- ADP + Pi = ATP (breaking down and

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 building up)

QUARTER 2

Lesson 1 : Energy transfor- 1.) Chemical work

- ATP is used for building
Mation macromolecules, such as breaking down of
macromolecules.
- E.g Protein Synthesis. (from peptides
to amino acids)
- DNA replication 2.) Transport work
- transcription - ATP is used for transporting ions
- translation membranes.
• All cellular processes will require a - E.g Water, Glucose, Amino acids
steady supply of energy. 3.) Mechanical work
• Energy production within a cell involves - ATP is used for mechanical processes
many coordinated and chemical such as muscle contraction, cilia, movement.
pathway combination of oxidation and (for locomotion)
reduction reactions. - E.g. flagellum and cilia

- NADP :Nicotinamide Adenine

Dinucleotidephosphate.
- NADPH is NADP with a hydrogen atom.

1.) NADPH is a good reducing agent. The H

atom can be easily given out, that is reduces
other compounds like FAD & etc.
2.) They can store energy. Like ATP, NADPH
stores energy in H bond. NADPH converts to
Redox reaction NADP and H+ releasing energy. It also acts as
- a reaction that involves the transfer of cofactor to several enzymes.
electrons between chemical species
(theatoms, ions, or molecules involved in the
reaction).

Oxidation
- is losing of an electron (important
carrier of certain material) in reaction.
- original meaning was “combining
Oxygen.”
- (more positive) Adenosine Triphosphate
- type of nucleic acid (like DNA and
Reduction RNA), contains high energy phosphate bonds
- is gaining of electron in reaction. that store and release energy
- original meaning was “removing - a type of nucleic acid, binubuo ng
oxygen.” nucleotide ( nitrogenous base , adenine
- (more negative) E.g is NADP - NADPH phosphate, ribose or sugar.)

