1

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The development of fingerprint science predates the Christian era by many centuries. Prehistoric Indian
pictures writing of hand with crudely marked ridge patterns, fingerprints impressions on clay tablets, recording
business transactions in ancient Babylon, and clay seals of ancient Chinese origin bearing thumbprints, were
found as evidence of early use of fingerprint as identification of persons impressing the prints.

The formal study began as early as l686 but has finally gained official use in 1858 by Sir William James
Herschel, a British chief administrative officer in Hoogly District of Bengal, India. Herschel used fingerprints in
India to prevent fraudulent collections of army pay accounts and for identity on other documents.

In 1880 two major developments were achieved that ushered to a more wholistic acceptance of
fingerprint use. Dr. Henry Faulds, an English doctor based in Japan, wrote to publication Nature on the practical
use of fingerprints for the identification of criminals. His argument was supported by his studies and successful
experiments on permanency of one's fingerprint. After Fauld's breakthrough, Sir Francis Galton, a noted British
anthropologist and scientist Charles Darwin's cousin, devised the first scientific method of classifying
fingerprint patterns.

It was in 1882 when the first authentic record of official use of fingerprint was noted in the U.S.A.

In l89l, Juan Vucetich, an Argentinian police, used a system of fingerprint as criminal identification
based on Sir Francis Galton's studies.

As early as the start of the 20th century, fingerprint use in criminal investigation has gained widespread
acceptance across the USA and was adopted in use by the different branches of the United States Armed Forces.
The use of fingerprint since then had begun to take its toll. The United States has fostered the fingerprint
development to its most intricate system.

Today, the US Federal Bureau of Investigation's identification files are rapidly approaching 200 million
sets of fingerprints - the largest collection in the world.

IMPORTANCE SERVED BY FINGERPRINT AS EVIDENCE

Fingerprint evidence, is a matter of common knowledge, used as a circumstance tending to prove

identification. Prints on a murder weapon may be a strong link in a chain of circumstances encircling an
accused person, or prints on objects at the scene of crime may place the defendant there at time and place , thus
identifying him as one with opportunity to have done that act. It is only necessary that a defendant be proven
guilty beyond reasonable doubt, as the cases are numerous wherein it is said that positive identification in an
absolute degree, and free of all inconsistencies, is not necessary as the degree of positiveness goes to the weight
of testimony. It follows, that the purpose of identification should be better served in some cases by fingerprints,
then testimony of an eyewitness that he saw the defendant fleeing the scene of a crime. And, the cases held that
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photographs of fingerprints left at the scene of a crime are admissible to show a defendant present at the time
and place in view of testimony that the fingerprints of no two persons are identical.

USES OF FINGERPRINT

1. Identification of criminals whose fingerprints are found at the scene of the crime.
2. Identification of fugitives through a comparison of fingerprints.
3. Exchanging of criminal identifying information with identification bureau
of foreign countries in cases of mutual interests.
4. Means of personal identification.
5. Identification of unknown deceased.
6. Prevention of hospital mistakes in the identification of infants.
7. Licensing procedures for automobiles, firearms, aircraft and other equipment.

PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT

1. Principle of Individuality - which means that no two fingerprints are

exactly alike.

2. Principle of Permanency - which means that the configurations and details

of individual ridges remain constant and unchanging.

3. Principle of Infallibility - which means that fingerprint is reliable

METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

1. BERTILLON SYSTEM

This method was developed by Alphonse Bertillon, a French Anthropologist. This system measures the body
as a means of identification. The theory states that "if a man reaches the age of twenty years old, he already has developed
a permanent body structure and put it on record.

2. ODONTOLOGY

This system measures the teeth structure as a means of identification. Investigators usually resort to this
identification system in cases where a skull or skeletal remains are found and no other means of identification
can be established.

3. HAIR

Hair examination is one of the oldest forms of physical evidence. It is used to determine the following:

1. If suspected hair originates from human or animal;

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2. If human, what part of the body did it come from.

Investigators have a very limited source of information in hair analysis but it would also of help to
them.

4. BLOOD

Blood is usually spilled in most crimes involving violence and it may be shed by the criminal while
committing crimes. It is the best specimen for testing for alcohol in sobriety examinations. It is also used to
investigate disputed paternity cases.

FINGERPRINT

This system of identification proved to be of great help not only in the identification of criminals but as
well as in the identification of unknown decease persons which has been proven to be very effective.

Personal Identification Defined

Personal identification is the proving of an individual's identity that he is the same person he claims to
be or alleged to be ; or if not he is pretending to be somebody else, who he really is.

Such identification is necessary for the protection of both the individual and the society.

A. Personal identification is valuable or important to the individual in cases of:

l. Amnesia, sudden illness or injury

2. In identifying new born children in hospital
3. In identifying lost children
4. In authenticating important document
5. In cases of mistaken identity, false arrest or accusation
6. In case of death

B. Personal identification is valuable or important to the society in cases of:

1. In preventing the employment of undesirables or the re-employment of

discharge undesirables.
2. In preventing fraud in elections an in taking examination.
3. In determining fraudulent claims for damages.
4. In identifying dead, injured, sick and missing persons.
5. In identifying criminals and suspects.
6. In apprehending deserters from the Armed Forces of the Philippines.
7. In preventing the re-entry of deporties
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CHAPTER 11

UNDERSTANDING FINGERPRINTS

The human form changes in shape and size from conception and sometime after death. There is, though,
one portion of his body which remains the same - except in size, during the adolescent years - and that is the
ridges of the skin both on the hands and feet., These ridges are studded with microscopic pores, the mouths of
the ducts of the glands located below the epidermis which secrete perspiration. Physiologists are divided as to
the purpose of these ridges, or as to how they have been formed. It has been conjectured that their office is to
raise the mouths of the ducts so as to facilitate the discharge of the sweat and also possibly to assist in some
undefined way the sense of touch.

