Effective Dielectric Constant of the

Atmosphere During Snowstorms and Its

Influence upon Corona Losses
A. S. Tinmascheff, Senior Member IEEE

Summary: Heavy corona losses have been observed during
snowstorms, particularly in Canada. The amount of these
losses sometimes exceeds those during rainstorms. A tentative
explanation is given based on the consideration of the 'effective
dielectric constant" during precipitation. Calculations and
model measurements indicate a tremendous difference between
rain and snow. The surface potential gradient during heavy
snowstorms may be increased by as much as 10 to 20%..
Considerable effort has been spent during the last two decades
in order to promote a better understanding of the corona effect
on high-tension transmission lines, particularly the laws
governing corona losses. As in studies of other complex
phenomena, the simpler cases have been investigated first.
The general approach was to collect first evidence. A cer-
tain systematization of results and development of empirical
formulas covering correctly most cases was the second step.
Finally, a thorough explanation of the physica.l background
became the ultimate aim.
This paper is an attempt to contribute a tentative explana-
tion of extreme corona losses as they sometimes are observed
during heavy snowstorms.i
Corona Losses During Precipitation
Eal inetgtr sucee toetbihcre.n
formulas for the fair weather corona losses with an appreciable
cy. Some
degree of accuracy.
degree a S side effects, however, are appar-
ently not quite explained
ently not ies nded
e
nw.atherconditio
even now. 2
Corona losses under foul wveather conditions depend upon
a
so many factors that a large amount of experimental data
had to be collected first. Utilities and great manufacturing
companies conducted long series of tests at their experimental
high-voltage stations (as, e.g., Rheinau, Chevilly, Tidd, Lead-
Corona losses during rain have been investigated much more
than during snow. The intensity of rain, measured in in./hr
. . . .
(incheseperihour),viswthe
from
mainnfacor in desribinga ralnstorm
the point of view of corona losses. The presently avail-
able loss charts are, therefore, sufficiently reliable. The
losses versus rain intensity curve shows some "saturation"
trend as can be seen from Fig. 1 (dash-dotted curve), traced
on the base of Figs. 7, 8 of reference 6 for a 4-subconductor
bundle at a surface gradient of 17 kv rms/cm (centimeter).
The main cause of losses are droplets hanging from the conduc-
tor bottom, and perhaps the local field concentrations on the
surface of rain droplets crossing the conductor neighbor-
hood.9
Conditions are much more complex in the case of snow be-
cause the intensity of snowfall is not the only main charac-
teristic of a snow-storm. The shape, density, and degree of
wetness of snowflakes are of major importance; they can com-
bine in an infinity of ways.
Fig. 1 shows as solid curve corona losses versus intensity
of snowfall in equivalent inches of water per hour (converted
"back" from reference 6 using the same conversion ratio
10: 1). A curve of this type necessarily is only an approxima-
tion. It shows, however, appreciably higher loss values than
during rain of similar intensity. There is also no "saturation"
trend aUt all in the shape of the curve. In a special case of a
10k nothe
10k otenCnda
Canadia trams
rnmsinln
Ine eqippe
qipdwt
with
maximum demand meters, excessive peaks, evidently due to
corona losses, have been observed only on days with at least
some snowfall.
snows oron
dcor neighborh e certanlaus crossing the con-
Hor theosame ap e totelo during ran. lppreci
ableder,ensite
al
liev to losses during rainstormsan
ifrne ntelvlo ossdrn
a

antrn n
ville, ville,Pitsfield,oldwater Appl Grove,
Pittsfield Coldwater Apple Grove, etc.)3-8
etc.)- and
andman
many heavy snowstorms are difficult to explain considering only
others. It proved necessary to spread test series over long differences of rain droplets and snowflakes sticking to the
periods of time and evaluate them statistically in order to conductor. Existence of an additional condition is likely.
obtairn reliable information of a still limited accuracy, how-
ever. This inaccuracy is partially based upon the difficulty to
specify exact meteorological conditions in foul weather.
The highest losses have been observed during hoar-frost 25
conditions, which is almost self-explanatory as sharp ice-
needles sticking to the conductor surface produce extreme
local field concentrations. 20

Paper 64-39, recommended by the IEEE Transmission and Dis- LO

tribution Committee and approved by the IEEE Technical Opera- 1,- __ __
tions Committee for presentation at the IEEE Winter Power Meet- °
ing, New York, N. Y., February 2-7, 1964. Manuscript submitted cr l3
November 4, 1963; made available for printinlg December 12, 1963.m |X
A. S. TIMAS5CHEFF is with Universite Laval, Quebec, Que., Canada. lI-
3 0
The author acknowledges his indebtedness to Dr. Vincent J. Schaefer, - ty
State University of New York, Atmospheric Sciences Research U) IQ
Center and to H. K. Weickman, United States Armny Electronics Fig. 1. Corona losses w t5___
Research forand
Branch, Devrelopment
valuable information concerning Atmospheric
Laboratory,
volume of snow flakes and rain drops per unity of space. The author
also expresses his gratitude to Mr. S. B. Griscom of the Westinghouse
Electric Corporation and to Mr. L. Boulet, Universit, Laval, for
Physics
the possible relative of a test line versus
precipitation inten-
sity in equivalent
.0
Inches of water per
_4
OC, C° __ b

