Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Comparative geology and metamorphic evolution of the Luswishi Dome,

Copperbelt, Zambia: Implications for exploration targeting
Kabang’u G. Sakuwaha a, b, *, Toru Takeshita a, Ahmed H. Ahmed b
a
Department of Natural History Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0808, Japan
b
Department of Geology, School of Mines, University of Zambia, P.O Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Luswishi Dome forms part of the Neoproterozoic Lufilian Arc which hosts copper-cobalt ores of the Central
Geothermobarometry African Copperbelt. We report new data from a study that combines observations from drill core logging,
Pseudosection petrographic and chemical analyses, geothermobarometry and phase equilibria modelling. Drill core logging
Luswishi dome
identifies lithostratigraphic units which are partially correlated with the Katanga Supergroup based on the
Copperbelt
Zambia
occurrence of regional markers. The Nguba Group constrained by the presence of glacial tillite includes variably
Lufilian orogeny deformed, carbonaceous shales, and carbonates. An underlying sequence of quartzites, metapelites, calc-silicates,
meta-sandstones, shales, dolomites and gabbros is partially correlated with the Roan Group. Overprinting re­
lationships of structures in drill core provide evidence for possible polyphase deformation. Early deformation
generated folds which were overprinted by faults and later by brecciation caused by hydrofracturing during later
deformation, and subsequently metasomatism. Petrographic examinations reveal porphyroblast-inclusion-matrix
relationships which indicate that the area experienced at least two penetrative ductile deformation events, D1
and D2, which are in turn overprinted by brittle structures at D3 and later phases. Thermobarometry calculations
identify peak metamorphic conditions of 580–600 ◦ C with maximum pressures of ~7 ± 1 kbar. Integrating
thermobarometry with pseudosection modelling allows reconstruction of clockwise P-T-d paths consistent with
consumption of epidote, chlorite, muscovite, quartz and low Ca-plagioclase to form biotite, garnet, high Ca-
plagioclase and aluminosilicates. These observations suggest Barrovian intermediate P/T-type metamorphism
which can be attributed to a tectonic scenario of burial under geothermal gradients of ~20–25 ◦ C/km prior to
uplift and erosion. These data complement previous models of regional metamorphism by crustal thickening
during the Lufilian orogeny.

1. Introduction footprints and knowledge of their tectonic and metamorphic evolutions.

Geological processes responsible for ore mobilizations and formation
of ore deposits are initiated during orogenic cycles (Hitzman et al., 2010;
McCuaig and Hronsky, 2014). Ore mobilizations are assisted by an
interplay of processes which focus energy and mass transfer in what is
termed “the mineral systems concept”. This concept links elements of
lithospheric architecture, metal sources, favorable geodynamic triggers,
fertility, time, and preservation of precipitated ores (Hitzman et al.,
2005, 2010; McCuaig and Hronsky, 2014). Globally, these factors have
been identified to be common underlying controls on the formation of
major sediment-hosted sulfide deposits (Hitzman et al., 2005, 2010).
Consequently, it appears that constraining space for exploration tar­
geting in orogenic belts requires an understanding of mineralization
The Proterozoic Lufilian Arc of southern Africa located between the
Congo and Kalahari cratons is one of the segments of the Pan-African
orogeny which developed during the assembly of the Gondwana su­
percontinent between 650–600 and 500 Ma (Kampunzu and Cailteux,
1999; Porada and Berhorst, 2000). Other Pan-African orogenic belts in
southern Africa include the Zambezi Belt, the Damara Belt in Namibia
and Mozambique Belt, which all form part of a continuous trans­
continental system which records tectonic events related to Gondwana
amalgamation (see Goscombe et al., 2020 and references therein). The
Lufilian Arc contains one of the world’s most important sediment-hosted
copper-cobalt ore deposits of the Central African Copperbelt (CACB)
found in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), hosted
within diverse lithologies at various stratigraphic positions (Broughton,

* Corresponding author. Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan.
E-mail address: kabangu_sakuwaha@geol.tsukuba.ac.jp (K.G. Sakuwaha).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2021.104349
Received 23 December 2020; Received in revised form 30 July 2021; Accepted 5 August 2021
Available online 6 August 2021
1464-343X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

2014; Selley et al., 2018). Comprehensive studies of the basin archi­
tecture, stratigraphy, structural evolution, geochronology, and ore de­
posit styles in the Lufilian Arc have been well documented by previous
publications (Cailteux et al., 2005; Master et al., 2005; Kipata et al.,
2012; Eglinger et al., 2016; Selley et al., 2018). Notably, these re­
searchers note that the elements of geology, hydrology, stratigraphy,
geochemistry, metamorphism, and structural architecture which char­
acterize the belt all provide unique conditions which exert some primary
controls on the ore forming processes.
Ores on the DRC side of the CACB, known as the Katanga Copperbelt
are mostly contained in allochthonous dolomitic units within mega­
breccias and thrust sheets (Cailteux et al., 2005; El Desouky et al., 2009).
In Zambia, most ores occur within para-autochthonous meta-sedi­
mentary units and structures which are characteristically associated
with low amplitude dome structures in a zone known as the Dome’s
region (Cosi et al., 1992; John et al., 2004). The Luswishi dome forms
part of the Dome’s region which is defined by reworked Paleo-to Mes­
oproterozoic basement units uncomformably overlain by rocks of the
Neoproterozoic-to Paleozoic Katanga Supergroup (Cosi et al., 1992;
John et al., 2004; Eglinger et al., 2016). Previous studies on meta­
morphism in the Lufilian Arc identify regional Barrovian-type facies
series characterized by a north to south increase in P-T conditions from
Prehnite-pumpellyite facies in DRC to upper greenschist and
amphibolite facies in Zambia (Fig. 1a). The Dome’s region records the
highest metamorphic conditions although the metamorphism appears to
be heterogeneous and variable peak P-T conditions spanning 540–750◦
at 6–13 kbar have been reported from the different domes (Cosi et al.,
1992; John et al., 2004; Meighan, 2015; Eglinger et al., 2016; Turlin
et al., 2016).
Despite the heterogeneity, there seems to be a consensus that
deformation and metamorphism have played an important role in the
ore-forming process of the region. Textural relationships from some of
the major deposits in Zambia indicate primary ore minerals were formed
during diagenesis and later remobilized during the Lufilian deformation
and accompanying metamorphism and metasomatism (McGowan et al.,
2006; Torremans et al., 2013; Eglinger et al., 2016; Turlin et al., 2016).
Published P-T-t paths show continuous mobilization of ore minerals
from orogenesis, through peak metamorphism and syn-orogenic exhu­
mation to late recrystallization (Eglinger et al., 2016; Turlin et al.,
2015). Furthermore, geochronological studies correlate all of the
Dome’s region ores to peak tectonomorphic events between 540 and
490 Ma, coincident with the Lufilian orogeny (Sillitoe et al., 2017).
Considering these data, it appears necessary to expand the studies to all
parts of the Dome’s region to understand the extent and dynamics of
metamorphism and any possible mineralization footprints.
The target of this research is the Luswishi dome, an area of

Fig. 1. Maps and cross section showing the simplified geology and structural features of the Lufilina Arc and surrounding areas (locality shown in the inset diagram).
(a) Regional geological map of Zambia, modified after Porada and Berhorst (2000), with age constraints from literature (see text). The green and orange dotted lines
represent metamorphic isograds from Eglinger et al. (2016). Insert shows the location of the Lufilian Arc in southern Africa. (b) Cross section cross line A-A′ modified
after Porada. (1989). Abbreviations: Kf-Kafue anticline; Lss-Luswishi dome; Slz-Solwezi dome; Mbz-Mwombezhi dome; Kbo-Kabompo dome. The study area, Lss is
enlarged in Fig. 3. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

2
K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

exploration interest for several exploration companies although eco­
nomic ore is yet to be discovered. Previous research identifies similar
lithologies and structures to those which host ore deposits elsewhere in
the Dome’s region and, evidence of fluid activity has been noted
(Macgowan, 2016). However, no studies have been conducted to
establish the metamorphic evolution of the area. To address this point
and provide a better understanding of the geology, we carried out drill
core logging and detailed investigations on the petrology, microstruc­
tures, mineral chemistry, quantitative geothermobarometry and phase
equilibria modelling on garnet and/or aluminosilicate-bearing pelites to
identify paragenetic sequences and construct P-T-d paths using Perple_x
6.6.8 software (Connolly, 2005, 2009). These data provide new
knowledge and contribute to our understanding of the Dome’s region
and the Lufilian metamorphism, with implications for further explora­
tion efforts around the Luswishi dome.
2. Regional geological setting
The regional setting of the Lufilian Arc is shown in Fig. 1. It is
generally understood that the Katangan stratigraphy was initially
deposited in intra-cratonic, fault-controlled subbasins linked to exten­
sional tectonics associated with the dispersal of Rodinia Supercontinent
between 880 and 840 Ma (Kampunzu and Cailteux, 1999; Porada and
Berhorst, 2000). During the Lufilian orogeny, the Lufilian Arc under­
went a sequence of tectonic events as a consequence of collision between
the Congo and Kalahari Cratons and amalgamation of Gondwana
(Kampunzu and Cailteux, 1999; Porada and Berhorst, 2000; Key et al.,
2001; Kipata et al., 2012):
• The first deformation event, D1 called the Kolwezian phase initiated
after ~800 Ma resulted in crustal thickening caused by polyphase
folding, shearing, and thrusting with northward transport.
• The second D2 event named the Monwezi phase caused folding, E-W
faulting, strike-slip faulting, and clockwise rotation of crustal blocks
which resulted in the convex geometry of the Lufilian Arc. This event
was initiated after 690 Ma accompanied by the emplacement of the
syn-tectonic Hook granite complex between 570 and 530 Ma (Han­
son et al., 1993; Milani et al., 2015). The event reached peak con­
ditions at ~530 Ma (John et al., 2004a) during the final collision of
the Congo and Kalahari cratons. Widespread hydrothermal activities
and formation of vein mineralization accompanied this and later
phases.
• The third D3 event initiated after 540 Ma, called the Chilatembo
phase generated transverse folding and structures which crosscut the
main Lufilian structural trends.