Nevertheless, the unchanging nature of these ridges makes them a valuable tool of identification. For
practical purposes, in fingerprinting, only the hands are used. However, it is worth noting that in many
hospitals, the feet of new born babies are printed for identification in case of any miss-claims. For easier
classification, only the fingertips to the first joints are used except when palm prints are specifically requested.

The history of Fingerprinting

The employment during past times of fingerprints among various nations was discussed in the writing
towards the end of the last century of Sir Francis Galton, who found the significance attached to their use to
have been partly superstitious and partly ceremonial. Bearing upon this point he referred to the modern witness
who, when sworn on the Bible, is made to hold and kiss it, and to the executant of a document who touches a
wafer or seal and declares "this to be my act and deed".

In 1823, Purkinje, a Professor of Physiology and Pathology, read before the University of Breslau a latin
thesis on finger impressions in which he gave nine standard types and suggested a system of classification but
his labours failed to attract the attention they merited. Bewick, the reviver of wood printing in England, appears
to have been struck with the delicacy of the lineations for he made engravings on wood of a couple of his
fingers , which he used as designs for his illustrated works. Sir Francis Galton allso tells us that when the
immigration of the Chinese was causing so much excitement in America the suggestion was made, but not
acted upon, that a system of fingerprinting might be used for their registration. But no departure at any time
previously made is comparable in importance with the systemized labors in this direction of Sir William
Herschel, of the Indian Civil Service. He first used it in the Hooghley district of Bengal in 1857, to prevent
impersonation which was prevalent in the courts at that time. Sir William had found that some bright Bengalese
would forge another native's mark in order to draw his pension or allowances. He also discovered that by taking
a fingerprint of the applicant in court, and by comparing it with the print on the document, he was able to
expose a false claimant. His experiments were so successful that the natives ever afterwards regarded
fingerprints with superstitious awe.

Meanwhile another Englishman, Sir Francis Galton, had become interested in fingerprints. He was
supplied by Sir William Herschel with a large body of valuable data. Galton's investigations were first of all
carried on from a physiological point of view, and it was he who demonstrated that the details of the ridges on
the fingers which are pictured in finger impressions persist right through from childhood to death without
variation, and that the papillary ridges of a new-born infant remain unchanged to old age and the grave.
 5

Until 1901 the method of identification employed at Scotland Yard was the antthropometric
system initiated by Alphonse Bertillon, the French professor who became head of the identification department
of the Paris police. This system was generally known as the Bertillon system, and was first put into practical
operation in France in l883.

Bertillon was satisfied that the measurements of various bony parts of the body did not vary throughout
the life of an individual from the time he was full grown, and he adopted live body-measurements as the basis
of his system. These were the length and breadth of the skull , the length of the foot, the cubit (length of the
forearm from the elbow to the end of the middle finger. These primary classifications were subdivided into
other measurements according to height , span, length and breadth of the ear, height of the bust , and color of
the eyes.

As early as l894 a British government committee had been appointed to report on the best means of
identifying habitual criminals, for until then identification had been a somewhat haphazard business and relied
almost entirely on personal recognition by witnesses. Previous convictions of criminals were proved merely by
police officer's remembering the appearance of prisoners when they had been previously sentenced at Court.

The committee recommended that a modified Bertillon system be adopted and that a registry of
measurements should be collected at New Scotland Yard to serve as a National Bureau. Thus, in the same year,
l894, the Registry of Anthropometric Measurements came into being and there was the first application of
science to crime detection.

However, by 1899 it became abundantly clear this new system was not working because the
measurements received were not sufficiently precise, and so another government committee met to consider
alternative schemes. This committee like its predecessor, thought the Bertillon system of value but considered
it unsuited to the British system of measurement. They therefore turned their attention to identification by
fingerprint impressions, and finally compromised by recommending a system which was partly fingerprint and
partly anthropometric. It will be appreciated that at this period no very great knowledge existed of fingerprint
identification. The Chinese, although credited with having a knowledge of fingerprints many centuries ago, at
this period did nothing towards advancing the science of classification.

It was in fact, Mr. Edward Henry, Inspector General of Police, Bengal, who eventually devised a system
of classifying and filling fingerprints. The second government committee having recommended a fingerprint
system, it was not long before Mr. Henry took up an appointment as an Assistant Commissioner at New
Scotland Yard, and from that time onwards fingerprint identification forged ahead. Of course, there were
sceptics; in fact for many years the Scottish Courts would have nothing to do with what they termed 'this new
tangled notion". Had the fingerprint system been in operation and acceptable as evidence in the Scottish Courts
in 1908, it is doubtful if the trial and wrongful conviction of Oscar Slater for the murder of Marion Gilchrist
would have occurred. His sentence of fifteen years would never have been serve, for undoubtedly the murderer's
fingerprints would have been found on the upturned chair with which Miss Gilchrist was battered to death.

As the fingerprint Department began to build up its records, so it became more and more obvious that
the identification by anthropometric measurements was of very little practical value.

In l905 , the Fingerprint Department was to have its first major success, with an identification in a
murder case which established this method for all time. In l905 there lived at 34 High Street, Deptford, Mr. and
 6
Mrs. Thomas Farrow, an elderly couple. Mr. Farrow, who was nearly seventy years of age had carried out a
modest business as an oilman for the previous twenty years. The business was not a flourishing one, but it
provided a living for the couple and permitted the employment of an assistant. There is little doubt however,
that a story had gained ground in the district that Thomas Farrow was a wealthy man and kept a large sum of
money on the premises.

On the morning of 27 March 1905, the assistant arrived at the shop at 8 am but found the premises
locked. As his repeated knocking failed to produce any answer he called the police, who, on forcing an entry,
found Thomas Farrow battered to death. The shop parlor in which the body was found was in a state of disorder
and a cash box which, had been forced open was on the floor. On going to the bedroom the police found Mrs.
Farrow still alive but in a most serious condition, for she too had been grievously battered. She was removed to
hospital where she died four days later without regaining consciousness. Further search of the premises revealed
two black masks, both of which had been made from the same stocking. This find prompted the investigating
officers to think that the masks were intended to prevent either Mr. Farrow or his wife from recognizing their
attackers. In short, the police worked on the assumption that the murders were committed by local men who
were known to both Mr. And Mrs. Farrow.

