart
results showed that the P03, P04, P07, and P10 stations
for determining SUHI and thermal discomfort.

Fig. 1  Flowchart for determin-

ing surface urban heat islands
(SUHIs) and thermal discomfort

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International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093 1083

Table 2  Variation values of Stations Code 2011 2018 Variation TDI

TDI, air temperature (T), and
relative humidity (­ RH) T (°C) RH (%) TDI T (°C) RH (%) TDI

Mata do Buraquinho P01 24.76 85.72 24.97 24.88 81.54 24.72 − 0.25
Expedicionários P02 26.38 81.11 25.15 28.1 73.63 26.13 0.98
Manaíra P03 27.14 79.23 25.69 28.33 74.36 26.38 0.69
Cabo Branco P04 26.86 79.48 25.46 28.8 75.32 26.86 1.40
Mangabeira P05 26.37 82.22 25.21 28.24 79.45 26.69 1.48
Cruz das Armas P06 26.45 81.59 25.24 27.79 78.57 26.23 0.99
Alto do Mateus P07 26.48 81.37 25.25 27.73 80.53 26.31 1.06
Centro P08 26.51 81.33 25.28 28.28 80.88 26.83 1.55
Bancários P09 26.14 80.72 24.90 28.57 80.05 27.03 2.13
INMET P10 26.84 80.78 25.54 27.88 75.34 26.07 0.53
Mean 26.39 81.36 25.27 27.86 77.97 26.33 1.20
Variation coefficient 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.50

Table 3  Night and daytime TDI Years Periods P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07 P08 P09 P10 Average SD
levels for each station used in
this study 2011 Daytime 26.6 26.6 27.7 27.2 27.0 27.1 27.2 26.9 26.7 27.2 27.0 0.34
Nighttime 24.9 25.3 26.1 25.8 25.3 25.1 25.0 25.5 25.0 25.3 25.3 0.39
Difference 1.7 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.2 1.4 1.7 1.9 1.7 −
2018 Daytime 26.2 28.4 27.6 28.8 29.8 28.2 29.4 29.3 29.0 26.6 28.3 1.20
Nighttime 24.1 24.8 25.0 24.9 24.9 24.1 24.3 24.9 24.9 25.3 24.7 0.39
Difference 1.4 4.3 2.7 3.9 4.9 4.1 5.1 4.3 4.1 1.3 3.6 −

had the highest daytime TDI values, which ranged from
27.2–27.7, and all stations were classified as having
uncomfortable conditions. As seen in Table 3, P03 was the
station that presented the worst thermal comfort conditions
in the study area because it is one of the most vertical and
urbanized neighborhoods in the study area, while during
the night period, only the P01 station was classified as
partially comfortable. The results showed night TDI values
ranging from 24.9–26.1, or from somewhat comfortable to
comfortable. The results made it clear that in the areas of
impermeable soil covering material, thermal comfort con-
ditions were unfavorable and that at night there were also
conditions of discomfort due to the release of heat trapped
during the day by these covering materials.
The results showed the differences in thermal comfort
in the seasons varied from 1.4–2.2 °C at the stations moni-
tored in the intra-urban space of the study area, which
can be considered high for a region with a humid climate
that suffers from the influence of maritime conditions. It
is noted that the greatest thermal variations between the
day and night shifts occurred at the P06 and P07 stations,
which are located in residential neighborhoods with a
high density of people and homes. For the average val-
ues obtained,
​​ the results showed that the average thermal
comfort variation in 2011 for all monitored stations was
1.7 °C (27.0 °C for the daytime TDI and 25.3 °C for the
night TDI), which was classified as comfortable.
The results showed that the P07, P08, P09, and P05 sta-
tions were those with the largest daytime TDIs, with values
ranging from 29.0 to 29.8 °C, and the conditions in these
areas were classified as very uncomfortable. As expected,
only P01 was classified as having the best thermal comfort
condition. As this station is located in a remnant area of the
Atlantic Forest, there are reduced temperatures due to the
ecosystem services of microclimate regulation exercised by
the area. Strangely, the TDI values at night had values below
those obtained in 2011; however, the thermal differences
were even greater when compared to those from 2011, i.e.,
2018 had more pleasant nights but worse levels of daytime
thermal comfort.
In the night shift, only the P03 and P10 stations were
classified as uncomfortable, while the other stations pre-
sented values in
​​ the partially comfortable range. The val-
ues ​​of nocturnal TDI ranged from 24.7 to 25.3 °C, with
mean TDI = 24.1 °C and a standard deviation of 0.39.
However, the results showed that the thermal comfort dif-
ferences between the stations ranged from 1.4 to 5.1 °C,
which can be considered high for stations distributed in the
intra-urban space of João Pessoa city. It should be noted
that the greatest thermal variations between the day and

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1084 International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093

Fig. 2  Hourly variation in the TDI and average temperature and relative humidity for 2011

night shifts occurred at the P05 and P07 stations, which For the average values ​​obtained, the results showed that
are located in residential neighborhoods with a great cir- the average thermal comfort variation in 2018 was 3.6 °C,
culation of commerce and services because the areas are with a value of 28.3 °C for the daytime TDI and 24.7 °C
some of the most populous neighborhoods in João Pessoa.