LEO GER - losing electron oxidation, gaining

electron reduction LESSON 2 : ADP and ATP

- ATP comes indirectly from the food we

eat

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

-countless chemical reactions are
occuring in cells to do essential life functions
with the help of atp as energy currency of cell
- it is a nucleotide and has ribose and
nitrogenous base
 - Molecules of carbohydrates
(specifically glucose) and lipids are broken
down through the process of “cellular
respiration” and so you have your ATP
Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP)
- composed of adenine molecule bonded
to ribose molecule to a single phosphate
group.
- cells break phosphate bonds between
last two phosphate group in molecule of ATP
as needed to supply energy for most cellular
functions, when this happens a molecule of
ADP, phosphate group are available for reuse
: “energy transformation” hindi nawawala
yung ADP and phosphate group they will be
available for reuse
- when any of the phosphate bonds are
broken or formed, energy is involved
- energy is released each time a
phosphate is removed from molecule
- energy is stored each time a
phosphate attaches to molecule
1.) to supply cells with more energy, a “high
energy bond” in ATP is broken.
2.) ADP is formed and phosphate is released
back
3.) as the cells requires more energy, ADP
becomes ATP when a free phosphate attaches
to ADP molecules. Then energy needed to
create an ATP molecule is much less than the
amount of energy produced when bond is
broken.
Phosphoanhydride Bonds
- link of 3 phosphate groups to one
another by two high energy bonds
Adenosine Triphosphatase
- break enzymes
Hydrolysis (adding H2O)
- available energy is contained in the
bonds between the phosphates and is
released when they are broken, which
occurs through the addition of a water
molecule
- assisted by enzyme ATPase
(Adenosine Triphosphatase : a group of
enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of
a phosphate bond in ATP to from ADP)
- the reverse of previous process
occurs
- another enzyme is used
- ATP synthase : enzymes that provides
energy for the cell to use through the
synthesis of ATP. Uses the flows of
protons (H+) across a membrane to
drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP to
phosphate group. It is found in
“mitochondria.”
Exergonic
- Reaction is not spontaneous.
- Energy is released.
Endergonic
- Reaction is spontaneous.
- Energy is absorbed.
LESSON 3 : electron
transport chain
Electron transport chain
- ATP regeneration happens very fast
(10M molecules of ATP used and regenerated
per second )
- if ATP could not be regenerated by
phosphorylation of ADP, humans would use
nearly their body weight in ATP each day
- it is a crucial step in oxidative
phosphorylation in which electron are
transferred from electron carriers, into the
proteins of the electron transport chain which
then deposit the electrons onto oxygen atoms
and consequently transport protons across
the mitochondrial membrane
Electrons
- high energy; they need electron
carriers
- mga dadaan sa series of step in the
ETC para madala niya ang energy sa specifc
na area
Protons
- H+; hydrogen ions-called “protein
gradient”
- these excess of protons drives the
protein complex (ATP synthase) to produce the
ADP
ATP synthase
- enzyme (special type of proteins; and
is responsible for catalyzing reaction for ATP
synthesis)
ATP synthesis
- final step for phosphorylation
Electron transport chain location
 - is located within mitochondria, and the
proteins of the electron transport chain span
the inner mitochondrial membrane.
NAD/ NADH
- cellular respiration
NADP/ NADPH
- photosynthesis
Electrons and energy
- the removal of an electron from a
molecule results in a decrease in potential
energy in the oxidized compound.
- The electron that is removed is shifted
to a second compound, reducing the second
compound.
- e-= energy removal
- e-= low potential energy= oxidized
- add e-= high potential energy=
reduced
- The transfer of electrons between
molecules is important because most of the
energy stored in atoms and used to fuel cell
functions is in the form of high- energy
electrons.
Electrons Carriers
- Are called “coenzymes.”
- A coenzyme is an organic non- protein
compound that binds with an enzyme to
catalyze a reaction.
- Coenzymes are often broadly called
:cofactors”, but they are chemically different.
A coenzyme cannot function alone but can be
reused several times when paired with an
enzyme.
- electron shuttles
- they bind and carry high energy
electrons between compound in pathways
- the principal atom electrons carriers
are derived from B vitamins and derivative of
nucleotides. (nucleosides + phosphate group)
- Role is to produce ATP.
- the whole process of shuffling
electrons around from one molecule to another
is called a redox reaction.
- they bind and carry high energy
electrons between compound in different
pathways, for example, the glycolysis pathway,
transcycle pathway, etc
NADH
- Stands for “nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD) + hydrogen (H)."
- It occurs naturally in the body and
plays a role in generating energy. The NADH
produced by the body is involved in making
energy in the body.
- Taking NADH supplements might
affect blood pressure and have other effects.
NADPH+
- The reduced form of NADP+; used in
anabolic reactions, such as lipid and nucleic
acid synthesis, which require NADPH as a
reducing agent.
- It has a role as a fundamental
metabolite and a cofactor. It is a NAD(P)H and
a NADP. It is a conjugate acid of a NADPH(4-
).
Flavin adenine Dinucleotide (FADH2)
- High energy electron carrier used to
transport electrons generated in Glycolysis
and Krebs Cycle to the Electron Transport
Chain.
- Glycolysis is the first of the three steps
used to breakdown glucose to produce ATP.
Glucose, a 6 carbon sugar, is split into two 3
carbon sugars.
1. nitrogenous base (adenine)
2. ribose sugar
3. phosphate group (3 bonds) : alpha, beta,
gamma
Coenzyme
- non-protein organic, which means it
has carbon cofactors
- inorganic, which means it doesn’t have
any carbon
- an enzyme without coenzyme is called
“apoenzyme.” Without coenzyme or cofactors,
enzyme cannot catalyze effectively. In fact,
the enzyme may not function at all.
- If reactions cannot occur at the
normal catalyzed rate, then an organism
- when an enzyme gains a coenzyme, it
then becomes a holoenzyme, or active
enzyme.
- Active Enzymes change substrates
into the products in an organism needs to
carry out essential functions, whether
chemical or physiological coenzymes
- coenzymes like enzymes can be
reused and recycled without changing rate or
effectiveness
1. Coenzymes
2. Cofactors
- unlike coenzymes, true cofactors are
reusable non-protein molecules that do not
contain carbon (inorganic) metal ions such as
iron, zinc, cobalt & copper that loosely binds to
an enzyme’s active site. they must be
supplemented in synthesized
 - Both ADP and ATP are biological
molecules produced by the cell. ADP has two
phosphate groups, and ATP has three. ATP
has more energy because it contains an extra
high-energy phosphate- phosphate bond.