Fig. 2. Simplified stratigraphic column of the Dome’s region modified after (Selley et al., 2018; Cailteux and De Putter, 2019) with age constraints from (Key et al.,
2001; Armstrong et al., 2005). Ng1-Ng and Ku1-Ku1 represent subgroup nomenclatures of the Nguba and Kundelungu Groups in DRC presented by Cailteux and De
Putter (2019). The interpreted stratigraphic positions of the lithologies intersected by the studied drill holes at Luswishi Dome is discussed in section 2.2.

3
K.G. Sakuwaha et al.
The Lufilian Arc is sub-divided into four tectonic zones which from
north to south are (I) the external fold and thrust belt mostly located on
the Congolese side, (II) the Domes region, (III) the Synclinorial belt, and
(IV) the Katanga high in Zambia (Fig. 1b). The WSW-ENE-trending
Mwembeshi Shear Zone marks the southern boundary of the Lufilina
Arc (Fig. 1). For this study, only the Domes region is discussed.
2.1. Regional geology and stratigraphy of the Dome’s region
As previous indicated, the Dome’s region is characterized by sub-
basin domains cored by reworked Paleo-to Mesoproterozoic gneisses,
migmatites and schists unconformably overlain by the Neoproterozoic-
to Paleozoic Katanga Supergroup. From east to west, the most impor­
tant domes are the Kafue anticline, Luswishi, Solwezi, Mwombezhi, and
the Kabompo domes (Fig. 1a). The regional stratigraphy is summarized
in Fig. 2 and briefly discussed in this section. The basement includes the
pre-Neoproterozoic quartzites and metapelites of the Muva Supergroup
deposited between ~1941 and 1000 Ma (Rainaud et al., 2003; Rainaud
et al., 2005; De Waele and Fitzsimons, 2007; De Waele et al., 2009) in
the Irumide Belt, and correlatives around the Kafue Anticline. The
overlying Katanga Supergroup is a succession of continental and marine
meta-sedimentary, carbonate and mafic igneous rocks subdivided into
regionally mappable groups reflecting their original depositional envi­
ronments (Cosi et al., 1992; Selley et al., 2018). The lowermost unit in
the Katanga stratigraphy is the Roan Group which encompasses three
Subgroups namely the Lower Roan, Upper Roan and the Mwashya
(Fig. 2). The Lower Roan consists of siliciclastic lithologies which
include conglomerates of tectonic origin, quartzites, arkoses and shales
interpreted to represent the earliest syn-rift sediments derived from the
erosion of the basement (Master et al., 2005). Ages of detrital zircons
from the Lower Roan indicate sediment sources include the Paleo­
proterozoic (~2081 and 1836) Bangweulu Block, the Lufubu Meta­
morphic Complex of the Kafue Anticline (Master et al., 2005; Rainaud
et al., 2005), and the ~883 Ma Nchanga Granite (Armstrong et al.,
2005). The Nchanga Granite is the youngest intrusion in the basement
and hence provides the maximum age for the onset of sedimentation
(Armstrong et al., 2005). The Lower Roan shale is the main orebody
member in the Kafue anticline (Master et al., 2005; Broughton, 2014;
Selley et al., 2018). The Lower Roan is overlain by the Upper Roan, a
thick evaporite-bearing sequence of carbonates, mafic intrusions, and
mega-clastic breccias whose origin is debated, but largely linked to the
dissolution of former evaporite horizons after brittle fracturing during
the Lufilian orogeny (Cailteux et al., 2005). The Upper Roan is overlain
by the Mwashya Subgroup which is made up of platform carbonates,
dolomitic shales, carbonaceous shales, and sandstones and intruded by
~765 Ma mafic volcanics related to a second extensional episode in the
basin (Key et al., 2001). Overlying the Mwashya is the polymictic glacial
tillite of the Grand Conglomérat unit (also known as the Mwale For­
mation), interpreted to have been deposited between ~ 735 and 765 Ma,
and globally correlated with the ~700–740 Ma Sturtian glaciation (Key
et al., 2001; Master et al., 2005; Batumike et al., 2007; Cailteux and De
Putter, 2019). The Grand Conglomérat defines the base of the overlying
Nguba Group (Ng-1), and is overlain by dolomites, limestones, shales,
and siltstones assigned to two Subgroups, Muombe (Ng-2) and Bunkaya
(Ng-3) (Cailteux and De Putter, 2019). The topmost preserved unit is the
Kundelungu Group which is similar to the Nguba Group and also consists
of a glacial tillite at the base, the Petit Conglomérat (Kyandamu or Ku-1),
correlated with the ~635 Ma Marinoan glaciation (Master et al., 2005;
Batumike et al., 2007; Selley et al., 2018; Cailteux and De Putter, 2019).
The Petit Conglomérat is overlain by pinkish dolomites, shales, dolo­
mitic shales, siltstones, sandstones and oolitic limestones assigned to
two Subgroups, Gombela (Ku-2) and Ngule (Ku-3) (Cailteux and De
Putter, 2019). The Nguba and Kundelungu Groups are mostly exposed in
the DRC (Master et al., 2005; Batumike et al., 2007; Selley et al., 2018),
and recently revised (Cailteux and De Putter, 2019). Orebodies have
been found in redox and structural zones at various levels throughout
4
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349
the stratigraphy including the basement and the Grand Conglomérat
(Broughton, 2014; Selley et al., 2018). This widens the scope for
exploration targeting and calls attention to previously underexplored
areas of the region.
2.2. Geology of the Luswishi Dome
The Luswishi Dome is characterized by vast areas without outcrop
exposures, which hampers detailed geologic mapping hence the geology
is not well constrained. However, early mapping reports of the Zambia
Geological Survey Department identify the dome as an inlier of base­
ment cored by granitic gneisses, granites and pegmatites, rimmed by
meta-sedimentary sequences of the Katanga Supergroup (Ayres, 1973;
Parkin, 1980). Overlying the basement dome are quartzites which are
exposed as a series of ridges and low-laying boulders and cut by a series
of faults. The quartzites have been described as glassy, coarse-grained
rocks and interpreted to be remnants of the pre-Katanga Muva Super­
group (now eroded) which were interfolded with the basement (Ayres,
1973). The basement dome is uncomformably overlain by lithologic
units of the Katanga Supergroup, which include pelitic and calc-silicate
schists of variable mineralogic composition, quartzites, dolomitic rocks,
carbonaceous shales and gabbroic bodies correlated with the Dome’s
region stratigraphy based on lithologic similarities (this study). The
basement- Katanga boundary has been defined from airborne geophysics
and soil geochemistry (Fig. 3.). Abundant gabbroic intrusions have been
mapped in the southwestern area of the dome. The gabbros have been
described as having intrusive relationships with both the basement and
metasedimentary sequence, and locally scapolitized (Parkin, 1980).
Similar gabbros also occur on the eastern side. The geochemical char­
acteristics of the gabbros indicate that they were crystallized from
tholeiitic magmas generated in a rift setting, consistent with other basic
rocks in the region (Tembo et al., 1998).
Away from the described rocks are vast areas of poorly known ge­
ology but drill core from exploration drilling programs conducted be­
tween 1962 and 2018 is available for research. To our knowledge, no
detailed petrologic studies have been published from Luswishi Dome,
but the cited mapping reports also mention metamorphic mineral as­
semblages indicative of amphibolite facies metamorphism (Ayres, 1973;
Parkin, 1980). These authors report the presence of aluminosilicates in
quartzite, garnet-kyanite-plagioclase-biotite assemblages in pelitic
schists, and actinolite-tremolite in calc-silicate outcrops. Occurrences of
copper carbonates and anomalous background metal contents in soils
and drill holes have also been reported (Ayres, 1973; Parkin, 1980), but
subsequent follow up works have not yielded economic targets.
3. Sampling and analytical methods
In this study, we logged 18 drill holes and collected quarter core
samples from various depths. For each drill hole, lithologic character­
istics, structures, and any minerals were noted. Drill hole coordinates
and detailed lithologic descriptions can be found in the related data
article and supplementary data files. For detailed analyses of selected
samples (Table 1), the following methods were applied.
3.1. Chemical analysis of whole rocks and minerals
Whole rock analyses were conducted by fusion XRF with FeO ana­
lyses using titration at the Actlabs in Canada. The whole rock data were
recalculated on a molar basis and given in Table 2. Petrographic ex­
aminations were conducted using optical microscopy and SEM-EDS,
whereas mineral chemistry data were determined using the JEOL JXA
8800R electron microprobe analyzer (EPMA), operated at 15 keV
accelerating voltage and 12 nA beam current at Hokkaido University.
Natural and synthetic silicates and oxides were used as standards and
conventional ZAF methods applied for matrix correction. Representative
EPMA data are given in Tables 3–5.
K.G. Sakuwaha et al.
Fig. 3. (a) Geological map and (b) Cross section of the Luswishi Dome interpreted from the literature and drill holes. More detailed logs for selected drill holes Fig. 4.
3.2. Geo-thermobarometry
Quantitative metamorphic P-T conditions were determined by con­
ventional geo-thermobarometry on garnet-mica schists using the com­
positions of cores and Mg-rich near-rim portions of garnets plus inclusion
and matrix minerals respectively (see Table 6). To test the reliability of
the P-T estimates, different calibrations have been applied following the
recommendations of Essene (1989). According to Essene (1989), two or
more calibrations should give similar results to satisfy necessary mini­
mum conditions of accuracy. For this study, temperature conditions
estimated on four garnet-mica schists using garnet-biotite (GB) Fe–Mg
exchange thermometers of Hodges and Spear (1982), Perchuk and Lar­
ent’eva (1983), Dasgupta et al. (1991), and Bhattacharya et al. (1992)
data set calibrations are presented. Pressure estimates were obtained
from the garnet-biotite-muscovite-plagioclase geobarometry
calibrations of Holland and Powell (1996), and the
garnet-biotite-aluminosilicate-quartz (GBAQ) geobarometer of Wu
(2017). This calibration simultaneously iterates the (GBAQ) pressures
and (GB) temperatures of Holdaway (2000) on garnet-biotite-bearing
assemblages regardless of the presence or absence of muscovite or
plagioclase and has been tested on natural pelites of broad compositions
and confirmed to be reliable for P-T conditions of 450–950 ◦ C and 1–17
kbar (Wu, 2017, 2019). The content of ferric iron, Fe3+ in biotite is
considered to be ~11.6 mol. % of the total Fe and that of garnet assumed
to be 3 mol. % of the total Fe, hence the values are set to be 0.116 and 0.03
mol.% respectively for ilmenite- and/or graphite-bearing metapelites,
whereas those for hematite-bearing metapelites were set to be 0.2 and
0.05 mol.%, respectively based on the designation of Holdaway (2000,
2001).
5
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349
3.3. Pseudosection modelling
Pseudosections have been computed using Perple_x 6.8.6 (Connolly,
2005), and the updated 2011 version of the internally consistent ther­
modynamic database of Holland and Powell, hp62ver.dat (2011). The
Al2SiO5 triple point in this database is constrained at 550 ◦ C and 4.4
kbar, consistent with Pattison (1992). Computations were conducted as
a function of temperature, pressure, and bulk composition in the
MnNCKFMASHTO (MnO–Na2O–CaO–FeO–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2–TiO2–
H2O–O2), for garnet-mica schists and KFMASHTO for the kyanite-mica
schists assuming water saturation. The O2 system component repre­
sents the transformed component Fe2O3 calculated as Fe2O3 = 2FeO
+0.5O2 to account for ferric iron, Fe3+.
4. Results
4.1. Descriptions of drill hole geology and lithologic correlations
Lithologic logs of selected drill holes are shown in Fig. 4, with broad
correlations between the northwest and southeast. Representative rock
types and structures are shown in Fig. 5, and briefly described in this
section. Based on our lithologic logging, rocks representing the base­
ment were identified in one drill hole, MP490 from the western side
(shown in Fig. 3). This drill hole intersects granitic gneiss, aplite, feld­
spathic meta-granite, mafic amphibolite and quartz-biotite schists. A
207Pb/206 Pb age of 1869 ± 8.5 Ma was obtained on zircons from the
gneissic interval at 454.8 m (Minerals and Metals Group, MMG, 2017;
unpublished data). Gneisses of similar ages have been reported from the
Kabompo and Kafue basement domes (Key et al., 2001; Master et al.,
K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Table 2