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International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093 1085

for the nighttime TDI; the conditions were classified as and 2018, respectively. As seen in the results for 2011, the
comfortable and partially comfortable, respectively. TDIs from 0:00–9:00, and 17:00–23:00 presented values
Figures 2 and 3 show the hourly variation in the maxi- mostly in the uncomfortable class, while most stations reg-
mum temperature, relative humidity, and the TDI for 2011 istered that the intervals from 10:00–16:00 were classified as

Fig. 3  Hourly variation in air temperature, relative humidity, and TDI for 2018

13
1086
very uncomfortable. The highest temperature found for 2011
occurred at 13:00 h (30.45 °C) with a TDI value of 27.35 in
P02. This station is located in an urbanized residential area,
where residences and commercial buildings are interspersed
with green areas. For 2018, the maximum temperature value
found was at 12:00 (36.34 °C), in which the TDI reached
30.54 (TDI ≥ 28.0).
As expected, the thermal comfort values ​​varied the most
during the day between 13:00 and 18:00 because the city is
located in the tropical zone of the globe and receives a posi-
tive incidence of solar radiation year-round. The values ​​in
the comfortable range (< 24) occurred from 07:00 to 8:00
and in the partially uncomfortable range from 18:00 to 00:00
(between 24 ≤ TDI ≤ 26.0). The results showed very uncom-
fortable values from
​​ 9:00 to 17:00. During the interval stud-
ied, there were changes in the way that discomfort was felt
for this area. At 8:00 am, it was classified as uncomfortable
and from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm the feeling was very uncom-
fortable; the rest of the day was in the range of partially
uncomfortable.
The P05 station was characterized as being densely pop-
ulated and by residences and small commercial establish-
ments. The presence of trees was also found in this area,
but the predominant cover type was ceramic coverings
and pavement. In 2011, the maximum values were found
at 13:00, with a value of 30.56 °C, and the maximum TDI
was recorded at 12:00, with a value of 27.63 (uncomfort-
able). In 2018, 12:00 was the time with the highest values,
with a temperature of 38.22 °C and TDI of 32.30 °C (very
uncomfortable). The daily changes in the TDI for the year
2011 were from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm, which in classified as
uncomfortable, and the rest of the day was in the range of
partially uncomfortable. For the 2018 TDI, the range of very
uncomfortable was found from 8:00 to 17:00, the classifica-
tion of uncomfortable was found at 18:00, and the rest of the
day was in the range of partially uncomfortable.
The results for P08 show that this place had a large clus-
ter of commercial establishments and during the day, there
was a large concentration of vehicles and pedestrians. In
2011, the maximum temperature value was found at 14:00,
with a measurement of 30.75 °C, and the TDI was highest
at 13:00, with a value of 27.61 (uncomfortable). In 2018,
Table 4  Average accuracy LULC User’s accuracy
obtained for the classifications
(%)
Built-up area 81.0
Shrub vegetation 74.4
Rainforest 90.0
Barren soil 88.3
Water bodies 86.5
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International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093
the highest temperature was recorded at 12:00, with a tem-
perature value of 38.09 °C and a TDI of 32.03 °C (very
uncomfortable). The TDI fluctuation recorded for 2011 was
between the hours of 8:00 am to 7:00 pm in the range of
uncomfortable, and the rest of the day was in the range of
partially uncomfortable. In 2018, there was variation: from
9:00 to 17:00, the conditions were very uncomfortable; at
18:00, the conditions were uncomfortable; and the rest of
the day was comfortable.
Long‑term monitoring of LULC and classification
accuracy
Accuracy statistics showed good results, and average accu-
racy obtained for the classifications is shown in Table 4. The
classification user’s accuracy ranged between 74 and 90%,
the producer’s accuracy ranged from 81 to 85%, the kappa
coefficient ranged between 78 and 84%, and the global accu-
racy was 77.4%. The confusion matrices for satellite images
showed that most of the misclassification occurred between
the settlements and barren soil, while there was also some
misclassification in the rainforest and shrub vegetation.
Table 5 and Fig. 4 present the results of the LULC clas-
sification analyzed and the percentage of variation for each
identified class. The results of LULC classification showed
that the class of water bodies and barren soil were the least
representative for all the years studied. It is noted that prac-
tically the entire urban space was occupied by buildings or
vegetation areas. The classes of herbaceous vegetation and
built-up areas represented the highest percentages of the
total area because they were the main LULC existing in the
urban area of ​​João Pessoa.
As can be seen in each time interval, the largest gains in
the urban area occurred in the interval between 2006 and
2010 (4.3%), which was precisely the period of the social
policies implemented by the federal government aiming to
fill the housing deficit of the poorest sections of society.
Among other changes observed in this period, there was
also the class of shrub vegetation, which suffered a reduction
of 33.1 k­ m2 (16.5%), which was the largest change during
the period, followed by the class of exposed soil, with a
decrease of 7.7 ­km2 (3.8%). It was also found that the class
Producer’s Kappa Commission Omission
accuracy
82.0 84.9 88.6 83.9
84.3 79.6 88.5 80.6
82.0 82.9 88.6 83.9
85.3 78.2 88.4 71.0
81.6 82.3 88.9 80.4
International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093 1087