- The primary role of ADP is to combine

with inorganic phosphate to make ATP, the
premier energy molecule that drives
NAD+ biochemical reactions. ADP also plays a
- coenzyme found in all living cells in significant role in blood clotting.
metabolism, NAD+ is involved in redox
reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction
to another
- is an oxidizing agent, i.e. an electron
copper.
- it accepts electrons from other
molecules and becomes reduced to form NADH

NADH
- a reducing agent, i.e. an electric donor

FAD
- similarly, it is an oxidizing agents that
accepts electrons to become the reducing
agent FADH

NADH
- Is vital for cellular respiration.
- ADP is converted to ATP by the enzyme
NADPH ATP synthase by adding inorganic phosphate
- Is crucial for photosynthesis. to ADP. ATP is then broken down to ADP and
inorganic phosphate by the same enzyme
FAD when the body uses the energy stored in its
- Derived from vitamin B. flavin adenine bonds. ADP is then recycled to produce ATP
dinucleotide again.

Photosynthesis
- energy for all life on earth ultimately
comes from photosynthesis.
- most important biological process
- light energy + CO2 + 12H2O →
C6H1206 + GH2P + 6O2

1. cyanobacteria
- FAD is a two-electron oxidizing agent, 2. 7 groups of algae
and is reduced to FADH2 FADH2 Is a two 3. all land plants
electron reducing agent, and is reduced to FAD

1. Light-dependent Reaction
- capture energy from sunlight to
convert chemical energy
- make ATP and reduce NADP+ to
NADPH
- oxygen
2. Carbon Fixation Reaction
- calvin cycle
- light-independent reaction
- ATP is converted to ADP by the enzyme
- use ATP and NADPH to
ATP synthase. ATP is hydrolyzed (broken down
synthesize organic molecule from CO2
in the presence of water) into ADP and
- sugar molecule
inorganic phosphate.
LE CHLOROPLAST-mesophyll
 • Photosynthesis takes place in
chloroplasts

1. Thylakoid membrane
- internal membrane arranged in
flattened sacs.
- Contain chlorophyll and other pigments
- light dependent reaction takes place
because it has chlorophyll and other pigments
- chlorophyll- absorb the light energy
2. Grana
- stacks of thylakoid membrane
- granum- stack
3. Stroma
- removal of an electron from a
molecule by light
- occurs when protons transfer energy
to electrons
- The greater the wavelength, the lesser
the energy (not enough to excite the electron)
Pigment
- molecules that absorb visible light
- each pigment characteristics has a
absorption spectrum, the range and
efficiency of photons

- semiliquid substance
- surrounding thylakoid membranes

1. Jan Baptista Van Helmont

- (1580-1644)
- willow tree Visible Light
- he discovered that plants can survive - 700 Nm-400Nm
alone and make its own food - plant physiologist refer this range as
photosynthetically active radiation
2. Joseph Priestly
- (1733-1804)
- study of oxygen
1. Chlorophyll A
3. Jan Ingen-Housz - primary pigment in plant and
- (1730-1799) cyanobacteria. absorbs violet-blue and red
- plant taxonomy light
2. Chlorophyll B
4. F.F Blackman - secondary pigment absorbing light
- (1866-1947) wavelengths that chlorophyll a does not
- plant taxonomy absorb.
3. Carotenoid
5. C.B. Van Niel - absorbing yellow to orange
- (1930), proposed the general formula:
CO2 + H2A + light energy → CH2O + H2O +
2A Porphyrin ring
- H2A(electron donor) - complex ring structure with alternating
- identified water as the source of O2 double and single bonds.
released from photosynthesis - magnesium ion at the center of ring
- photons excite electrons in the ring.
Robin Hill - electrons are shuttled away from ring
- confirmed proposal that energy from light
reaction fuels carbon fixation. Accessory pigments
- secondary absorbing light
Photons wavelengths other than those absorbed by
- protons w/ H chlorophyll a
- hydrogen ions - increase the range of light
- a particle of light act as a discrete wavelengths that can be used in photosynthesis
bundle of energy - include: chlorophyll caroteniods,
- energy content of photon is inversely phycobiliproteins
proportional to the wavelength of light. - carotenoid also act as antioxidants