Abbreviations for minerals are from Whitney and Evans (2010). Grt, garnet; Amp, amphibole; Crd, cordierite, Bt, biotite; Pl, plagioclase; Ms, muscovite; Chl, chlorite, Qz, quartz, Ep. epidote; Ky, kyanite; And, andalusite;
Gr
Whole rock chemistry of the studied samples. Original data including LOI values

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
are given with the supplementary data files.

Sulfide
Sample ID D438 D440 D452 D482 D472 D490

+
+

+
Mineralogy Grt- Grt- Grt- Ky- Grt- Grt-
Amp mica mica mica mica mica
Fe oxide Oxide (Mol.
%)
+

+
+
+
+
Al2O3 9.92 11.36 13.33 9.87 13.33 11.95
CaO 6.47 6.25 2.88 0.97 2.64 2.68
Cb

K2O 2.41 2.67 3.68 1.31 3.63 3.14

+

+
MgO 10.02 6.89 8.49 30.21 7.40 6.92
MnO 0.18 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.10 0.06
Mnz

+
Na2O 2.74 2.21 1.42 1.55 1.81 2.50
SiO2 50.15 62.93 62.24 53.86 62.62 65.47
Tur

TiO2 4.38 0.69 0.73 0.45 0.67 0.71

+
+
FeO 12.89 6.79 6.50 0.27 7.40 6.09
Fe2O3 0.84 0.16 0.66 1.52 0.40 0.48
Zr

+
+
+

+
+

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

MgO/(FeO + 0.44 0.50 0.57 0.99 0.50 0.53
Ap

MgO)
CaO/(CaO + 0.70 0.74 0.67 0.39 0.59 0.52
Ilm

Na2O)
+
+

+
Ru

+
+
+
+

2005). The granitic rocks are composed of alkaline feldspar augens,

plagioclase, quartz, biotite, minor muscovite, mymekite and sphene in
Tlc

thin section. This drill hole also contains a paraconglomerate interval

with deformed clasts of granitic composition (Fig. 5b). The conglom­
And

erate is probably related to the syn-rift basal conglomerate of the Lower

+

Roan Group. Reconstruction of the lower stratigraphy was crippled by

Tlc, talc; Rt, rutile; Ilm, ilmenite, Ap, apatite; Zrn, zircon; Tur, tourmaline; Mnz, monazite; Cb, carbonate minerals; Gr, graphite.
Ky

significant portions of missing and/or mixed core intervals caused by

damage to the old core boxes and by the large spacing of drilling be­
Ep

+
+

+
+
+

tween drill hole MP490 and other drill holes. In the northwest, drill
holes closest to the dome intersect quartzites, actinolite-tremolite
Qz

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

schists, garnet-bearing schists and other pelitic schists of varying

mineralogic compositions, amphibole-bearing dolomites, calc-silicate
Chl

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

schists and diamictites. The diamictites are metamorphosed (up to

garnet-grade in places; Fig. 5i), poorly sorted, matrix-supported rocks
Ms

+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+

with polymictic clasts and drop stones now deformed into ellipsoid and
sigmoid shapes which define a foliation (Fig. 5g and h). The cementing
Pl

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

material is graphitic and/or calcareous with sulfides occurring both as

disseminations and as remobilizations in the margins and strain shadows
Bt

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

of the clasts. One drill hole, CL89 intersects a thick poly-lithic breccia
Crd

(Fig. 5d) from ~312 to 380 m, containing an amphibole-rich fault gauge

+

at ~370 m depth. A Cu-sulfide mineralized interval occurs within the

Amp

lower contact with, and within the underlying biotite schist. Drill holes
+

further away from the dome intersect lower metamorphic grade

carbonaceous shales interlayered with dolomites, diamictites, mixed
Grt

+
+
+
+

calcareous-graphitic rocks, meta-sandstones and meta-gabbros. Simi­

larly, drill holes from the southeast which are closer to the basement
LCP-MUJI-DH0003 (171.1 m)
LCP-MUJI-DH0002 (100 m)
LCP-MUJI-DH0003 (272 m)

dome (CZCD0011, CZCD0005, and CZCD0010) intersect garnet ±

kyanite-bearing rocks, whereas drill holes further southeast intersect
CZCD0011 (234.4 m)
CZCD0011 (250.6 m)
CZCD0005 (829.4 m)

lower grade shales, carbonates, meta-siltstones, gabbros, and dia­

mictites. Two drill holes, CZSE0012 and CZSE0014 appear to have been
CL102 (190 m)

CL87 (450 m)
CL87 (92 m)

drilled through some major structures as the core is highly brecciated

and veined. The glacial diamictite is repeated in CZSE0014 (Fig. 4,
Location

arrowed) probably as result of thrust tectonics. The deepest drill hole,

CZSEE0005 (850 m) intersected the diamictite below 750 m depth. This
drill hole intersects cyclic sequences of pelitic schists of variable
Sample ID

mineralogy, meta-siltstones, shales, and thin carbonates which appear to

D462
D492
D495
D438
D440
D452
D472
D482
D490

be repeated by folding, as evidenced by abundant fold structures in the

drill core. Gabbros are green in color, coarse grained (Fig. 5q), and have
intrusive relationships with adjacent strata. Mineralogically, gabbros
Kyanite-mica schist

are composed of calcic amphiboles, plagioclase, clinopyroxene, quartz,

Sampling details.