Table 5  Areas and percentage LULC 1991 2006 2010 2018 Variation
of classes and land use for each 1991 − 2018
year studied
km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 %

Built-up area 80.5 40.2 83 41.4 91.6 45.7 95.6 47.7 15.1 15.8
Shrub vegetation 66.9 33.4 76.2 38.0 64.6 32.3 51.8 25.9 − 15.1 − 29.2
Rainforest 42 21.0 33.2 16.6 35.1 17.5 46.7 23.3 4.7 10.1
Barren soil 8.2 4.1 5.1 2.5 6.1 3.0 3.5 1.7 − 4.7 − 134.3
Water bodies 2.7 1.3 2.8 2.7 2.9 1.4 2.7 1.3 0 0.0

Fig. 4  LULC classification for:

(a) 1991, (b) 2006, (c) 2010,
and (d) 2018

of water bodies showed a decrease of 0.8 ­km2 (0.4%). The
results show that the urban area had an increase of 15.1 ­km2
(15.8%) in its total area during the studied period, and the
class of rainforest obtained an increase of 4.7 k­ m2 (10.1%),
while there were larger decreases in shrub vegetation and
barren soil. The reduction of green areas and water bodies
in urban areas and the consequent increase in impermeable
surfaces generate changes in the energy balance of the urban
climate system. These characteristics cause changes in its
thermal field, with adverse consequences for well-being and
quality of life of the populations residing in these environ-
ments transformed by anthropic action and strong urban
real estate speculation, causing formation of heat islands
and thermal discomfort (Deilami et al. 2018; He et al. 2020).