Photoelectric effect
Photosystem
 - An antenna complex of hundreds of - Excited electrons from P 680 are
pigment molecules transferred to b6-f complex
- A reaction center of 1 or more - electron lost from P680 is replaced
molecules of chlorophyll from the splitting of water
• Energy electron is transferred through
the antenna complex to the reaction b6-f complex
center - a series of electron carriers
• At the reaction center, the energy from - electron carrier molecules are
the antenna complex is transferred to embedded in thylakoid membrane
chlorophyll a - protons are pumped into the thylakoid
• This energy causes an electron from space to form a proton gradient
chlorophyll to become excited
• The excited electron is transferred from
chlorophyll a to an electron acceptor
• Water donates an electron to chlorophyll
a to replace the excited electron light
dependent reaction

1. Primary Photoevent
- a photon of light is captured by a
pigment molecule
• ATP is produced via Chemiosmosis
2. Charge Separation • ATP synthase is embedded in the
- energy is transferred to the reaction thylakoid membrane
center • protons have accumulated in the
- an excited electron is transferred to an thylakoid space
acceptor molecule. • protons move into the stroma only
through ATP synthase
3. Electron Transport • ATP is produced from ADP+ Pi
- electrons move through carriers to
reduce NADP+

4. Light Absorption To build carbohydrates, cells need:

- light energy is absorbed by pigments, 1. Energy
such as chlorophyll, in the thylakoid - ATP from light dependent reactions
membranes of chloroplasts.
2. Reduction potential
• In Sulfur Bacteria, only one - NADPH from photosystem I
photosystem is used in cyclic
photophosphorylation
• An electron is recycled to chlorophyll this
process drives the chemiostatic
synthesis of ATP accessory a
• In chloroplasts, two linked
photosystems are used in noncyclic
photophosphorylation

1. Photosystem I
- reaction center pigment (P700) with a
peak absorption of 700 nm
- receives energy from an antenna
complex
Calvin Cycle
- energy is shuttled to P700 reaction
- biochemical pathway that allows for
center
carbon fixation
- excited electron is transferred to a
- occurs in stroma
membrane bound electron carrier, electrons
- uses ATP and NADPH as energy
are used to reduce NADP+ to NADPH
sources
- electrons lost from P700 are replaced
- incorporates CO2 into organic
from the b6-f complex
molecules
2. Photosystem II
Carbon Fixation
- (First to happen) reaction center
- corporation of CO2 into organic
pigment (P680) has peak absorption of
molecules
680nm
- occurs in the first step of the calvin
- accessory pigments shuttle energy to
cycle
the P 680 reaction center.
 - ribulose-bis-phosphate + CO2 →
2(PGA)
- the reaction is catalyzed by RUBISCO
Rubisco- riboluse-bis-phosphate carboxylase
oxygenase
conditions– CO2 can’t enter the leaves,
and O2 will be trapped inside the leaves)
- CO2 and O2 compete for the active
site on RUBP.

1. Carbon fixation - by using an enzyme other than rubisco

- RUBP + CO2→molecules PGA
2. Reduction
- PGA is reduced to G3P
3. Regeneration of g3p
- PGA is regenerated to G3P
(PEP carboxylase)
- CO₂ is added to phosphoenolpyruvate
(PEP)
- A 4-Carbon compound is produced
- CO₂ is later released from this carbon
compound and used by rubisco in the calvin
cycle.

• Instead of a C3 Pathway, plants will

1. Carboxylation proceed to a C4 Pathway where CO₂ is
- the addition of CO2 to RUBP added to a PEP Carboxylase (3-Carbon
Molecule) + CO₂ (1-Carbon Molecule) =
2. Photorespiration 4-Carbon Molecule
- the oxidation of RUBP by the addition • This 4-Carbon compound is called
of CO2 oxaloacetate, which later then will be
converted into malate (a 4-Carbon
compound, still).
• Glucose is not a direct product of the
calvin cycle
• 2 molecules of G3P leave the cycle
• each G3P contains 3 carbons, 2 G3P =
6 carbons are used to produce 1 glucose
in reactions in the cytoplasm