Grt-mica schist
Grt-mica schist

Grt-mica schist
Grt mica schist

sphene, epidote, accessory apatite, carbonates, phlogopite and opaques.

Grt-amp shist
Mica schist
Mica schist

Texturally, most rocks exhibit penetrative foliation and contain

Rock type

Crd schist
Table 1

quartz-carbonate ± (pyrite-pyrrhotite) veins which are either parallel to

the general foliation or deformed into ptygmatic structures (e.g., Fig. 5l).

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K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Table 3
Representative plagioclase EPMA analyses for the studied samples.
Sample D440 D440 D452 D472 D472 D472 D490 D490

Area inclusion matrix matrix corona inclusion matrix matrix inclusion

Wt.%
SiO2 57.33 61.86 53.05 57.09 55.38 58.04 59.58 59.57
Al2O3 24.28 24.65 30.29 25.42 25.08 25.31 25.43 25.66
FeO
CaO 13.69 8.82 12.86 11.31 12.55 9.63 7.92 8.03
Na2O 4.00 4.67 4.28 6.97 6.47 6.96 7.45 7.38
K2O 0.30 0.12 0.05 0.06 0.72 0.07 0.10 0.09
Total 99.59 100.12 100.53 100.84 100.20 100.01 100.47 100.73
Cations (Ox = 8)
Si 2.60 2.73 2.39 2.56 2.52 2.60 2.65 2.64
Al 1.30 1.28 1.61 1.35 1.35 1.34 1.33 1.34
Fe(ii) 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 0.66 0.42 0.62 0.54 0.61 0.46 0.38 0.38
Na 0.35 0.40 0.37 0.61 0.57 0.61 0.64 0.63
K 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.00
An 64.35 50.62 62.22 47.14 49.97 43.19 36.79 37.38
Ab 34.00 48.55 37.48 52.58 46.64 56.45 62.67 62.14
Or 1.65 0.82 0.30 0.28 3.39 0.36 0.55 0.48

Table 4
Representative garnet EPMA analyses for the studied samples.
Sample D440 D440 D452 D452 D452 D472 D472 D490 D490

Area core rim core mantle rim core rim core rim

Wt.%
SiO2 36.26 35.95 36.17 36.19 36.15 35.98 36.34 36.08 36.16
TiO2 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.02
Al2O3 20.51 21.14 20.04 20.17 21.06 21.30 21.47 20.51 20.68
FeO 29.27 31.31 31.12 33.07 32.04 31.30 31.49 30.11 31.99
MnO 4.54 2.03 2.87 0.75 1.46 1.74 0.91 4.09 2.51
MgO 1.49 1.70 2.04 2.87 3.70 2.75 3.16 1.84 2.45
CaO 7.86 7.95 7.70 6.99 5.72 6.91 6.65 7.30 6.34
Total 100.01 100.17 100.03 100.09 100.16 100.05 100.09 100.04 100.16
Cations (Ox. 12)
Si 2.92 2.88 2.91 2.89 2.87 2.87 2.89 2.90 2.90
Ti 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00
Al 1.94 2.00 1.90 1.90 1.97 2.00 2.01 1.94 1.95
Cr 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Fe3 0.21 0.24 0.28 0.30 0.28 0.25 0.20 0.24 0.25
Fe2 1.76 1.86 1.81 1.91 1.85 1.84 1.89 1.78 1.89
Mn 0.31 0.14 0.20 0.05 0.10 0.12 0.06 0.28 0.17
Mg 0.18 0.20 0.24 0.34 0.44 0.33 0.37 0.22 0.29
Ca 0.68 0.68 0.66 0.60 0.49 0.59 0.57 0.63 0.54
XAlm 62.82 67.20 65.48 69.06 67.54 66.83 67.63 64.23 68.02
XPrp 5.72 6.50 7.64 10.67 13.89 10.48 12.09 6.99 9.30
XGrs 21.60 21.87 20.77 18.69 15.45 18.92 18.29 19.94 17.28
XSps 9.86 4.42 6.11 1.58 3.11 3.77 1.98 8.84 5.40
XFe 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.85 0.81 0.85 0.83 0.89 0.87

Open, asymmetrical folds are abundant throughout the drill core and
often overprinted by faults and carbonate-filled extensional structures
(Fig. 5i and j). In massive dolomites and quartzites, folding appears to be
accommodated by thin tightly folded amphibole-rich layers and veins (e.
g., Fig. 5k). Brecciation occurs either by mechanical fragmentation or by
hydrofracturing. Mechanical breccia zones are inferred to represent
fault zones, whereas hydro-fractured zones are inferred to indicate late
fluid activity probably resulting from release of fluid pressures during
unroofing. In fluidized breccias, individual rock fragments preserve
relict sedimentary layering and/or metamorphic foliations and are
cemented by carbonates ± sulfides or amphiboles (e.g., Fig. 5 o, p).
In terms stratigraphy, significant parts of the Dome’s region stra­
tigraphy described in section 2.1 were not observed at Luswishi, prob­
ably because they were never deposited in this part of the basin,
truncated by faults or not reached by drilling. Only drill hole MP490
intersects probable Lower Roan and basement lithologies. Lithologies
representing the Upper Roan were not observed. We correlate the glacial
diamictite to the Grand Conglomérat diamictite and interpret that drill
holes from the southeastern side intersect rocks belonging to the Nguba
Group. Similar lithologies were observed in drill holes ZNADD0001 – 05,
LCP-MUJI-DH0002, and 005 and the top of CL89. The more clastic in­
tervals interbedded with quartzites in northwestern drill holes may
represent part of the Mwashya Subgroup. The gabbros are correlated to
the ~765 Ma Mwashya volcanics mapped in western Zambia (Key et al.,
2001). According to these authors, the mafics volcanics mark the top of
the Mwashya, and thus provide a minimum age for the deposition of the
Roan Group. Drill hole CL87 was excluded from correlations as it was
missing significant intervals of drill core but shown only to indicate the
positions of the sampled intervals.
4.2. Petrography and microstructure descriptions
Petrographic and textural features of the studied samples are
described below. The analyzed samples represent the variety of schists at
Luswishi which include one sample representative of garnet-amphibole
schists (D438); four samples representative of garnet-mica schists

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K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Table 5
Representative muscovite and biotite EPMA analyses for the studies samples.
Sample D440 D452 D472 D490

Mineral Bt Ms Bt Bt Ms Bt Bt Ms Bt Bt Ms

Area matrix matrix matrix incl matrix matrix incl matrix matrix incl matrix

Oxide (wt.%)
SiO2 35.19 46.36 36.07 36.14 46.36 35.78 35.74 46.83 36.22 37.20 50.25
TiO2 2.11 0.93 1.64 1.85 0.93 1.83 1.77 0.67 1.68 2.24 0.82
Al2O3 18.70 33.84 19.58 19.32 33.84 18.05 18.24 35.11 18.44 14.66 31.54
FeO 16.04 1.22 17.66 16.73 1.22 18.55 17.96 1.18 18.53 14.62 1.08
MnO 0.08 0.02 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.10 0.02 0.00
MgO 12.90 1.12 14.22 12.96 1.12 12.27 12.22 1.04 11.92 17.48 1.80
CaO 0.03 0.04 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03
Na2O 0.06 0.78 0.16 0.22 0.78 0.17 0.18 0.80 0.12 0.19
K2O 11.14 11.13 8.16 9.60 11.13 9.94 10.11 10.99 10.64 10.82 10.78
Total 96.24 95.43 97.58 96.95 95.43 96.72 96.33 96.65 97.55 97.17 96.45
Cations (O = 22)
Si 5.28 6.20 5.27 5.34 6.20 5.37 5.37 6.17 5.39 5.49 6.58
Al 3.31 5.33 3.37 3.36 5.33 3.19 3.23 5.45 3.24 0.25 4.86
Ti 0.24 0.09 0.18 0.21 0.09 0.21 0.20 0.07 0.19 2.55 0.08
Fe(ii) 2.01 0.14 2.16 2.07 0.14 2.33 2.26 0.13 2.31 1.80 0.12
Mn 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00
Mg 2.89 0.22 3.10 2.85 0.22 2.74 2.74 0.21 2.65 3.85 0.35
Ca 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00
Na 0.02 0.20 0.04 0.06 0.20 0.05 0.05 0.20 0.04 0.05
K 2.13 1.90 1.52 1.81 1.90 1.90 1.94 1.85 2.02 2.04 1.80
XMg 0.59 – 0.59 0.58 – 0.54 0.55 – 0.53 0.68 –

Fig. 4. Broad lithologic correlations between selected drill holes from the southeastern (a) and northwestern (b) sides of Luswishi dome. The angled labels at the top
indicate drill hole names, labels in callouts indicate positions of samples analyzed for this study, and depth marks (in m) are indicated on the left side of each
drillhole. All drill holes were originally angled but plotted vertically for the purpose of this study. Drill hole collar details are available here. Note drill hole CZSE0014
intersects the Grand Conglomerat diamictite twice (arrowed) and the deepest drill hole CZCD0005 (850 m) intersects the diamictite at greater depth (~750 m).