As events proved, the police were correct in this assumption, for a questionnaire was drawn up and
detectives began the tedious job of checking on the movements of all known violent criminals in the locality. A
man named Alfred Stratton, aged twenty two, was one of those interrogated and not being able to explain
satisfactorily his movements on the night of 26 and 27 March, he was kept at the police station . Officers
questioned his younger brother, Albert Stratton, aged twenty.

In the meantime, the cash box had been examined by Mr. Collins, who was then in charge of the
Fingerprint Department. He found that the tray of the box bore a clear impression which proved to be
unmistakable imprint of the right thumb of Alfred Stratton. The case was eventually heard at the Central
Criminal Court and by then the thumb-print evidence was front page news. This, plus the evidence of a woman
Hannah Cromarty, who identified the stocking masks as having been made from one of her old stockings which
she had given to Alfred Stratton, was sufficient to find both men guilty and they were executed.

From the modest beginning in Bengal, the Henry system of fingerprint classification has stood the test
of time and is now in almost worldwide use. It was some years before the Battley single fingerprint system
came into being; as its prefix implies the original work was done by Superintendent H. Battley, aided by
Inspector F. Cherrill, who was later to become the officer in charge of the Fingerprint Bureau. Thus, it can truly
be said that New Scotland Yard was the cradle of a system of fingerprint identification which is now used
internationally.

Comparing fingerprints

The normal appearance of a fingerprint, when viewed through a magnifying glass, is a series of ridges
and nothing else.

To understand fingerprinting, we must make various changes in our perception. First color must be
disregarded, since all practical fingerprinting is monochrome. The reason for this is that when a person is
fingerprinted, his prints are "rolled" or "dabbed" in black ink. Secondly, the image must be transformed to
working size and finally reversed. When somebody's finger touches an object and grease on the ridges is
transferred to that object, it is the ridges that when dusted with fingerprint powder, become visible, and since
the impression is an offset one it is laterally reversed.
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Every person's fingerprint is entirely different from anyone else. There is a widespread mistaken belief
that the fingerprint of so called "identical" twins are also identical. This is not so. In terms of ridge
characteristics (which are the criteria by which identity is established), there is not more detailed similarity
between the fingerprints of entirely unrelated persons. So-called identical twins sometimes do have patterns of a
similar type on their fingers, but this is the limit of their similarity. Particular attention is (and always has been)
devoted to the fingerprints of the subjects of multiple births, by fingerprint experts, the experience has shown in
such cases, that the ridge characteristic sequence is absolutely reliable as a means of establishing identity. Even
in the cases of polydactylism , where one finger appears to have been duplicated, the print on the second finger
is not identical with its fellow.

Innumerable trials have been made with a view to fixing standards or types according to which all
impressions can be readily sorted; Purkenji proposed nine, Sir Francis Galton, three. As the outcome of much
experimenting, a four-fold classification has been adopted which meets all the requirements while greatly
reducing the number of gradational cases. These four types are: arches; loops, whorls, composites.

However, for positive identification, various characteristics must be found to match the impression
found at the scene of the crime and that of the person accused. In this country it is necessary to identify at least
16 matching points. However, for presentation to the court a photograph of the rolled impression of the accused
and of that found at the scene of the crime must be shown side by side with the l6 points on each correlated.

Revealing and Photographing Fingerprints

Depending on the type of surface to be dusted for fingerprints, different types of powder are used. On
certain metallic surfaces, to assist adhesion, a metallic powder with magnetic properties can be used. A further
type of recently developed powder can be used in the "lifting" technique. There are arguments for and against
this method of crime fingerprinting. Although the definition is poor as the print has to be "lifted" by use of a
material very similar to Sellotape and then photographed back at the studio. It does have advantages over the
ultraviolet system.

The choice of appropriate method is one of the problems of scenes of crime prints; in addition they are
invariably only partial impressions, and never clear and neat and is hoped.

A print on a multi-colored surface may be revealed , without using a lifting powder, by using a
fluorescent powder. Photographed under an ultraviolet light source, only the print shows and very little of the
background.

Finally comes the problem of fingerprinting dead bodies, usually for identification if the person was
found dead in a place where nobody knew him and had no means of establishing identity on him(e.g. a
stranger) or he was the victim of an accident in which more than one person died In such a manner that facial
identification is not practical , if death was recent and the fingertips are still similar to those of a living person, it
can be printed in the normal way.
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A CHRONOLOGY OF FINGERPRINTING

Grew (1684) Dr. Nehemiah Grew, FPCS FPS wrote a pamphlet on fingerprints and illustrated it with
various patterns.

Malpigni (1686) Marcelo Malpigni, Professor of Anatomy at Bologna University in Italy, carried out
research work on fingerprints. A layer of the human skin is names after him. (Known as the Grandfather of
Dactyloscopy).

Bewick (1818) Thomas Bewick, the engraver, realized the individuality of fingerprints, by making
engraving of them for use as his trade marks.

Purkinje ( 1823) J. E. Purkinje, Professor of Anatomy at Breslau University, described and illustrated
nine types of patterns. (Known as the Father of Dactyloscopy)

Herschel (l850) In the 1850's Sir William Herschell realized the persistence of fingerprints, but never
formulated any method of arriving at a system of classification.

Faulds ( 1880) Sir Henry Faulds wrote a book dealing with fingerprints, in which he advocated taking
prints from all 10 fingers.

Galton (l898) Sir Francis Galton was responsible for much of the early research work in the subject of
fingerprints. Proves that no two fingerprints are alike.