• 18 ATP molecules
• 12 NADPH molecules
• Malate can now enter the stomata, it
will help the CO₂ to be released (1-
The energy cycle
Carbon Molecule), the other 3-Carbon
- photosynthesis uses the products of
Molecule left will go back as a pyruvate.
respiration as starting substrates respiration
- uses the products of photosynthesis • These pyruvate will be converted as
starting substrates. phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), they will
be used in combining with CO₂
• The CO₂ is now inside the site, ready for
LESSON 4 : C3 pathway Calvin Cycle (this is where the role of
• Rubisco (ribulose-bis-phosphate the C3 Pathway will start)
carboxylase oxygenase) catalyses • In short, before the plant will proceed
carbon fixation. to the C3 Pathway, it will first undergo
• ribulose-bisphosphate + CO2 → to the C4 Pathway.
2(PGA)
• 5 carbons1 carbon 3 carbons C4 Plants
- Use PEP carboxylase to capture CO₂
C3 Pathway - CO₂ is added to PEP in one cell type
– the pathway under normal condition, (mesophyll cell)
it was called “C3” because in the process, you - The resulting 4-carbon compound is
will produce 3 Carbon Molecule moved into a bundle sheath cell where the CO₂
is released and used in the Calvin Cycle

Night time
1. Carboxylation
– Stomata opens, because of the mild
- The addition of CO2 to RuBP
temperature, oxygen is being released.
- Favored under normal conditions
Day time
2. Photorespiration
– Stomata closes, to conserve water because
- The oxidation of RUBP by the addition
of the hot temperature, CO₂ fails to enter.
of O2
- Favored in hot conditions (the opening
of plants are closed under hot

Phosphate (G3P/GA3P)
• Stomata is closed, CO₂ will enter
through the mesophyll cell and it will be
passed to the bundle-sheath cell.
• PEP (3-Carbon Molecule) will capture
CO₂ (1-Carbon Molecule), which will
then result to a 4-Carbon Molecule
• Oxaloacetate can’t afford to release
CO₂ inside the bundle-sheath, that’s
why it needs to be malate first. From
malate, the CO₂ is released, the
remaining 3-Carbon Molecule will go
back as Pyruvate. And, pyruvate will be
converted as phosphoenolpyruvate
(PEP).
• phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) will
consume ATP, it will then produce ADP
+ Inorganic Phosphate.
CAM Plants (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism)
- CO₂ is captured at night when
stomata are open
- PEP carboxylase adds Co₂ to PEP to
produce a 4 carbon compound
- This compound releases CO₂ during the
day
- CO₂ is then used by rubisco in the
Calvin Cycle
- This is an example of a C4 Pathway
too, the only difference is that the CO2 is being
captured during night time.
LESSON 5: Glycolysis – Steps 1
to 5
Glycolysis
- Splitting/breaking down of glucose
molecule
- Occurs in the cytoplasm
- There are 2 phases with 10 steps
- Glycolysis → Glycogen
1. Energy Investment Phase
- Preparatory/Energy Requiring Phase
-First five steps (first half)
(preparatory for the second half)
- Starting material: Glucose (& ATP)
- End material: Glyceraldehyde-3-
- 2 ATP → 2 ADP
-0 NADH
• If you invested 2 ATPs, and were able to
produce 4 ATPs– this means you have a
net of 2 ATPs now, which can serve as
usable energy (in the roles of
mechanical, chemical and transport).
STEP 1
• This step is catalyzed by hexokinase, an
enzyme that catalyzes the
phosphorylation of glucose Sugars.
• Hexokinase phosphorylates D-Glucose
by using ATP as the source of the
phosphate, and produces glucose-6-
phosphate.
• In Step 1, one ATP will be used already
(Energy Investment Phase limits 2
ATPs in the first 5 cycles). This means
on the remaining 4 steps, only one ATP
will be used.
• From Glucose, it will have a 6-Carbon
Molecule, but Phosphorylation
happened that’s why it became
Glucose-6-Phosphate, with the help of
enzyme hexokinase,
• Glucose has 6 carbons, out of 1 Glucose
Molecule, there will be 2G3P as your
end product.
• Phosphorylating ATP means adding a
Phosphate Group, that’s why ATP
becomes ADP in this step because it
already donated its Phosphate in the
process.
STEP 2
• Here, an isomerase– phosphoglucose
isomerase converts glucose-6-
phosphate into one of its isomers (each
of two or more compounds with the
same formula but a different
arrangement of atoms in the molecule
and different properties), fructose-6-
phosphate.
• This change from phosphoglucose to
phosphofructose allows the eventual
split of sugar into two 3C molecules.
STEP 3
• Phosphorylation of fructose-6-
phosphate, catalyzed by the enzyme
phosphofructokinase.
 - Starting materials: 2 Pyr
- 4 ADP > 4 ATP
- 2 NADH (The NADH will later go to
Electron Transport Chain)

• A second ATP molecule donates high • The whole Glycolysis Process will
energy phosphate to fructose-6- produce 2 ATPs contributions for the
phosphate, producing fructose-1,6- whole Cellular Respiration.
bisphosphate. • There are about 36-38 ATPs that will be
produced in Cellular Respiration,
meaning that the two ATPs came from
STEP 4 Glycolysis.