(D440, D452, D472 and D490); four other samples without garnet but brackets below the drill hole name (Table 1).
contain cordierite (D462), mica and epidote (D492 and D495); and
kyanite (D482). For each sample, the depth (in meters) is indicated in

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K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Fig. 5. Core photographs showing representative lithologies and structures decsribed in the text. Dril hole name and depths shown on each sample. (a) Microcline-
rich augen gneiss in contact with an aplite of simialar mineral composition; (b) Meta-conglomerate; (c) Quartzite; (d) Breccia; (e) Actinolite-tremolite schist; (f)
Garnet-bearing schsit with rounded garnet porphyorblasts; (g) Glacial diamictite with flatted clasts which define foliation, note sulfides in the strain shaows of the
clasts; (h) Schistose garnet-bearing diamictite with sigma porphyroclast showing evidence of having been rotated; (i) Folded meta-sandstone with faulted limbs; (j)
Folds in carbonaceous rock defined by calcite-pyrite and pyrrhotite veins, cut by fracture cleavage; (k) Dolomite with folded amphibole layers, (l) ptygmatically
folded quartz vein in a pelitic schist; (k) Quartz-mica shist with schistose foliation defined by aligned micas; (m) folded rock with sandy and pelitic layers which form
part of a limb of an open fold with cleavage cutting across foliation (S0/S1); (n) Schistose mica schist; (o and p) Fluidized breccias with rock fragments preserving
relict layering/foliations; (q) Hornblende rich gabbro; (r) Graphitic shale with sulfide-filled fractures.

4.2.1. Garnet-amphibole schists (D438)
The mineral assemblage in this group includes carbonate minerals
(calcite and ankeritic dolomite and apatite) along with albite, quartz,
and minor biotite in the matrix. Sample D438 contains large garnet
porphyroblasts with diameters up to 10 mm (Fig. 6), intergrown with
hornblende, and rimmed by plagioclase feldspar. Garnet porphyroblasts
are fractured and partly altered, with new minerals precipitated along
the fractures indicating fluid infiltration (Fig. 6b). However, major
element mapping on the garnets indicates that the primary growth
zoning (evidenced by increase of Mg on the rims) is still preserved albeit
patchy owing to dissolution and volume replacement by fluid action.
4.2.2. Garnet-mica schists (D440, D452, D472 and D490)
This group consists of smaller garnet porphyroblasts rimmed by
foliated matrix assemblages which include quartz, biotite, fine plagio­
clase, muscovite, occasional chlorite ± kyanite or andalusite, and
graphite. Inclusion minerals are dominated by epidote (mainly zoisite),
quartz, plagioclase, and graphite. Accessory minerals include rutile,
ilmenite, tourmaline, zircon, and Fe-sulfides (pyrite, pyrrhotite and rare
chalcopyrite). The microstructure of these samples is characterized by
porphyroblast-matrix relationships which indicate progressive syn-
deformational growth of garnet (Fig. 7). These textures have been
used to deduce some metamorphic and deformational histories of the
samples as follows. The first deformation, D1 is recorded by the aligned
inclusion minerals inside the garnet porphyroblasts, also interpreted to
represent the first metamorphic event, M1. The second deformation, D2
is represented by the foliated matrix minerals which wrap around the
garnet porphyroblasts either in continuity with the inclusions (syn-
deformational) or obliquely oriented relative to the D1 minerals (syn-to
post-deformational). The garnets in these samples also show partial

9
K.G. Sakuwaha et al.
Fig. 6. (a) Photographs showing the texture of the garnet-amphibole schist (D438) in (a) handspecimen, and (b) X-ray compositonal maps showing the relative
concentrations of the major elements, Mg, Ca, Fe and Mn in garnet.
resorption to form feldspathic corona-like textures around the garnet
porphyroblasts (Fig. 6-c and f). These type of reaction textures have been
identified elsewhere and have been attributed to decompression re­
actions such as:
Grossular + Kyanite + Quartz→Anorthite (1)
which results in destabilization of garnet relative to plagioclase e.g.
(John et al., 2004a; Le Bayon et al., 2006).
4.2.3. Supporting evidence from associated rocks
Fig. 8 presents photomicrographs of samples representing non-
garnet-bearing schists in the study area. These include banded biotite-
grade metapelites called biotite schists (D492 and D495) consisting of
the assemblage biotite, quartz, chlorite, muscovite, and epidote (Fig. 8a,
c); a metapelite with porphyroblasts of cordierite overgrowing a finely
banded assemblage consisting of quartz, micas and minor carbonates
and opaques, called cordierite schist (D462, Fig. 8b); and a kyanite-mica
schist with centimeter-sized kyanite porphyroblasts which are twinned
and surrounded by pinitic alteration aggregates of sericite, chlorite, talc
and quartz, called kyanite-mica schist (D482, Fig. 7d). The alteration
aggregates separate the kyanites from the matrix assemblage consisting
of mica, talc quartz, albite, hematite, and accessory tourmaline and
rutile. The sample is characteristically similar to the white schists
described from other areas in the Dome’s region and the Zambezi Belt
(John et al., 2004a), where this type of microstructure is attributed to
decompression after peak metamorphism by the reaction:
talc + kyanite + quartz →cordierite (2)
Although this sample may also be interpreted by reaction (2), the
bulk rock composition (shown in Table 2) has high Mg content (30.2
Mol.%), which is significantly higher than the other studied samples.
10
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349
Therefore, the sample’s texture may also be attributed to Mg-
metasomatism and the prograde reaction:
muscovite + chlorite + quartz→kyanite + cordierite + biotite + fluid (3)
Kyanite has numerous tiny inclusions of fine mica, quartz, and
opaque minerals. Some of the kyanites elsewhere in the sample are
completely replaced by the alteration assemblage and late-stage cordi­
erite overgrows the matrix and retrograde assemblage. Interpreted
paragenetic sequences are shown in Fig. 9.
4.3. Whole rock chemistry
The compositions of the different rock types generally reflect the
rock’s mineralogic compositions as follows. Garnet-amphibole schist
(sample D438) has lower SiO2 than the garnet-mica schists (50 mol.%
compared to > 62 mol. %). This sample possibly has a mafic protolith as
the contents of CaO, TiO2 and FeO are also relatively higher owing to the
presence of abundant calcic and mafic minerals respectively (Table 2).
Garnet schists containing aluminosilicate (D452 and D472) contain
relatively higher Al2O3 (13.33 mol. %) than other garnet schists whereas
MnO of all samples is generally low (<0.5 mol.%). The kyanite-mica
schist (D482) contains significantly higher MgO (30.21 mol %)
compared to 6.89–10.02 mol. % in other studied samples, but Al2O3
content is comparable. FeO in this sample is significantly low (0.27%)
whereas Fe2O3 is slightly higher than other samples owing to the pres­
ence of hematite.
4.4. Mineral chemistry
This section presents a summary of the chemistry of major minerals
contained in the studied samples. Representative EPMA analyses are
given in Tables 3–5 and additional data have been provided with the
K.G. Sakuwaha et al.
Fig. 7. Photomicrographs of the studied garnet-mica schists showing the porphyroblasts-matrix relationships described in the text; (a, b) D452; (c, d) porphyroblast
and matrix domains in sample D472; (e) D440; (f) D490. Abbreviations of minerals are shown in the caption of Table 1.
associated data article.
4.4.1. Garnet
Garnets are typically almandine rich with XAlm = 62–70, XPyp =
6–14, XGrs = 14–23, XSps = 2–10. They are concentrically chemically
zoned, showing evidence for typical prograde growth during increasing
P-T conditions, consistent with interpretations of Spear (1993). EPMA
X-ray mapping and quantitative analyses along line profiles indicate
core to rim increase of almandine and pyrope, whereas spessartine,
grossular, and Fe/(Fe + Mg) decrease from core to rim with thin re­
versals at the rims suggesting elemental diffusion (Fig. 10).
4.4.2. Feldspar
Feldspar is predominantly ternary plagioclase with variable anor­
thite and albite compositions (Fig. 11a). Amphibole-bearing garnet
schists contain albite (XAb = 95–99), whereas garnet-mica schists consist
of intermediate plagioclase (XAñ 34–71.68). Texturally, plagioclase in
the studied samples occurs as individual grains in the matrix as por­
phyroblasts, inclusions in garnet or as retrograde coronas around garnet
11
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349
porphyroblasts. Chemically, plagioclase occurring as inclusions in
garnet is more anorthitic (XAn = 48.91–72.36) than plagioclase in the
matrix (XAn = 30.43–50.01), or plagioclase occurring as coronas (XAn =
43.20–47.50).). Table 3 presents representative plagioclase
compositions.
4.4.3. Amphibole
Amphiboles are mainly Ca-rich hornblende and occur as porphyro­
blasts or as part of the matrix assemblage in garnet-amphibole schists
represented by sample D438. Chemical analyses of the amphiboles
(Fig. 11b) plot in the pargasite field on the classification scheme of Leake
et al. (1997). Chlorine and fluorine were not routinely analyzed and
hence the calculations were done using the corrections for the
O-equivalency of F and Cl.
4.4.4. White mica
White mica is dominated by muscovite with minor paragonite and
celadonite components (Fe + Mg > 0.3). Texturally, muscovite occurs as
part of the foliated matrix, as interstitial crystals, or as fine dispersed
K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Fig. 8. Photographs showing the appearance of other associated schists in thin section. (a) D492 biotite-quartz-epidote schist (LCP-MUJI-DH0003_ 272 m); (b) LP/HT
grade cordierite schist with some Crd porphyroblasts pseudo morphed by hornblende (D462-LCP-MUJI-DH0002_100 m); (c) D495 biotite-chlorite-muscovite-epidote
schist (CL102_190 m); (d) D482-kyanite-mica schist (CL87_450 m). See Fig. 4 for the localities of samples.