13
1088
Table 6  Values of the LULC change ratio (K)
Classes 1991 − 2006 2006 − 2010 2010 − 2018 (%)
(%) (%)
Built-up area 0.20 2.61 0.54
Shrub vegeta- − 0.68 − 3.82 − 2.47
tion
Rainforest 2.58 1.40 5.48
Barren soil − 2.60 6.41 − 11.42
Water bodies 0.43 − 1.42 − 3.76
Table 6 shows the results of the variation rates of the
K factor, where it is possible to verify the losses and
gains and the highest intensity for each LULC class
(1991–2006, 2006–2010, and 2010–2018 periods).
The greatest variations occurred in the exposed soil
class, with the greatest loss in the 2010–2018 period
(11.42%). There were also losses for the 2006–2010
period (6.41%). The results showed a constant increase
in the built-up area class in all periods, with a greater
increase in the 2006–2010 period (2.61%) due to the
various social projects encouraged by public policies
on access to housing throughout Brazil and improve-
ments in the country’s social and economic conditions
during that period.
The 2014−2018 period also marked an economic
decline in Brazil, which has resulted in a strong eco-
nomic recession, leading to a decline in the gross
domestic product for two consecutive years. In Brazil,
the economy contracted by approximately 3.5% in 2015
and 3.3% in 2016, which generated an economic crisis
and increased unemployment. The peak of unemploy-
ment was verified in March 2017 with a rate of 13.7%,
representing 14.2 million unemployed Brazilians. These
conditions slowed the economic and social development
of the population, which was reflected in lower rates
of urban expansion in the study area. However, there
was an increase in urban density, i.e., in the verticali-
zation process, due to real estate speculation in more
ethereal neighborhoods in the capital of Paraíba State.
This trend aligns with the urbanization process in Bra-
zil, which was devoid of environmental planning and
marked by a rapid expansion of urban areas, resulting
in urban density and the verticalization of buildings in
large and medium-sized cities in the country, especially
in more wealthy areas. It is worth mentioning that dur-
ing the 2010–2018 period, there was an adjustment of
the master plan for João Pessoa city to comply with the
statute of cities in Brazil, which promoted and regu-
lated the consolidation of the urban network in large
and medium-sized cities in the country.
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International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093
Spatiotemporal variation of LST
In this study, multitemporal mapping of LST was used
to quantitatively identify SUHIs in João Pessoa city. Fig-
ure 5a–d shows the results of the LST mapping for 1991,
2006, 2010, and 2018. The LST spatiotemporal results
showed that the values varied from 20 to 40 °C during the
analyzed period and that 2018 presented the highest LST
values. Figure 5e shows the distribution of the average LST
from 1991–2018. The results showed that the LST varied
from 22.24 °C to 34.64 °C, i.e., with a thermal amplitude
of greater than 10 °C. The northeastern and southwestern
portions of the city had the highest temperatures due to the
presence of a higher urban density combined with the pres-
ence of buildings and soil covering materials that increase
heat absorption.
The results shows that the lowest surface temperatures
were found in the Mata do Buraquinho forest reserve and its
peripheral areas, thus evidencing the role of vegetation cover
in the climate mitigation of urban areas. The results showed
that the average temperature tended to increase throughout
the analyzed period and that 2010 presented the lowest LST
values (Fig. 5f). Comparing the LSTs observed on single
long-term days, together with the changes in land use, allows
for a more accurate analysis of the impacts of landscape
changes on thermal comfort. Once again, this growing trend
was corroborated by the urbanization factor and the reduc-
tion of green areas. Other reason for the pick in 1998 in the
air temperature time series (Fig. 5f) is the considerable tem-
perature increase in northeastern Brazil in that year, which
was considered atypical according to Sobreira et al. (2011).
Year 1998 was the driest year in northeastern Brazil in the
last 20 years (Teixeira and Satyamurty 2011), due to the
intensification of the El Niño phenomenon, which caused
a drastic increase in temperatures and drought occurrence
in the region.
Spatiotemporal variation of SUHI
Figure 6 shows the spatial distribution of the SUHI in
João Pessoa city. As seen in this figure, there was a pat-
tern of the places that concentrated the highest LST
values ​​ in the city. These areas were mainly in the most
populous and densely populated areas and remained con-
stant in all the years observed. The neighborhoods that
concentrated major SUHI areas were Geisel, Aeroclube,
Valentina, Distrito Industrial, Cristo Redentor, and Man-
gabeira. The SUHI in the study area occurred in more
vertical denser neighborhoods located in the northeast-
ern and southeastern portions of João Pessoa city (Da
Silva et al. 2018). The results showed that these neigh-
borhoods concentrated almost half of the heat island area
(11 ­k m 2 , which represents 44% of the heat islands) in
International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093 1089

Fig. 5  LST maps: (a) 1991, (b)

2006, (c) 2010, (d) 2018, (e)
average, and (f) air temperature
trends in João Pessoa from
1989 − 2019

João Pessoa. As seen in Fig. 6, these neighborhoods have Discussion

a large part of their territory occupied by surface heat
islands, with an upper LST above 30 °C in the built-up Influence of LULC in microclimate variability
areas. Thus, it is possible to see that the concentration of
areas with higher temperatures was present in the urban- The microclimatic variability in João Pessoa city was ana-
ized area of the
​​ city, where floors and ceramic coverings lyzed using daily data from 10 meteorological stations for
prevail. the 2011–2018 period. At these stations, the maximum