Bertillon ( l895) Alphonse Bertillon, a French Police Officer, devised an Anthropometric System in
which various measurements of the body were taken. These figures were placed on cards for ease of searching .
In the UK the fingerprints were taken on the back of the card. The measurement system however, disclosed its
weakness, as illustrated by the case of the Fox Brothers: these were twins, whose Bertillon readings were almost
identical, whereas their fingerprints were totally dissimilar.

Henry ( 1901) Sir Edward henry devised a Fingerprint System, and as Assistant Commissioner of the
Metropolitan Police, put it into use in this country in July 1901. By the end of that year, 1750 identification had
been effected.

Battley (1930) Harry Battley, as Chief Inspector in charge of the Fingerprint Branch at Scotland Yard,
devised a single fingerprint system. He was assisted in this work by Frederick Cherrill (one of his Inspectors
who went on to take charge of the Branch and revised the Henry and Battley text books).
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CHAPTER 111

FINDING AND PROCESSING LATENT PRINTS

"Latent" prints are chance or unintentional prints found on items of evidence or at a crime scene. Some
prints can be plainly seen. They are made by a finger coated with a foreign substance like blood, grease, or dirt.
Some prints are "plastic impressions" imprinted in pliable substances like butter, candles, putty, and semi-dry
paint. Other prints, invisible or barely visible to the eye, are made by the natural body secretions of the hands
and fingers.

A latent fingerprint is best described as a combination of chemicals which is exuded by the pores on the
surface of the skin. These chemicals consist of perspiration, which contains water, oils amino acids, and salts.
The moisture exuded is deposited along the surface of the friction ridges on the palm side of the hands and soles
of the feet.

When the hand or foot comes in contact with another surface this is transferred - conforming more or
less to the friction ridges depositing it. Heavy pressure by the hand, fingers or foot often deposits excessive
moisture and this type of latent print will present the greatest degree of difficulty as far as development is
concerned.

The friction ridges begin to develop in the second or third month of pregnancy and these patterns, which
will remain basically unchanged for the life of the individual, are fully formed at birth.

In many cases, the latent print is invisible to the naked eye. This is especially true on paper and raw
wood. Therefore, extreme care must be taken when handling items to be checked.

The visibility of latent prints depends on the physical condition of the person who left the print on the
surface of the object, and on the angle of the reflection of the light by which they were viewed. The visibility of
the prints also depends on the time that has passed since they are placed, the amount of heat to which they have
been exposed, and other factors. The amount of time they stay on an object is affected by atmospheric
conditions, air currents, and humidity. But even when the object has been exposed to adverse conditions, it may
be possible to obtain prints.

Attempts to obtain prints should be made in all cases. Smudges lacking ridge features may have foreign
substances like grease or blood on them. Although not serviceable as latent prints, they may provide other trace
evidence.

Photographing prints found at crime scenes can safeguard fingerprint evidence. Taking photographs
before attempting to preserve prints can offset damage which can sometimes occur in the preservation process.
The photographs are also useful in the preparation and presentation of fingerprint evidence. After
photographing fingerprints found at a crime scene, an enlargement can be made at the crime lab. Enlargements
can be very useful in studying a print and comparing it with other prints.

Preserving Prints

Prints made visible by a foreign substance on the fingers often need only be lifted with print lifting tape.
Or if the prints are on a small object, the whole object may be held as evidence. But latent prints made by just
the normal secretions of the skin often have to be processed in a special way before they can be seen and
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preserved. The most common means is by powdering or chemical treatment. Prints needing dusting powder to
develop should be photographed before lifting. Prints found in dust should be photographed and then lifted.
They should not be powdered, as this will destroy them.

Powdering

Fingerprint powders are supplied in field kits in several colors, but black and white are used the most.
Choose the powder that best contrast with the background. These commercial powders have been developed
over many years. They are dependable and of right composition.

Some fingerprint equipment includes fluorescent powders to develop latent prints on multicolored
surfaces. These powders are not often found in issued kits. They require a source of ultraviolet light. Long-wave
ultraviolet light should be used, as short wave ultraviolet light is harmful to the eyes and skin. And you must
wear protective goggles and clothing. The choice of powder depends on whether the latent print is developed
for photographing or lifting. As latent prints are prints which are normally lifted, the use of ultraviolet powder is
rare.

To preserve a print with powder, first check for a test print in the area selected. Lightly brush it with
powder to see if any unseen latent print is actually present. Then the surface can be wiped clean and the test
print made and processed.

Fingerprint powder can be applied with fiberglass, camel hair, and feather brushes. A magnetic wand is
used with magnetic powder. A large piece of cotton can be used for developing latent prints over a large area.

Pour some of the powder out of the container onto a sheet of paper. Just touch the tip of the brush to the
powder. Then shake off the excess powder. The key to proper print development is to use a small amount of
powder and a delicate touch. Using a smooth stroke, guide the brush over the suspected area or over the barely
visible print. Get enough ridge detail to see the direction of flow of the ridges. The brushing, if continued,
should follow the ridge flow. When the ridge detail is complete, photograph it. After the photograph you may
use more powder to make the print more visible. Then photograph it again. Protect the print with lifting tape
before sending it to the laboratory.

Sometimes the powder sticks to the object on which the print is found. If brushing will not remove the
excess powder, make two lifts. The first lift will remove the excess powder. The second will preserve the
fingerprint for identification needs. A latent print may be enhanced after the first lift by added processing with
brush and powder.

If you are in the field without proper powders, you can use soot as a field expedient. Pass nonflamable
objects through the smoke of a burning piece of pine wood or a wad of masking tape. A black, even deposits of
soot will form on the object. Careful brushing will often yield latent prints.

Lifting

The most common means used to lift latent prints are rubber filters and transparent lifting tapes. Rubber
filters are better than transparent lifting tapes for taking prints from curved or uneven surfaces. Transparent
lifting tape has the advantage of presenting the lifted fingerprints in the correct position; the print is reversed on
the rubber tape. Ordinary transparent tapes used in homes and offices is not really suitable for lifting
 11
fingerprints. However, these tapes may be used as a field expedient. Other lifting materials are also available.
White and black opaque lifting tapes are applied like rubber lifters. Hinged lifters with transparent tape and
white and black backings are used like lifting tape.