Fig. 9. Interpreted paragenetic sequences of the analyzed samples.

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K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Fig. 10. Garnet compositional line profiles corresponding to each of the studied garnet-mica schist samples (a.) D440; (b) D452; (c) D472; (d) D490.

inclusions within plagioclase porphyroblasts. Muscovite also occasion­
ally occurs as precipitates along veins and microfractures. Chemically,
muscovite contains ~6–6.3 Si (apfu) and Fe + Mg ~ 0.2–0.6 apfu
(Fig. 11c, calculated by O = 22).
4.4.5. Biotite
Biotite defines metamorphic foliation along with other minerals, or
occurs as inclusions, or as porphyroblasts. Biotite consists of interme­
diate aluminum compositions between phlogopite and eastonite [Al =
2.5–3.5] (apfu) calculated by O = 22 (Fig. 11d). Some compositional
variations were observed between lithology types with XMg [XMg = Mg/
(Mg + Fe2+)] contents showing distinct populations. Biotite in garnet-
mica schists has XMg compositions of 0.5–0.6 whereas biotite in
garnet-amphibole-bearing schists contain lower Mg (~0.4). All biotite
compositions plot below the biotite-phlogopite boundary (XMg = 0.7).
4.4.6. Chlorite
Chlorite occurs mainly as part of the foliated matrix or as retrograde
rims around other minerals. Where it occurs as a matrix phase, chlorite is
colorless or green. In contrast, retrograde chlorite is pale green or
brownish. No major systematic compositional differences occur between
these two types of chlorite, but chlorite occurring as rims is interpreted
as being late and part of the retrograde assemblage based on its textural
relationships with other minerals. Chlorite analyses are available in the
online data files. Early chlorite defines matrix foliations along with other
silicate minerals and interpreted to be part of the prograde assemblage,
participating in garnet-forming reactions such as,
plagioclase ​ + ​ chlorite ​ + ​ muscovite ​ = ​ biotite ​ + ​ garnet (4)
4.4.7. Other associated minerals
Other silicate minerals in the studied samples include aluminosili­
cate kyanite and andalusite (Al2SiO5), with almost pure compositions
(Al2O3 = 61–64 wt% and SiO2 = 35–38 wt%) with minor incorporations
of Cr2O3 and TiO2 attributed to the presence of tiny oxide inclusions.
Kyanite occurs as a matrix mineral in sample D452. Andalusite was
found in the matrix of a sample D472 along with plagioclase, biotite,
muscovite, chlorite (D472). Epidote and zoisite are common as part of
the inclusion assemblages in garnet-mica schists and as matrix minerals
in mica schists. Scapolite occurs as alteration aggregates after plagio­
clase, causing the affected rocks to develop a characteristic “spotted”

13
K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Fig. 11. (a) Compositional variations of plagioclase feldspar in garnet-amphibole schists (D438), and garnet mica schists after Warnsloh (2015). (b) Compositions of
amphibole contained in garnet-amphibole schist (D438) expressed as numbers of (Na + K) in A sites and Si atoms per formular unit, modified after Deer et al. (2013).
(c) Compositional variations of muscovite. (d) Compositional variations of biotite.

texture. Zircons occur in garnet-mica schists where they form pleochroic
halos in biotite.
Non-silicate minerals at Luswishi include carbonates (calcite, dolo­
mite and Fe-dolomite), and accessory phases are dominated by Fe–Ti
oxides rutile (TiO2), hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4) and ilmenite
(FeTi2O5). Sulfide minerals are dominated by pyrite (Fe2S) and pyr­
rhotite (Fe(1-x)S) which occur both as part of the matrix assemblage and
as inclusions in metamorphic porphyroblasts. Chalcopyrite is rare in the
studied samples, mainly occurring as precipitates in crosscutting veins
and fractures. Graphite is ubiquitous in the study area, occurring as part
of the inclusion and matrix assemblages, indicating that the sediments
were originally rich in carbonaceous material. Minute monazite grains
were observed in garnet-mica shists.
4.5. Geothermobarometry results
The calculated P-T values from conventional thermobarometry
indicate growth of garnet at increasing metamorphic conditions
(Table 6). Temperature estimates from the various thermometers
consistently show increasing core to rim conditions of ~428–550 ◦ C and
~497–586 ◦ C, respectively. The spread of estimated temperatures from
the various calibrations are small, with standard deviations of 8–16 ◦ C,
hence satisfying the minimum conditions for reliability as discussed in
Essene (1989). Similarly, pressure estimates from the two barometers
indicate increasing core to rim conditions, with maximum conditions at
~6–7.7 kbar. The values from the barometer of Wu (2017) yield pres­
sures ~1 kbar lower than the estimates from the calibrations of Holland
and Powell (1995), but within the ±1.5 kbar margin of error for the Wu
(2017) barometer.

Table 6
Calculated results of thermobarometry. Abbreviations: Wu17: (Wu, 2017): HS82: (Hodges and Spear, 1982), PL82: (Perchuk and Larent’eva, 1983), Dasg91:
(Dasgupta et al., 1991); B92-HW and B92-GS: (Bhattacharya et al., 1992), HP95: (Holland and Powell, 1996)
Sample D440 C D440 R D452 C D452 R D472 C D472 R D490 C D490 R

T (◦ C)
Wu17 448 506 487 567 554 583 506 539
B92-HW 440 508 489 576 558 590 493 537
B92-GS 436 500 493 590 565 599 486 539
Dasg91 418 489 462 576 552 593 485 522
HS82 399 495 455 569 552 597 478 525
PL83 424 487 464 545 528 555 481 515
Mean ± Std Dev 428 ± 16 497 ± 8 475 ± 15 571 ± 14 552 ± 11 586 ± 15 488 ± 9 529 ± 9
Pressure (bar)
Wu17 4275 5197 5028 6596 6442 7130 5438 6046
HP96 5740 6590 6050 6690 6520 7790 5130 7120

14
K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Fig. 12. Pseudosection models for sample D490; (a) P-T pseudosection with inferred P-T region from the observed thin section assemblage, geothermobarometry
constraints and a proposed T-P path. (b) T-XMg diagram showing the evolution of the mineral assemblage for the modelled bulk composition (Mg = 0.53) at constant
P (7 kbar) and increasing T, corresponding to the dashed vertical line.

15
K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Fig. 13. Modelled volume isomodes showing the variation in modal amounts of the main silicate phases for sample D490; (a) Muscovite; (b) chlorite; (c) Zoisite; (d)
Plagioclase; (e) Biotite; and (f) Garnet as a function of P and T.

16
K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Fig. 14. Modelled garnet and anorthite compositional isopleths for Sample D490 showing the predicted zoning as a function of P and T; (a) Pyrope; (b) Almandine;
(c) Grossular; (d) Fe/(Fe + Mg); (e) Anorthite, and (f) Spessartine.

17
K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

Fig. 15. Pseudosections showing stable mineral assemblages computed for (a) D472; (b) D452; (c) D440; in the MnNCKFAMSHTO system (all fields include biotite,
H2O fluid and quartz). (d), D482 in the KFMASHTO system (all fields include hematite, quartz and H2O fluid). Where applicable, the proposed P-T paths are based on
thin section assemblages and reaction textures.

