Allowable stress: Factor of safety

Fracture point Yield point

Brittle Material

Ultimate strength
Factor of safety = Allowable stress

Ductile Material

Yield strength
Factor of safety =
Allowable stress

Factor of safety is always greater than unity

File:Stress strain comparison brittle ductile.svg - Wikimedia Commons

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Design of Machine Elements
Failure under Dynamic loading
Stress concentration factor

In developing a machine,
• It is impossible to avoid changes in cross-section, holes, notches, shoulders
etc.
• Discontinuity in a member affects the stress distribution
• The discontinuity acts as a stress raiser

Source: NPTEL :: Mechanical Engineering - Design of Machine Elements I

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Stress concentration factor (Flat bar)

Dia. of middle section: 𝐷 = 50

Width of the hole: 𝑑 = 2𝑏 = 25
Thickness of the part: 𝑤=1
𝑃
𝜎1 =
𝑤𝐷
𝑃
𝜎nominal =
𝑤(𝐷 − 𝑑)

2𝑏
𝜎3 = 𝜎1 1+
𝑎

𝜎3
𝑘𝑡 =
𝜎nominal

Source: NPTEL :: Mechanical Engineering - Design of Machine Elements I

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Stress concentration factor

• Only depends upon the geometry of the machine component.

• Hence called theoretical stress concentration factor.
(Axial load)

𝜎max
𝑘𝑡 =
𝜎nominal

Source: NPTEL :: Mechanical Engineering - Design of Machine Elements I

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Stress concentration factor and Factor of Safety

𝜎max Yield/Fracture strength

𝑘𝑡 = Factor of safety =
Maximum stress
𝜎nominal
Maximum stress= 𝑘𝑡 𝜎nominal

Source: NPTEL :: Mechanical Engineering - Design of Machine Elements I

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Dynamic loading

Stress at this Point

Source: V B Bhandari (Book)

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Dynamic loading

Rotating shaft
Static loading

Source: V B Bhandari (Book)

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Dynamic loading Setup
• Mirror finished specimen
• Dimension < 7.5 mm
• 50 % reliable S-N diagram
• By changing the loads/
weights the failure cycles can
be obtained

Source: V B Bhandari (Book)

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Dynamic loading Setup

fatigue failure gif

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Endurance limit

• The stress amplitude at which the specimen fails at infinite load cycle is called
endurance limit.
• Experimentally N > 106

N < 1000 : Low cycle fatigue

Remember these (guidelines) N> 1000 : High cycle fatigue

For steel:
3
𝑆𝑓10 = 0. 9 𝑆𝑢𝑡
6
𝑆𝑒10 = 0. 5 𝑆𝑢𝑡 If Sut ≤ 1400 Mpa
6
𝑆𝑒10 = 700 If Sut > 1400 Mpa

Source: V B Bhandari (Book)

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Factors influencing endurance limit
Marin factors (some important factors)
• Material composition
• Heat treatment
• Surface finish (ka)
• Corrosion
• Size (kb)
• Temperature
• Reliability (kc)
• Stress concentration (kd)
• Loading factor (axial, torsion)

6
10 = 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 10 6
𝑆𝑒𝑚 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 misc𝑆𝑒

If the other Marin factors are needed

𝑘misc = 𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑓𝑘𝑔 𝑘ℎ … … .
Otherwise take 𝑘misc = 1

em: endurance limit for the machine component

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Surface finish factor
• Test specimen is polished to mirror finish
• Free from surface scratches and imperfections.
• The actual component may not even require
such a surface finish.
• Poor surface finish results in
• Scratches and geometric irregularities
on the surface
• Higher stress at the surface
• Result in stress concentration.
• The endurance limit is reduced
• Surface finish factor are same for axial, torsoinal
ad bending.

Source: V B Bhandari (Book)

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Size factor

Test specimen

• The table is valid for both bending and torsion.

• For axial loading 𝑘𝑏 = 1

Reliability factor

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Fatigue stress concentration factor
Static stress concentration factor Fatigue stress concentration factor

Yield/Fracture strength
Factor of safety =
Maximum stress
𝜎max
𝑘𝑡 =
𝜎nominal
• Only depends upon the geometry of the
machine component. • Material dependent parameter.

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Factors influencing endurance limit

6
10 = 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 10 6
𝑆𝑒𝑚 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 misc𝑆𝑒

For steel:
3
𝑆𝑓10 = 0. 9 𝑆𝑢𝑡
6
𝑆𝑒10 = 0. 5 𝑆𝑢𝑡 If Sut ≤ 1400 Mpa
6
𝑆𝑒10 = 700 If Sut > 1400 Mpa

Design methodology
(Q: Find the dimensions or material properties of machine component for infinite life)
3 6
Step 1: Find 𝑆𝑓10 (High cycle threshold value, 103 cycles) and 𝑆𝑒10 (Infinite cycle
threshold value, endurance limit of the material, 106 cycles) from 𝑆𝑢𝑡.
Step 2: Find 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑 (reduction factors) from the charts and tables.
Step 3: Find the machine component endurance limit 𝑆𝑒𝑚 106 = 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑆106 .
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒
Step 4: Find the maximum stress generated in the machine component 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥(function of
dimensions and material properties)
106 ≥ 𝑆
Step 5: 𝑆𝑒𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑥 X Factor of safety (solve this relation and obtain the required
parameters)
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 Thank you !!!

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