13
1090 International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093

Fig. 6  Spatial distribution of the SUHI identified in 2018 for João Pessoa city

13
International Journal of Biometeorology (2022) 66:1079–1093
temperature and relative humidity data were collected at
uninterrupted hourly intervals for two years.
Regarding urban growth, João Pessoa city showed an
intensification of the urbanization process during the studied
period. The increase in this process followed the standards
of other Brazilian cities, which was the result of government
policy guidelines implemented to expand housing estates.
This urban growth in João Pessoa city caused problems in
the urban area, such as the expansion of the urban network
without planning in the last decades and the verticaliza-
tion process, especially since 1990, when there was a sharp
increase in the appreciation of real estate, which was com-
mon in large Brazilian cities. Thus, it was found that the
urban expansion of João Pessoa city occurred differently
at two different moments in its history: in the first moment,
there was the expansion of the urban area, and in a sec-
ond moment, the urban density increased through the verti-
calization process of some neighborhoods in the city. This
urbanization process, which lacked from a proper territorial
planning, caused the reduction of green areas and changes
in the urban thermal field of the city with the formation of
heat islands and thermal discomfort (Santos et al. 2012).
Verticalization is not a natural consequence of urbani-
zation, but an option of urban policy that, in medium and
large Brazilian cities, constitutes one of its most character-
istic features, occurring with peculiar speed and creating
priority destinations for residential use (Silva 2007). In the
case of the study area, this process occurred unevenly and
was unregulated in the face of strong real estate speculation
in some sectors of the city that occurred at different stages
in the evolution of urban expansion. In João Pessoa city, the
verticalization process can be classified into three phases:
(a) phase 1: between 1950 and 1970, when the introduc-
tion of tall buildings in the urban landscape was part of the
city’s modernization strategies; (b) phase 2: from the late
1970s to 2005, when the verticalized multifamily dwell-
ings were propagated and consolidated, with more than ten
floors designated as housing for the middle and upper middle
classes; and (c) phase 3: after 2016, which brought a period
marked by an increase in vertical and horizontal residential
condominiums, strengthening of the real estate market, and
by the expansion of verticalization in new neighborhoods,
including the peripheral and most popular areas in the city
(De Andrade 2017).
We understand that LSTs have large daily fluctuations
due to daily changes in climatic conditions, which hampers
further analysis of the causes. However, to compare the
LSTs observed on single long-term days, together with the
changes in land use, it allows a more accurate analysis of
the impacts of landscape changes on thermal comfort. The
densification of urban areas has caused several changes in
the LULC and in the climatic system of these environments,
thereby compromising the quality of life and the well-being
1091
of the population, as in the case of João Pessoa, which
already presents with the formation of urban heat islands
and thermal discomfort conditions. The results showed that
it is possible to verify a trend of increasing air temperature
in João Pessoa city, as highlighted in the orbital images.
The increasing temperature trend was also found by Santos
(2012) in a study regarding changes in the city’s thermal
field. Once again, this growing trend was corroborated by
the urbanization factor and the reduction of green areas. In
the last 20 years, 1998 was the driest year in northeastern
Brazil (Teixeira and Satyamurty 2011). This fact is due to
the intensification of the El Niño phenomenon, which causes
a drastic increase in temperatures and droughts in northeast-
ern Brazil (Cai et al. 2020). Thus, these outliers of tempera-
ture are influenced in part by mesoclimatic conditions and
by changes in the land use.
Relationship between LULC, LST, and SUHI
The LST varied according to the type of LULC and the
reduction of green areas. The built-up area and barren soil
classes were those with the highest values, with average
LSTs of 31.0 and 29.7, respectively, and standard deviations
of 3.4 °C and 4 °C, respectively. Based on the estimated
values of LST values, it can be observed that the barren soil
and built-up area presented the highest LST values because
such classes absorbed more heat. The classes of water bod-
ies and rainforest presented lower values, emphasizing the
importance of these classes for cooling in urban centers.
The classes of water and vegetation, in this case, trees, pre-
sented lower values due to the evapotranspiration and shad-
ing processes. These areas are islands of freshness in the
intra-urban space of João Pessoa city, as they provide the
ecosystem service of climate regulation. Such results cor-
roborated the work of Santos (2012) in the same study area,
where a difference of more than 5 °C between a remnant of
the Atlantic Forest and the Manaíra neighborhood in the
intra-urban space of João Pessoa city was found. The same
author also found different thermal islands depending on
the LULC, i.e., areas that have impermeable soil covering
materials and reduced vegetation cover showed higher tem-
peratures when compared to green areas.
Conclusions
This study discusses findings concerning thermal comfort
for João Pessoa city, located in northeastern Brazil. In addi-
tion, this work analyzed the multitemporal dynamics of
changes in LULC from 1991–2018 and estimated the SUHI
for different datasets. Through this analysis, it was possible
to verify that the urbanization process had an impact on the
SUHI in João Pessoa city. The 10:00–16:00 interval was
13
1092
considered very uncomfortable in terms of thermal comfort.
It can also be concluded that during the 2011–2018 period,
the extent of SUHIs was clear and of increasing magnitude.
The lack of planning and changes in the LULC may be the
main factors triggering the SUHI effect in the study area, as
confirmed by analyzing the statistical relationship between
the SUHI and LULC classes, which showed significant cor-
relations between the two datasets.
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