Rubber lifters store well and come in both black and white for use with different colored powders. They
are well suited to use on surfaces like doorknobs. Use a lifter large enough to cover the print and leave lots of
room. Remove the plastic cover of a rubber lifter with care in one steady movements. Any pause will result in a
line being left on the lifter. In most cases, powder on a print will not stick to the line, thus ruining the print.
Place the adhesive side of the lifter to the powdered print. Press it down evenly, then peel the lifter from the
surface one smooth, even motion. Place the plastic over the lifted print to protect it.

Using the transparent lifting tape available in dispensers speeds up the lifting process. Prints on
transparent lifting tape should be mounted on material of a color that contrasts with that of the lifting powder.

When lifting a print with either manner, use care to halt air bubbles forming inside the lifter. Keep a
quarter twist on the tape with one hand while rolling it flat with the other to help prevent air bubbles.

Chemical Processing

All chemical processing of fingerprints is done at the laboratory. Lab technicians are trained to use many
chemical mixtures to process the evidence. And they are trained to use the techniques required by Federal
regulations for the handling of dangerous, toxic chemicals.

Latent prints on paper products should be developed with chemicals. Paper acts as a blotter, absorbing
skin secretions when touched. Thus, the latent prints will not rub off paper as they rub off a non porous surface.
The amount of contact and pressure by the fingers are the two variables that affect the latent the most. To
develop the prints, the paper is exposed to chemicals that react with the skin secretions of the print residue. The
chemical processes depend on the presence of mineral or organic matter in perspiration. Perspiration
composition differs from person to person,. This difference accounts for the uncertainty and frequently spotty
development of these processes.

Obtaining Prints of Living Persons

Fingerprints impressions taken directly from a person's fingers for the purpose of identification must
be uniformly clear and visible. It is not hard to take good, clear fingerprints. A good fingerprint impression is
dark gray in color and free of smudges. All that is needed to obtain good prints is practice.

Have the subject sign the fingerprint card. It is not needed nor desired that you advise persons of their
legal rights just to take their fingerprints. Have the subject wash his hands to remove any dirt particles. Make
sure that the fingers are free of lint from the towel used to dry the hands. Gather your equipment together and
ready it for printing.

In addition to fingerprint cards, you will need:

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* A fingerprint card holder

* Ink (printer's ink or any special fingerprint ink).
* A rubber ink roller
* Plate glass (approximately " 12 X 6 X l " , fixed to a base)

Place a small dab of ink on the plate glass and roll until a thin, even film covers the surface. It helps to
place a white card under the glass to check the ink's thickness while rolling it out and while inking fingers.
Secure the fingerprint card in the holding device, and the equipment is ready to use.

The steps for inking fingers and the steps for making impressions on the card are the same. Each finger
is rolled through the ink on the glass and then finger impression is rolled on the fingerprint card. All rollings
should be made in single movements. Do not roll back and forth. The pressure should be just enough to apply
an even coat of ink on the finger and a clear image on the card.

After the procedure is complete, fill the data on the fingerprint card. Sign the card or paper for
identification. This signature is important in legal proceedings.

Rolled Impressions

Rolled impressions are made to show the entire friction surface of the finger or thumb, from the tip to
one-fourth inch below the first joint. They are made by rolling the finger or thumb from nail edge to nail edge.
This surface gives all the needed ridge characteristics for correct classification. (Classification is the means by
which a set of fingerprints may be filed and then retrieved in the future.)

There is a specific means of rolling the subject's fingers or thumbs in the ink and on the fingerprint card
to give a good impression. You roll the fingers or thumbs from "awkward to comfortable". To see what is
meant, hold your hands together. Now roll them around so that the palms are together and thumbs are up. You
will see that the right hand moved clockwise and the left hand counterclockwise. This is the direction the
fingers on each hand should be moved. Thumbs are moved in the opposite direction of the fingers.

When you take prints, grasp the top of the subject's hand to make sure that the finger to be printed is
extended. The roll is a simple movement and with only enough pressure to fingertips, and the entire finger. In
effect, prints are made of all parts of the hand to include the tips, palm , sides of the fingers, and sides of the
palm. Sometimes prints of the feet are also included. Major case prints often help in forgery cases. The print of
the side of the hand leaves an impression like that in the writing position.

Obtaining Prints of Deceased Persons

Major case prints are always obtained of deceased persons connected with an investigation. The prints
are used to identify or eliminate latent evidence and to identify the deceased. When the body is in an Army
mortuary in the graves registration system, graves registration can provide the major case prints.
 13
Printing deceased persons may be done before rigor mortis has set in , after rigor mortis, or after
decomposition has begun.

The means used to take the prints depends on the conditions of the fingers and your ingenuity. The
process of inking the fingers and rotating a square paper on the finger might be used. This works best with the
recently dead or after rigor mortis is gone. When rigor mortis is present you may have to straighten the fingers.
This can be accomplished by pressing down on the middle joint of the finger. You might dust the fingers and
palms with fingerprint powder and lift the prints with tape or rubber lifters. This often works well to obtain
difficult record prints. Be sure to mark each lift.

The hardest prints to obtain are those from a body which has begun to decompose. It may require
techniques beyond your expertise, especially when the hands are badly charred or decomposed. In such cases,
the hands or fingers should be sent to the laboratory for identification by laboratory personnel. But never send a
portion to the lab without first contacting the lab for guidance.

Problems in Taking Fingerprints

The common problems which confronts the technician in taking fingerprints are the following:

l. Subject whose fingers are hardened by reasons of disease, abnormalities,

or hard labor.