STEP 6

• The newly added high energy

phosphates further destabilize
fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.
• An enzyme 𝗢𝗳𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗲𝗿𝘀 (fructose-bis-
phosphate aldose) will cleave fructose-
1,6-bisphosphate to two 3C isomers: • This step oxidizes the sugar (G3P)
dihydroxyacetone-phosphate (DHAP) extracting high energy electrons, which
and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are picked up by electron carriers
(G3P) NAD+, producing NADH.
• The sugar is then phosphorylated by the
addition of a second phosphate group,
STEP 5 producing 1, 3- bisphosphoglycerate.
• The second phosphate group does not
require another ATP molecule.
• Enzyme in step 6 is G3P
dehydrogenase.
• In every One G3P there is One NADH

STEP 7

• An isomerase – triosephosphate
isomerase transforms
dihydroxyacetone-phosphate into its
isomer– G3P
• This is where DHAP is converted into • This step is catalyzed by
G3P phosphoglycerate kinase (an enzyme
• Thus the pathway will continue with 2 named for the reverse reaction)
molecules of a single isomer–G3P • 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate donates a
• At this point of the pathway, there is a high energy phosphate to ADP, forming
net investment of 2 ATPs in the one molecule of ATP.
breakdown of 1 glucose molecule. • A carbonyl group on the 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate is oxidized to the
Recap! carboxyl group, and 3-
• We used ATP and Kinase in Step 1 and phosphoglycerate is formed.
Step 3 • In this step, 1 ATP is already produced–
• The Energy Investment Phase requires we only need 2 ATPs, meaning we are
2 G3Ps which will enter the Step 6 left with only one ATP to produce.
• The end product would be 2 Pyruvate We also used a kinase in this step.
(Pyruvic Acid), which will then enter the
Krebs Cycle Carbonyl group
• e used Isomers in Step 2 and Step 5. - In organic
Chemistry, a carbonyl
LESSON 6: Glycolysis – Steps 6 group is a functional group
composed of a carbon
to 10 atom double-bonded to an
oxygen atom: C=O

2. ENERGY PAYOFF PHASE

- Energy yielding/releasing phase
- Second five steps (second half)
Carboxyl group
- The
carboxyl group
consists of
a carbon, bonded to
both an oxygen and
hydrogen: O–H
STEP 8
• The remaining phosphate group in 3-
phosphoglycerate moves from the third
carbon to the second carbon, producing
2-phosphoglycerate (an isomer of 3-
phosphoglycerate)
• The enzyme here is a mutase (an
isomerase)
STEP 9
• Enolase catalyzes the 9th step.
• This enzyme causes 2-
phosphoglycerate to lose water from its
structure, a dehydration reaction,
resulting in the formation of a double
bond that increases the potential energy
in the remaining phosphate bond and
produces phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
• Enolase is a dehydration reaction.
STEP 10
• The last step is catalyzed by the
enzyme pyruvate kinase.
• Results in the production of a second
ATP molecule and the compound pyruvic
acid (or its salt form, pyruvate)
• In this step, we produce the remaining 1
ATP.
• We also used kinase here as an enzyme.
• If pyruvate kinase is not present...
Pyruvate Kinase Deficiency
- Is an inherited disorder that affects
red blood cells, which carry oxygen to the
body's tissues. People with this disorder have
a condition known as chronic hemolytic anemia,
in which red blood cells are broken down
(undergo hemolysis) prematurely, resulting in
a shortage of red blood cells (anemia).
• We used Kinase in Step 7 and Step 10,
and we also produced ATPs in the said
steps.
• We used Isomers for Step 8.
• 4 ATPs (EYP)
• 2 ATPs (EIP)
• 2 Net ATPs (In Glycolysis)
• In every 6 Glucose Molecules, there will
be 24 Gross ATPs, and 12 Net ATPs —
> It also has 12 G3Ps
Gross ATP
= (Number of Glucose Molecules will be
multiplied by 4)
Net ATP
= (Number of Glucose Molecules will be
multiplied by 2)
G3P
= (Number of Glucose Molecules will be
multiplied by 2)
= Since in every One Glucose, there will
be 2 G3Ps
LESSON 7 : pre krebs
cycle/krebs cycle
Pre- Krebs Cycle
- before pyruvic acid enters the krebs
cycle, it combines with an enzyme called
“coenzyme A - CoA” made from vitamin B5-
pantothenic acid
- this reaction produces a molecule of
Acetyl CoA
- Acetyl CoA is a molecule that produces
by almost all nutrients (carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins) before entering krebs cycle.
- Pyruvate formed in glycolysis enters
the mitochondrial matrix.
- pigeon type bird Pic
Krebs Cycle
- named after Hans Krebs who won the
Nobel prize for the pathway he discovered in
cellular respiration.
- Also called “citric acid cycle” or
“tricarboxylic acid cycle”.
- Cyclical series of oxidation reactions
that give off CO2 and produce one ATP per
cycle
 - Turns twice per glucose molecule
(produces 1 ATP per turn)
- Produces two ATP because of 2 turns STEP 2 : ISOMERIZATION STEP
- Takes place in matrix of
mitochondria
- Acetyl CoA (formed from Pyruvic Acid)
combines with a four - carbon molecule to
make a molecule of citric acid.
-citric acid is broken down in several
steps providing the energy to make NADH
, FADH, ATP.