18
K.G. Sakuwaha et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349

4.6. Phase equilibria modelling 5. Metamorphic evolution

Stable mineral assemblages predicted by pseudosection modelling The metamorphic evolution of the studied samples is interpreted by
for each sample (Figs. 12–15) are displayed for the given bulk rock integrating the results of the calculations from conventional thermo­
compositions in Table 2. Major system reaction lines are highlighted by barometry, microstructural observations, garnet zoning and constraints
thicker colored lines and P-T paths are proposed where appropriate. from phase equilibria modelling.
Fig. 12 presents P-T and T- XMg pseudosections for sample D490. The T-
XMg pseudosection highlights the influence of bulk XMg [MgO/(MgO +
FeO)] on the stabilities of the mineral assemblages. The T- XMg model 5.1. Prograde evolution
was calculated at a fixed pressure of 7 kbar, and two bulk compositions
corresponding to XMg = 0 and XMg = 1 following the methods described The prograde evolution of the mineral assemblages for sample D490
in Tinkham et al. (2001). Phases and solution model labels used for this (XMg = 0.53), at constant pressure and increasing T corresponds to the
modelling are given in Table 7. Mineral abbreviations have been dashed vertical line and the thin section (plus inclusion) assemblage are
adopted from Whitney and Evans (2010). highlighted by the black dashed polygons (Fig. 12). All fields in Fig. 12a
include quartz, biotite, and fluid. Within the zone of the thin section
assemblage, zoisite is predicted at lower temperature (below the purple
line, Fig. 12b) than the matrix assemblage, consistent with the occur­
rence of zoisite as inclusions Isopleths of grossular and almandine
intersect at P-T conditions which are nearly consistent with the calcu­
Table 7
lated P-T conditions (Table 6). The P-T path for this sample is proposed
Solution models used for phase equilibria modelling. Details of the solution
as indicated by the dashed arrow (Fig. 12a). The interpretation is further
models can be found here.
supported by modelling mineral modes (molar volumes) which high­
Phase Solution Model label References light how major phases evolve with changing P and T (Fig. 13). High
Biotite Bio (HP) (Holland and Powell, 2011) concentrations are assigned warm colors and low concentrations cool
Garnet Gt (HP) (Holland and Powell, 2011) blues. Since minerals grow in the direction of increasing moles, Fig. 13
Chlorite Chl (HP) (Holland and Powell, 2011)
clearly indicates that muscovite (a), chlorite (b), epidote (c) and low Ca-
Chloritoid Ctd (HP) (Holland and Powell, 2011)
Cordierite hCrd (Holland and Powell, 2011) plagioclase are the main reactants, whereas biotite (e), garnet (f), and
Ternary feldspar Feldspar (Fuhrman and Lindsley, 1988) high Ca-plagioclase are produced during prograde metamorphism.
Staurolite St (HP) (Holland and Powell, 2011) Furthermore, molar volume isopleths of garnet components and
White Mica Pheng (HP) (Holland and Powell, 2011) anorthite in plagioclase were modelled to explore the zoning trends
Orthopyroxene Opx (HP) (Holland and Powell, 2011)
Talc talc (Holland and Powell, 2011)
(Fig. 14). In Fig. 14, pyrope (a) and almandine (b) are predicted to in­
crease with increasing T until ~550 ◦ C where they get deflected.
Almandine goes through a maximum at ~550 ◦ C but pyrope continues
to increase with increasing temperature. In contrast, grossular (c) and

Fig. 16. Proposed P-T paths for the samples analyzed

in this study in comparison to other studies. The dark
shaded areas correspond to the P-T constraints from
thermobarometry, and the light shaded regions
represent pseudosection predictions of the observed
thin section assemblages. P-T paths from previous
studies (shown in grey), all derived from samples
collected from the domes west of Luswishi, whereas
those from this study are shown in black and blue,
and labeled by sample numbers. (For interpretation of
the references to color in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