2. Subject who refuse to cooperate with the technician or operator.

3. Subject who are too willing to submit to fingerprinting process.

 14
CHAPTER 1V

KINDS OF PATTERNS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION

Once the latent print is located, developed and preserved, some preliminary identification can be
accomplished even before any attempt is made to match it to the fingerprint of a suspect. To achieve this, it is
necessary to have an understanding of basic fingerprint patterns.

While there are a wide variety of patterns, we will concern ourselves with just three ( 3 ) basic patterns,
since all other configurations are mostly deviations of these.

The three ( 3 ) basic fingerprint patterns

1. ARCH 11. LOOP III. WHORL

a. Plain arch a. Radial loop a. Plain Whorl

b. Tented arch b. Ulnar loop b. Central pocket loop
c. Double loop
d. Accidental whorl

Illustrations l to 10 are examples of the various types of fingerprint patterns.

 15

Interpretations

Before pattern definition can be understood, it is necessary to understand the meaning of a few technical
terms used in fingerprint work.

 Pattern Area - is that part of a loop or whorl in which appear the cores, deltas, and ridges with which we are
concerned in classifying.

The pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed by type lines.

 Type lines may be defined as the two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge, and surround or tend to
surround the pattern area.

Figure l is a typical loop. Lines A and B, which have been emphasized in this sketch, are the typelines,
starting parallel, diverging at the line C and surrounding the pattern area, which is emphasized in figure 2 by
eliminating all the ridges within the pattern area. When there is a definite break in a type line, the ridge
immediately outside of it is considered as its continuation , as shown in the illustration. Sometimes typelines
may be very short. Care must be exercised in their location. Notice the right type line in figure 3. When locating
type lines it is necessary to keep in mind the distinction between a divergence and a bifurcation. See
illustrations.
 16

 Bifurcation - is the forking or dividing of one line into two or more branches.

 Divergence - is the spreading apart of two lines which have been running parallel or nearly parallel.

 Focal points - Within the pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed the focal points which are used to
classify them. These points are called delta and core
 Delta - is that point on a ridge at or in front of and nearest the center of the divergence of the type lines.

It may be:

a. A bifurcation
b. An abrupt ending ridge
c. A dot
d. A short ridge
e. A meeting of two ridges
f. A point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the center and in front of the divergence of the
type lines.

See illustrations:
 17

 When there is a choice between two or more possible deltas, the following rules govern:

a. The delta may not be located at a bifurcation which, does not open toward the core.
b. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation is selected.
c. When there are two or more possible deltas, which conform to the definition, the one nearest the core is
chosen.
d. The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the type lines toward the core, but
at the nearer end only. The location of the delta in this case depends entirely upon the point of origin of
the ridge running between the type lines toward the core. If the ridge is entirely within the pattern area,
the de4lta is located at the end nearer the point of divergence of the type lines. If the ridge enters the
pattern area from a point below the divergence of the type lines, however, the delta must be located at
the end nearer the core. See illustrations.

Illustrations:
 18

 Core - is the approximate center of the finger impression. It will be necessary to concern ourselves with the
core of loop type only. The following rules govern the selection of the core in a loop pattern:

a. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

b. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the shoulder of
the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.
c. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods rising as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it touches the looping ridge or not.
d. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high as the shoulders,
the core is placed upon the end of the farther one of the two center rods, the two center rods being
treated as though they were connected by a recurving ridge.
e. The shoulders of a loop are the points at which the recurving ridge
definitely turns inward or curve. See illustrations.
 19

Illustrations:
 20

1. Arch ( 5 % )

a. Plain Arch - the ridges enter on one side of the impressions and flow or tend to flow out of the other with a
raise or wave in the center. The plain arch is the most simple of all fingerprint patterns, and its is easily
distinguished. See illustrations.

b. Tented Arch - the principal difference to a plain arch is that the arch is modified slightly by a ridge that has
the appearance of a "tent pole" or center support. It is that type of fingerprint patterns which possesses either
an angle or up thrust, or two of the three basic characteristics of the loop.
 21
Three Types of Tented Arches

1. The type in which ridges at the center form a definite angle, that is 90% or less.

2. That type in which one or more ridges at the center form an up thrust - an ending ridge of any length rising
at a sufficient degree from the horizontal plane, at 45 degree or more.

3. That type approaching the loop pattern , possessing two of the three basic characteristics of the loop , but
lacking the third element there of.

2. Loop ( 60 %)

a. Radial loop - takes its name from the radial bone of the forearm. The tail of the radial loop points towards
the radius bone or the thumb. See illustrations.
 22

b. Ulnar loop - points toward the ulna bone of the forearm of the little finger. See illustrations.

Three ( 3 ) basic characteristics of a loop pattern:

1. A sufficient recurve.
2. A delta.
3. A ridge count across a looping ridge.

It must be remembered that a recurve must be free of any appendage abutting upon it a right angle
between the shoulders, and a true ridge count is obtained only by crossing a looping ridge freely, with a white
space intervening between the delta and the first ridge to be counted. See illustrations.
 23

3. Whorl ( 30 - 35 % ) - The whorl is that type of pattern which in which at

least two deltas are present with a recurve in front in each.

a. Plain Whorl - The plain whorl has two deltas and at least one ridge making a complete circuit, which may
be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle. An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must
touch or cross at least one of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area. A recurving ridge, however,
which has an appendage connected wit it in the line of flow cannot be construed as a circuit. An appendage
connected at that point is considered to spoil the recurve on that side. See illustrations.

b. Central Pocket Loop - It has two deltas and at least one ridge making a complete circuit, which may be
spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle. An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must not
touch or cross any of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area. A recurving ridge however, which
has an appendage connected with it in the line of flow and on the delta side cannot be considered as a
circuit. An appendage connected at that point is considered to spoil the recurve on that side. See
illustrations.