• Pyruvic Acid • Citrate loses one water molecule and

• ADP gains another as citrate is converted
• NAD+ into its isomer, “isocitrate (6c)”
• FAD+ • This is catalyzed by “aconitase (an
isomerase)”

• 2 ATP → usable energy STEP 3 : OXIDATIVE DECARBOXYLATION OF

• 6 NADH → goes to ETC ISOCITRATE & REDOX REACTION
• 2 FADH2 → goes to ETC
• 4 CO2 → byproduct

• isocitrate is oxidized and

decarboxylated, producing alpha -
ketoglutarate (5c) together with a
molecule of CO2 and two electrons,
which reduce NAD+ to NADH
• This is catalyzed by “isocitrate
dehydrogenase”

• Oxaloacetate STEP 4: OXIDATIVE DECARBOXYLATION OF

• Citric Acid ALPHA-KETOGLUTARATE & REDOX
• Isocitrate REACTION
• Alpha-ketoglutaratE
• Succinyl CoA
• Succinate thokinase
• Fumarate
• Malate
• Oxaloacytate

Step 1 : Condensation Step

• Oxidative decarboxylation of alpha -

ketoglutarate produces succinyl CoA
(4C)
• The enzyme “alpha-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase” catalyzes this reaction
to produce NADH, CO2 , and high -
energy thioester bond to coenzyme A

STEP 5 : SUBSTRATE LEVEL

• Combining the 2C acetyl-COA with a 4C PHOSPHORYLATION
oxaloacytate molecule in the presence
of H2O to form a 6C molecule of
citrate.
• CoA is bound to a sulfhydryl (SH)
group and diffuses eventually and
combine with another acetyl group
• This is catalyzed by “citrate synthase”