19
K.G. Sakuwaha et al.
XFe (d) reduce in the direction of increasing T, whereas anorthite (e)
increases in the direction of reducing or constant P and increasing T until
the zoisite-out conditions are encountered. When zoisite reacts out,
plagioclase becomes more anorthite rich, reaching a maximum (0.29) at
the zoisite-out line, after which anorthite begins to reduce. Therefore,
anorthite components become available from the breakdown of zoisite.
The reduction in anorthite after the zoisite-out reaction line implies that
plagioclase starts to react by removal of anorthite to form garnet by the
reaction.
high Ca − plagioclase + chlorite + muscovite
= biotite + low Ca − plagioclase + garnet (5)
Reaction (5) requires increasing temperature, but from Fig. 14,
anorthite growth and grossular consumption also require decompres­
sion. These observations indicate that while the volume of plagioclase
increases in the presence of garnet, the plagioclase in equilibrium with
garnet rims also becomes richer in the anorthite component. Grossular
shows an opposite trend to that of anorthite as follows. Garnet initially
nucleates with high XGrs (>0.50) and then gradually reduces until the
zoisite-out line where it reaches 0.27 and then reducing more rapidly
after this line. Isopleths of spessartine (f) are parallel to those of garnet
vol. % (Fig. 13f). This may be explained by zoning. Since MnO is pref­
erentially incorporated into garnet cores, garnet zoning causes the sys­
tem to become less MnO-rich for the subsequent garnet growth. The
isopleth models are generally consistent with the observations from
natural zoning (Fig. 10). Isopleths models are used as reliable indicators
of P-T changes, and the described trends indicate prograde growth of
garnet (Spear, 1993). Applying isopleth modelling to other samples re­
veals similar relationships in sample D472 (Fig. 15a). For the rest of the
samples, only almandine and grossular isopleths are shown.
For the kyanite bearing garnet-micas schist sample (D452),
20
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349
Fig. 17. Photographs showing the appearance of
zones affected by fluids in drill core; a) from drill hole
CZSE0012 (137–146.6 m); b) CZSE0014 (165–171
m); c); Photomicrograph showing a the texture of a
graphite-rich rock deformed and cut by veins along
which sulfides and muscovite have precipitated
(CZSE0014_ 163 m); d) Photomicrograph of a meta­
somatized zone from the altered interval collected
from (CZSE0014_295 m), with later chlorite and
muscovite overgrowing earlier minerals; e) Irregular
quartz-carbonate veins in an altered interval at the
top of drill hole CZSE0012.
pseudosection modelling predicts kyanite-bearing assemblages at
considerably higher P-T conditions than those obtained from conven­
tional geothermobarometry (Fig. 15b). In this sample, kyanite occurs in
the matrix and strain shadows of garnet intergrown with muscovite. A
second generation of garnet (Grt 2) porphyroblasts which are smaller
and inclusion-free also occur. Furthermore, garnet microstructure of
sample D452 reveals an internal foliation defined by the long axis of
inclusion trails (S1) in garnet 1 which are obliquely oriented to the
matrix foliation (Fig. 7a and b). This microstructure may be interpreted
to indicate that the sample continued to deform after garnet 1 growth,
hence the discrepancy between the conventional thermobarometry re­
sults and pseudosection modelling for this sample maybe attributed to a
prolonged metamorphism. This would imply that kyanite persists
metastably at low P-T conditions. Evidence for the prolonged meta­
morphism is also shown by the strong zoning pattern of MnO (Fig. 10b).
Despite the differences among the studied samples, most of the
described observations clearly indicate that the prograde metamorphic
evolution of the studied samples occurred under conditions of increasing
P-T and was accompanied by deformation.
5.2. Retrograde evolution
Retrograde metamorphism is interpreted from the reaction textures
of resorption of garnet to form plagioclase, and from the presence of low-
pressure minerals. For sample D472 (Fig. 15a), the retrograde path is
interpreted from the overgrowths of andalusite in the matrix assemblage
and the resorption of garnet to form retrograde plagioclase around
garnet as evidenced by the sample texture (Fig. 7 c, d). This garnet
resorption texture has also been observed in sample D490. This texture is
attributed to destabilization of garnet leading to an increase in the
modal abundance of plagioclase relative to garnet, consistent with
decompression. Garnet in sample D440 records growth zoning
K.G. Sakuwaha et al.
(Fig. 10a), but the texture in section also indicates retrograde break­
down of garnet to form biotite, plagioclase, and quartz (Fig. 7e). Epidote
occurs both as an inclusion and as a matrix phase, consistent with the
pseudosection predictions for sample D440 (Fig. 15c). The calculated P-
T conditions (Table 7) for this sample may not represent equilibrium
conditions as they plot below the garnet-in isograd. The P-T conditions
of this sample are probably better constrained by intersection isopleths.
Furthermore, the garnet zoning profiles in all the samples show some
elevation of Mn and Ca on the outer part of the rims, indicating retro­
grade re-equilibration by diffusion processes resulting in the release of
Fe, Mg, Si, and Al, leaving Mn and Ca locally enriched at the rims.
For the kyanite-mica schist sample (D482), retrogression has been
interpreted from the thin section texture which indicates consumption of
kyanite, and overgrowth of low-pressure minerals, typical of decom­
pression (Fig. 8d). However, the Mg-rich bulk composition of this
sample also indicates possible Mg-metasomatic overprint (Table 2).
Pseudosection modelling for this sample predicts the retrograde
assemblage in the cordierite-bearing zone (Fig. 15d), with the possible
peak kyanite-forming conditions inferred at higher P but within similar
T conditions as the retrograde assemblage.
6. Discussion and comparison with other studies
The data presented in this study indicates that the geology of the
Luswishi Dome is comparable to other parts of the Dome’s region. Based
on the occurrence of the glacial diamictite, most of the drill holes logged
intersected lithologies which are correlated to the Nguba Group and
partly to the Roan Group, (probably the Mwashya Subgroup). Probable
basement and lower Katanga lithologies were only represented in one
drill hole (MP490). The drill core also reveals structures which provide
evidence for deformation at Luswishi. Fold repetition of lithologies and
the presence of abundant parasitic and ptygmatic folds in drill core
provide evidence for possible polyphase ductile deformation at Lus­
wishi. The folds are overprinted by faults and brittle extensional frac­
tures filled by calcite ± quartz ± sulfides. A later fluid-assisted event
overprints earlier formed structures, completely removing evidence of
earlier structures in some drill holes.
Petrographic examinations and thermobarometry analyses identify
that the samples analyzed in this study experienced metamorphic P-T
conditions of ~430–590 ◦ C and ~5–7 ± 1 kbar. Two metamorphic
events associated with penetrative ductile deformation can be deduced
from the present study. The first M1 event is recorded by the aligned
inclusion trails in metamorphic porphyroblasts and high Mn-garnet
cores. The second event is recorded by near-rim enrichment of Mg and
Fe garnet, and matrix assemblages forming S2 foliations which wrap
around garnet porphyroblasts. Integrating these observations with
pseudosection modelling indicates prograde metamorphism by con­
sumption of epidote, chlorite, muscovite, low Ca-plagioclase to form
biotite, garnet, high Ca-plagioclase in garnet-mica schists. In the
kyanite-mica schist (D482), peak conditions are recorded by the kyanite-
biotite-chlorite-hematite assemblage and retrogression by the break­
down of kyanite, possibly assisted by Mg-metasomatism and growth of
talc and cordierite during unloading. Retrograde metamorphism in
garnet-mica schists is characterized by the consumption of garnet to
form plagioclase, and other low-grade minerals. Evidence from sample
D452 indicates prolonged deformation after peak garnet 1 conditions,
with growth of a garnet 2 and kyanite. The paragenetic sequence
recorded by sample D452 may imply that the calculated P-T conditions
represent part of the retrograde evolution, and not peak conditions.
Therefore, it may be possible that the earlier subducted rocks which
were metamorphosed under higher pressure and temperature conditions
were juxtaposed against the later subducted rocks metamorphosed
under lower pressure and temperature conditions during exhumation
(cf. Fig. 17 of Eglinger et al., 2016), although there are no independent
age data to support this hypothesis. However, it is also possible that the
bulk rock compositions used for pseudosection modelling may not be the
21
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349
equilibrium compositions. Bulk compositions determined by XRF may
result in flawed isopleth thermobarometry and discrepancies between
observed and predicted mineral assemblages (Palin et al., 2016; Spear
and Wolfe, 2018). Uncertainties may also arise from EPMA analytical
errors, geological bias, and human error.
Nevertheless, the described observations allow reconstruction of
clockwise P-T paths with peak metamorphic conditions of 530–570 ◦ C
and 7 kbar for the garnet-mica schists (Fig. 16). The proposed shapes and
slopes of the paths are consistent with regional metamorphic evolution
characterized by syn-orogenic loading and ductile deformation, fol­
lowed by unroofing. Detailed structural analysis was outside the scope of
the study, but the observations from crosscutting relationships in drill
core, sample microstructures, and geothermobarometry may be linked
to the regional D1-D2 deformation phases described in section 2, and
further studies are required.
For comparisons, P-T paths from previous published studies are also
shown in Fig. 16. Previous studies report higher peak P-T conditions of
~640–660 ◦ C and 9–10 kbar from the three domes west of Luswishi
(Cosi et al., 1992; John et al., 2004a; Eglinger et al., 2016). These au­
thors attribute this metamorphism to burial during subduction of the
Congo craton 533 ± 2 Ma, followed by retrograde metamorphism during
syn-orogenic exhumation around 500 to 530 Ma. In contrast, meta­
morphic conditions in the Kafue dome located east of the Luswishi dome
record lower biotite grade greenschist metamorphism related to remo­
bilization of ores during 580–520 Ma (in Turlin et al., 2015 and refer­
ences therein). Together, evidence from previous studies and this study
indicate that while metamorphic conditions in the Lufilian Arc increase
from north to south (Fig. 1), metamorphic conditions within the Dome’s
region also increase from east to west and hence not heterogenous as
previously indicated.
7. Exploration considerations
Mineralization in the prospects and deposits of CACB occur as either
disseminated, stratiform sulfides or as quartz-carbonate-sulfide veins
(Sweeney et al., 1991; Cailteux et al., 2005; Sillitoe et al., 2017).
Although the origin and timing of mineralization has been debated for
several years with different metallogenic models supporting late
diagenetic or syn-orogenic (Molak, 1995; Cailteux et al., 2005; Selley
et al., 2018; Sillitoe et al., 2017a), a number of studies indicate that
formation of mineralization in the CACB involved multistage processes
during the evolution of the basin (Selley et al., 2018; El Desouky et al.,
2009; Hitzman et al., 2010). Stratiform and strata-bound ore bodies
have been previously interpreted to predate orogenesis but evidence has
also been shown to indicate deformation during the Lufilian orogeny
played a major role in the development of mineralization in most parts
of the CACB (Hitzman et al., 2005; McGowan et al., 2006). The exhu­
mation stage of the Lufilian orogeny has been proposed as a trigger
which initiated convection currents and basin-wide fluid circulation
which resulted in the remobilization of pre-existing disseminated sul­
fides in the basin (Hitzman et al., 2005, 2010). According to these au­
thors, the remobilization of primary sedimentary mineralization took
place during Lufilian orogeny triggered by deformation and associated
mafic igneous activity. The presence of major structural discontinuities
such as fault zones and thrusts provided pathways for deposition of
ore-bearing fluids. The Lumwana deposit located in the Mwombezhi
dome has similarly been interpreted to be a syn-metamorphic remobi­
lization of former stratiform sediment-hosted sulfides (Turlin et al.,
2015). Furthermore, geochronological studies on the major Dome’s re­
gion orebodies identifies identical parageneses and zoning patterns in
both the disseminated and structure-hosted Cu–Co mineralization which
were constrained to the period spanning 540-495 Ma, contemporaneous
with the Lufilian orogeny (Sillitoe et al., 2017). At the studied parts of
the Luswishi, no economic mineralization occurs but minor sulfide
minerals (mainly pyrite and pyrrhotite) have been observed in drill core
and thin sections where they occur in veins, fractures, or as fine
K.G. Sakuwaha et al.
disseminations (Fig. 5).
Comparatively more sulfide minerals were observed within brittle
structural zones associated with albite and/or carbonate alteration
(Fig. 17). These brittle structures are steep, sub-parallel to the drill core
axis and they overprint other structures. These structures may be related
to a post-orogenic episode probably in response to pressure release.
Affected rocks have characteristic metasomatic textures with the orig­
inal rock textures completely obliterated, and contain abundant cross-
cutting quartz-carbonate ± muscovite veins e.g., in drill holes
CZSE00012 and CZSE0014 (Fig. 17a and b). On the western side of the
dome, a chalcopyrite mineralized zone occurs in a biotite schist just
below a thick tectonic breccia occurring at ~312–380 m depth in drill
hole CL89 (Fig. 5d). Considering the described features, it appears
necessary to conduct a more detailed analysis of structures and associ­
ated fluid activity to establish their implications for sulfide mineraliza­
tion. As stated in the introduction, the mineral systems concept requires
consideration of key elements of fertility, favorable lithologic architec­
ture, and transient dynamics (Hitzman et al., 2005, 2010; McCuaig and
Hronsky, 2014). Most importantly, the formed ores must be preserved in
favorable structures or redox horizons. Therefore, prospects for future
exploration at Luswishi must identify potential sites of preservation of
the expelled fluids such as large-scale structural zones. Given that the
drill core has been extensively sampled and now artificially modified,
stereographic analysis of structural measurements from archived dril­
ling records may better define the structures.
8. Conclusions
A study was conducted to establish a better understanding of the
geology and metamorphic P-T conditions of the Luswishi Dome. Litho­
logic logging reveals that, like other domains of the Domes’ regions, the
Luswishi dome consists of a gneissic basement which is rimmed by meta-
sediments and carbonates of the Katanga Supergroup. Stratigraphic
correlations indicate that the typical Domes’ region stratigraphy
described from the rest of the domes is only marginally represented at
Luswishi as the logged drill holes mainly intersected lithologic units
representative of the Mwashya Subgroup and the Nguba Groups. From
the geothermobarometry data presented, we deduce a P-T-d history of
the Luswishi dome consistent with burial and deformation up to
~580–600 ◦ C with maximum pressures of ~7 ± 1 kbar under
geothermal gradients of ~20–25 ◦ C/km prior to uplift and erosion.
These results are further supported by pseudosection modelling, rock
textures, and isopleth thermobarometry. The results of this study com­
plement previous studies from the Domes region. Further studies are
required to better understand the structures and the significance of the
observed fluid activity in relation to other parts of the region which host
economic mineralization. This would help to answer questions about the
prospectivity of this area. Future studies will also require geochrono­
logical determinations to better constrain the stratigraphy and the
timing of metamorphism.
Data availability
The datasets to this article can be found at https://doi.org/10
.17632/bdtfd4ksrr.1, an open-source online data repository hosted at
Mendeley Data.
Source of support
Any grants/equipment/drugs, and/or other support that facilitated
the conduct of research/writing of the manuscript (including AFMRC
project details, if applicable).
Author’s contribution
Kabang’u G. Sakuwaha: Conceptualization of the study, field
22
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104349
works, analytical works, and drafting of the manuscript.
Toru Takeshita: Supervision of field work and formal analyses, re­
views and editing of the manuscript.
Ahmed H. Ahmed: Conceptualization of the study and field work
support.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The manuscript benefited from constructive reviews by four re­
viewers. The study was sponsored by Japan International Corporation
Agency, JICA through Kizuna program (Human Resources development
for the mining sector) through a scholarship to Kabang’u G. Sakuwaha.
We thank the University of Zambia, School of Mines for the logistical
support during the field study and sample preparation in Zambia. The
Minerals and Metals Group, MMG, the Zambia Consolidated Copper
Mines, ZCCM staff at the Kalulushi core storage facility, Mr Kelvin
Chembe Mwamba and the Nkokola Copper Mines are thanked for
granting us access to study areas and drill core. We thank H. Nomura and
K. Nakamura for thin section preparation work and A. Matsumoto for
help with EPMA and SEM-EDS analyses. We thank Professor Toshiaki
Tsunogae for assisting with monazite analysis.
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