c. Double Loop - consists of two separate loop formations, with two separate and distinct sets of shoulders,
and two deltas. The word " separate " as used here, does not mean unconnected. The two loops may be
connected by an appending ridge provided that it does not abut at right angles between the shoulders of the
loop formation. See illustrations.
 24

d. Accidental Whorl - is a pattern consisting of a combination of two different

types of patterns, with the exception of the plain arch , with two or more deltas;
or a pattern which possesses some of the requirements for two or more
different types , or a pattern which conforms to none of the definitions. See
illustrations:

Whorl Tracing

The technique of whorl tracing depends upon the establishment of the focal points - the deltas. Every
whorl has two or more. When the deltas have been located, the ridge emanating from the lower side or point of
the extreme left delta is traced until the point nearest or opposite the extreme right delta is reached. The number
of ridges intervening between the tracing ridge and the right delta are then counted. If the ridge traced passes
inside of (above) the right delta , and three or more ridges intervening between the tracing ridge and the
delta , the tracing is designated as "inner" - I. If the ridge traced passes outside ( below ) the right delta and
there are three or more ridges intervene between the tracing ridge and the right delta the tracing is designated as
" outer " - O . All other tracings are designated as " meeting " - M. See illustrations:

Illustrations:
 25

More illustrations for whorl tracings:

Note:

 Tracing begins from the left delta, in no instance that the tracing starts with a type line. In figure 251,
tracing begins at the short ridge is the left delta. It is true that in as much as the short ridge ends
immediately the type line is next followed , but this is only because the type line is the next lower ridge.
 26

 When the ridge traced ends abruptly, and its is determined that the ridge definitely ends , the tracing drops
down to the point on the next lower ridge immediately beneath the point where the ridge above ends,
continuing from there. In this connection it should be noted that the rule for dropping to the next lower line
applies only when the ridge definitely ends. Short breaks of a ridge which may be due to improper inking ,
the presence of foreign matter on the ridge , enlarged pores, disease, or worn ridges should not be
considered as definite ridge ending. See illustrations.

 Whenever the ridge traced bifurcates , the rule for tracing requires that the lower limb or branch proceeding
from the bifurcation be followed. See illustrations.
 27
 Accidental whorls often posses three or more deltas. In tracing them only the extreme deltas are considered,
the tracing beginning at the extreme left delta and proceeding toward the extreme right delta as illustrated
below.

CHAPTER V

THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA AND EXTENSIONS

The Classification Formula

At this point it is necessary to mention that when prints are classified, markings are indicated at the bottom
of each finger block to reflect the type. The following symbol are used:

 Under the index fingers the appropriate capita letters should be placed for every pattern except the ulnar
loop.
 Under all other fingers, the appropriate small letter should be placed for every pattern except the ulnar loop
and the whorl as follows:

Arch ……………………………….. a
Tented Arch ……………………….. t
Radial Loop ………………………. r

 Ulnar loops in any finger are designated by a diagonal line slanting in the direction of the loop ( / ).
 Whorls in any finger are designated by the letter " W " .

Illustration:
 28

The Classification formula may be composed of the following divisions:

1. Primary 4. Major
2. Secondary 5. Final
3. Subsecondary 6. Key

The positions in the classification line for these divisions when completely applied are as illustrated.

Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final

__________________________________________________________________
Division Class. Class. Class.

26 M 5 R OOO 12
__________________________________________________________________

L 12 W MOI

The Primary Classification

For purposes of obtaining the primary classification, numerical values are assigned to each of the ten (l0)
finger spaces whenever a whorl pattern appears it assumes the value of the space in which it is found. Spaces in
which types of patterns other than whorls are present are disregarded in computing the primary.

The values are assigned as follows:

 29

Fingers No. 1 and No. 2 ……………………………. 16

Fingers No. 3 and No. 4 ……………………………. 8
Fingers No. 5 and No. 6 ……………………………. 4
Fingers No. 7 and No. 8 ……………………………. 2
Fingers No. 9 and No. 10…………………………… 1

Note: An arbitrary value of one ( l ) is automatically added to the summation of both the numerator and
denominator thus preventing the appearance of zero over zero when no whorl pattern appears in the ten finger
spaces. See illustrations:
 30

More illustrations:
 31

The Secondary Classification

 32
After the primary classification , the fingerprints are subdivided further by using a secondary
classification. Before going into detail, it should be noted that after the primary is obtained the entire remaining
portion of the classification formula is based upon the arrangement of the impressions appearing in the right
hand as the numerator over the impressions appearing in the left hand as the denominator. The arrangement of
the even over the uneven fingers is discarded after the primary is obtained. The secondary classification appears
just to the right of the fractional numerals which represent the primary. It is shown in the formula by capital
letters representing the basic types of patterns appearing in the index fingers of each hand, that of the right hand
being the numerator and that of the left hand being the denominator. There are five basic types of patterns
which can appear.

1. Arch ---------------------------------------------- A
2. Tented Arch ------------------------------------- T
3. Radial Loop-------------------------------------- R
4. Ulnar Loop--------------------------------------- U
5. Whorl --------------------------------------------- W

Secondary Classification (small letter group): Prints with an arch or tented arch in any finger or a radial
loop in any finger except in the index fingers constitute the small letter group of the secondary classification.
Such "small letters" with exception of those appearing in the index fingers, are brought up into the classification
formula in their proper relative positions immediately adjacent to the index fingers. A dash ( - ) is used to
indicate the absence of each small letter between the index fingers and another small letter or between two small
letters, as
1 aUa-t 1 aU-t
____________ and _______ . See illustrations:

1 R-a 1 U-a

Illustrations:
33
 34

Sub secondary Classification ( Groupings of loops and whorls)

In classifying prints it is necessary to sub divide the secondary groups. This is accomplished by grouping
according to the ridge counts of loops and the ridge tracings of whorls.The sub secondary is placed on the
classification line just to the right of the secondary. Only six (6) fingers are involved in the subsecondary
classification : finger numbers 2, 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9. The following table is used for interpreting ridge counts of
loop patterns and whorl tracings of whorl patterns:

For loop patterns:

Index fingers Middle fingers Ring fingers

1 - 9 = I (Inner) 1 - 10 = I (Inner) 1 - 13 = l (Inner)

l0 or more = O (Outer) ll or more = O (Outer) 14 or more = O

 35

For Whorl patterns:

The whorl tracings are brought up to the classification line as I, M, or O denoting Inner, Meeting or Outer
tracings of the whorl types.