• A phosphate group is substituted for
coenzyme A and a high energy bond is
formed.
• Catalyzed by “succinate thiokinase”
• This energy is used in substrate level
phosphorylation (during the conversion
of succinyl group to succinate - 4C) to
form either guanosine triphosphate
GTP or ATP
• GTP is energetically equivalent to ATP;
however it is more restricted in
particular, protein synthesis primarily
useGTP
Heart and Muscle Tissue
- Tissues that use large amounts of
ATPs
Liver Tissue
- Tissues that have a high number of
anabolic pathways
STEP 6 : DEHYDRATION /
DEHYDROGENATION / OXYGENATION STEP
• Succinate is converted to fumarate
(4C)
• The enzyme “succinate
dehydrogenase” catalyzes this reaction
• Two hydrogen atoms are transferred to
FAD, producing FADH2. The energy
contained in electrons of these atoms is
insufficient to reduce NAD+ but
adequate to reduce FAD
STEP 7 : HYDRATION STEP
• Water is added to fumarate (4C) to
produce malate (4C)
• The enzyme “fumarase” catalyzes this
reaction
• This is accomplished at the double bond
just formed. A water molecule ionizes
with the hydrogen ion going to carbon
#2 and the hydroxyl ion to carbon #1.
STEP 8 : DEHYDROGENATION STEP
• malate (4C) is oxidized to regenerate
oxaloacetate (4C).
• The enzyme “malate dehydrogenase”
catalyzes the removal of the pair of
hydrogen atoms placed on carbons #1
and #2 by water in the previous
reaction.
• NAD+ is reduced to NADH
Electron Transport Chain
• In chemiosmosis, the free energy from
the series of redox reactions is used to
pump hydrogen ions (protons) across
the membrane.
• The uneven distribution of H+ ions
across the membrane establishes both
concentration and electrical gradients
(thus, an electrochemical gradient),
owing to the hydrogen ions’ positive
charge and their aggregation on one
side of the membrane.
• If the membrane were open to diffusion
by the hydrogen ions, the ions would
tend to diffuse back across into the
matrix, driven by their electrochemical
gradient
• Many ions cannot diffuse through the
nonpolar regions of phospholipid
membranes without the aid of ion
channels.
• Similarly, hydrogen ions in the matrix
space can only pass through the inner
mitochondrial membrane through an
integral membrane protein called ATP
synthase
• This complex protein acts as a tiny
generator, turned by the force of the
hydrogen ions diffusing through it,
down their electrochemical gradient
• The turning of parts of this molecular
machine facilitates the addition of a
phosphate to ADP, forming ATP, using
 the potential energy of the hydrogen ion
gradient
LESSON 8: fermentation
• If oxygen is not present, the products
of glycolysis (pyruvic acid and NADH)
will enter an alternative process called
fermentation.
• Fermentation provides enough ATP and
recycles NADH into NAD+ so that
glycolysis may continue until more
oxygen becomes available
• Occurs in the cytoplasm/ Cytosol of the
cell
Two Types of Fermentation
1. Lactic Acid Fermentation
- Occurs in muscle cells in the body.
- Lactic acid is a waste product of
fermentation that will build up and cause your
muscles to “burn” during hard exercise.
- Lactic acid fermentation also occurs in
some bacteria and molds.
- Waste products of the fermentation
process give cheese different flavors.
- Yogurt is another product of lactic acid
fermentation.
- End Products: Lactic acid fermentation
• 2-ATP(substrate-level
phosphorylation)
• 2-Lactic Acids
2. Alcoholic fermentation
- is a process used by many yeasts and
plants.
- Also uses the products of glycolysis
(NADH and pyruvic acid) to provide enough
NAD+ and ATP for glycolysis to continue.
-Alcoholic fermentation is used to make
bread or dough rise and is also used for beer
and wine.
- End Products: Alcohol fermentation
• 2 - ATP (substrate-level
phosphorylation)
• 2 - CO2
• 2 - Ethanols
• All available energy extracted from
glucose is 2 ATP.
• Certain bacteria produce chemicals of
industrial importance such as
isopropanol, butyric acid, acetic acid
when bacteria ferment—breakdown of
sugars in the absence of oxygen.
• Foods that are fermented last longer
because these fermenting organisms
have removed many of the nutrients
that would attract other
microorganisms.
• Yeasts ferment fruits and wine is
produced. Grain is also fermented to
produce beer. They also cause the
bread to rise due to CO2, a by-product,
and alcohol is lost in the bread.
• Yeasts and lactobacillus together
produce sour taste in wheat beer.
• Yeasts and Acetobacter aceti spoil wine
to become vinegar.
• Bacterial fermentation produces yogurt
(due to Streptococcus thermophilus
and Lactobacillus bulgaricus), sour
cream, cheese, brine cucumber pickles,
and kimchi.
• Clostridium bacteria can produce nail
polish remover and rubbing alcohol
from the acetone and isopropanol they
make
• Soy sauce is produced by adding mold
(Aspergillus), yeasts and fermenting
bacteria.
• Consumption of 2 ATP is fast.
• Ethanol and lactate, the by-products of
fermentation, have a lot of energy
reserves—prokaryotes and eukaryotes
cannot extract the energy in lactate and
ethanol using anaerobic method.
• Needs a large supply of glucose to
perform the same work as in aerobic
respiration.