See illustrations :

Illustrations for Subsecondary classification:

 36

The Major Division

The major division is placed just to the left of the primary in the classification formula. When whorls
appear in the thumbs the major division reflects the whorl tracings as the subsecondary classification does.
When whorls appear in both thumbs, however, a table is used to translate the ridge counts into Small, Medium,
or large groups, designated by letters S, M, L.

Table for Major Divisions of Loop Patterns

Left thumb (Denominator) Right Thumb (Numerator)

[ 1 - ll, inclusive, S (small)

1 - ll, inclusive, S (Small)……………………. [ 12-16, inclusive, M (Medium)
[ 17-more ridges, L (Large)

[ 1-11, inclusive, S (Small)

11-16, inclusive, M (Medium)………………..[ 12-16, inclusive, M(Medium )
[ 17-more ridges, L (large)

[ 1-17, inclusive, S (Small)

17 or more ridges , L (Large) …………………[ 18-22, inclusive, M (Medium)
[ 23 or more ridges, L (Large)

Illustrations:
 37

The Final Classification

The final classification is based upon the ridge count of the loop in the right little finger. It is indicated at the
extreme right of the numerator in the classification line. If no loop appears in the right little finger, a loop
appearing at the left little finger maybe used and the ridge count should be reflected at the extreme right of the
denominator in the classification line. If no loops appear in the both little fingers, a whorl appearing in little
fingers may be used to obtain the final, counting from left delta to core if in the right hand and from right delta
to core if in the left hand. If there are two or more cores (usually applies in accidental whorls), the ridge count is
made from left delta (right hand) or right delta (left hand) to the core which is the least number of ridges distant
from that delta. An exception is made in the case of the double loop. The double loop is counted from the delta
to the core of the upright loop. Where loops of a double loop are horizontal, the nearest core is used. Should
both little fingers be an arch or tented , no final is used.

The key Classification

The key is obtained by counting the ridges of the first loop appearing on the fingerprint card (beginning with
the right thumb), exclusive of the little fingers which are never considered for the key as they are reserved for
the final. The key no matter where found, is always placed to the extreme left of the numerator of the
classification line. See illustrations.
 38

More illustrations:
 39

CHAPTER VI

Classification of Scarred Patterns, Amputations and Missing Fingers at Birth

Classification of Scarred Patterns

Emphasis should be placed upon the necessity for fully referencing all scared patterns. In connection with
their proper classification, the following rules should be observed.

 When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor the ridge tracing or count can
be determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression should be given both the general type value and the
subclassification value of the corresponding finger of the other hand.

 When an impression is partially scarred, i.e., large scars about the core so that the general type cannot be
determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges allow reasonably accurate sub classifications by ridge
tracings or counting, the impression should be given the primary value of the pattern of the corresponding
finger and the sub classification value as and the subclassification value as indicated by the ridges of
partially scarred impressions.

 When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern can be determined with reasonable
accuracy, but the ridges cannot be traced or counted so as to fall within the proper subsecondary
classification , the impression should be given the ridge count or tracing value of the corresponding finger of
the other hand, if the corresponding finger is of not the same general type, the scarred impression should be
given the arbitrary value of whorls with meeting tracings.

Classification of Amputations and Fingers Missing at Birth

When one or more amputations appear upon a fingerprint card, it may be filed
Separately from those having no amputations in order to facilitate searching. It is to be noted that before it may
be filed in the amputation group, the card must contain a definite and unequivocal statement or marking by the
contributor to the effect that a certain finger or fingers have been amputated or were missing at birth. This
prevents the appearance on later cards of impressions of fingers thought to have been amputated but which in
reality were merely injured and bandaged when previous prints were submitted.

If one finger is amputated , it is given a classification identical with that of the opposite finger, including
pattern and ridge count, or tracing, and referenced top every other possible classification.

If two or more fingers are amputated, they are given classifications identical with the fingers opposite with
no additional references.
 40
If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given the classification of whorls with meeting
tracings.

When a fingerprint card bearing a notation of fingers missing at birth is classified, the missing fingers
should be treated as amputations in that they are given the identical classifications of the opposite fingers and
are filed in the amputation group. If all 10 fingers are amputated or missing at birth, the classification will be
M 32 W MMM. If both hands are amputated or missing at
M 32 W MMM
birth , the footprints should be taken as they ,too, bear friction ridges with definite patterns. A footprint file is
maintained by the FBI for identification purposes in instances where the subject has all fingers amputated or
missing at birth.

Partially amputated fingers often present very complex problems and careful consideration should be given
to them. The question often arises as to the appropriate groups in which they should be filed, i.e. amputations or
nonamputations. As no definite rule may be applied, it is a matter of experience and judgement as to their
preferred classification.

In those instances in which a partially amputated finger has half or more than half of the pattern area missing
, it is given the classification of the opposite finger. It will be filed in the amputation group under the
classification of the opposite finger and reference searches should be conducted in all possible classifications in
the nonamputation groups. If two or more of the fingers are amputated in this manner, they are given the
classification of the opposite fingers only and are governed by the rules concerning amputations.

Generally, a "tip amputation" or one which has less than half of the first joint amputated , will always be
printed in the future . Therefore a partially amputated finger with less than half of the pattern area missing is
classified as it appears and is referenced to the opposite finger. It will be filed in the nonamputation group and
reference searches should be conducted under the classification of the opposite finger, and in the amputation
group. It must be referenced this way even though it never could have originally had the classification of the
opposite finger.