___ _
______
0.25 0.50 0.75
INTENSITY OF PRECIPITATION
1.00
vraluable suggestions. hour (IN. EQUIV. WATER/HRI

492 Timascheff-Effective Dielectric Constant of Atmosphere During Snowstorms MAY 1964

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Fig. 2. Electrolytic model of Fig. 3. Relative in- 75
a space element with the crease Ae/IE of the
corresponding precipitation _ ____ - effective dielectric
volume in its center _ ___
__ constant" versus the EXPERIME TAL
____ - - relative precipitation AE/E C
-- ~~~volume25__

0 5 10 15 20
RELATIVE PRECIPITATION
VOLUME V IN %

Relative Space-Enclosing Volume of Precipitation and
the Effective Dielectric Constant
One possibility of approaching a reasonable explanation is to
detect a "space property" which is quantitatively much more
in evidence during snowstorms than during rainstorms; such a
property is the relative space-enclosing volume of water in liq-
uid or crystalline conditions per unit of space. The relative
density of snow can attain values as low as 1/30 of that of
water, whereas the average fall-speed of snow is of the order of
1/20 of the fall-speed of rain, which is in the range of 30 feet per
second. In other words, the relative volume of snow crystals
can be easily 20 X30 = 600 times greater than that of rain-at
the same rate of equivalent precipitation per unity of time.
Snowflakes in an electrostatic field can be considered as
noncharged conductors; fluffy clusters of flakes can be re-
placed by circumscribed surfaces, whose relative volume per
unity of space is even greater than that of individual crystals.
As the configuration of these surfaces can not be specified
exactly, it appears permissible to replace this mixture of
different shapes by bodies of equal volumes but of a uniform,
simple shape, namely by spheres.
The space homogeneously filled with this type of bodies
produces a change of the effective capacitance of conductors
located in it. It is always possible to split the space in
elementary cubes so small that the field within each of them
can be considered homogeneous. It is possible then to con-
sider two opposite sides of each cube (equipotential surfaces)
as plane conductors; the other sides of the cube coincide with
force lines. The capacitance between the opposite sides can
be calculated taking into account the dielectric constant of free
space. Assuming a homogeneously distributed precipitation,
it is logical to place the total volume of it per elementary cube
in its center-in the shape of a sphere. The uncharged con-
ducting sphere evidently increases the effective capacitance
between opposite sides of the elementary cube. For suffi-
ciently great distances between the transmission line conduc-
tors, the "macroscopic" effect of precipitation upon the con-
ductor capacitance can be duplicated by assuming a com-
pletely homogeneous space, however, with an increased "effec-
tive" or "apparent" dielectric constant, proportional to the
increase of the capacitance between the opposite sides of the
elementary cube. It is evident, that the space, considered
"microscopically," still is not homogeneous. Indeed, almost
all the volume, particularly the conductor surroundings, con-
sist of air with a dielectric constant equal to that of freell
space; only a small percentage of the volume is occupied by
scattered clusters of snowflakes. Therefore, air only has to
be taken into account for the calculation of the surface
gradient of conductors. The influence of local field concen-
trations due to individual snowflakes is an additional effect not
to be discussed here.
For given potentials of transmission line conductors the
electric charges are proportional to the capacitances, hence to
the "apparent" (macroscopic) dielectric constant of the space.
As the surface gradient of a conductor is proportional to its
charge, it becomes evident that this gradient increases linearly
with the "apparent" or "effective" dielectric constant. Thus,
the difference in the "macroscopic" and "microscopic"
properties of space carrying precipitation is the only cause of
the considered effect.
Quantitative Evaluation by Model Measurements
The problem is now to find the quantitative value of the
capacitance increase versus the relative volume v of the pre-
cipitation per unity of space, the corresponding sphere being
placed in the center of the elementary cube. The analytical
solution of this 3-dimensiolnal problem with boundary condi-
tions would involve a lengthy calculation (see the Appendix
for an approximation). The use of an electrolytic model
was judged sufficiently accurate, as the representation of
clustered snowflakes by spheres is in itself an approximation.
Fig. 2 shows schematically the cross section of the model
used. A container with an interior volume of 25/8 X 25/8 X 25/8
inches consisted of transparent plastic sides and a similar
cover plate with a thin central whole. Two 1/16-inch-thick
I/5000%
<1/200%/ (A)
Fig. 4. Space element -J 0/

a to-scale rep resentation of I %) l (B)

Table I the corresponding precipi- \\ /
Sphere diameter, inches 5/8 15/16 11/4 1'/2 ill/,. tation volume (sphere) -10%
Relative volume v, % 0.70 2.39 5.61 9.67 13.90__
Increase AfJ of the effective A-Rain
dielectric constant, % 1.7 5.3 16.0 27.2 45.4 B-Snow ____________

MAY 1964 Timaseheff-Effective Dielectric Constant of Atmosphere During Snowstorms 493

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-- _ _ - ---9
P 0 2 41 Pl
24 0 P4
Q QI , Q
2a
< r
(A) (B)
Fig. 5. Graphical determination of the capacitance increase
between two sides of a space element of infinite length and
quadratic cross section when a cylinder of infinite length and
circular cross section is placed in its centerline
brass plates covering opposite sides could be connected to a
battery over a milliammeter and a switch, the electrolyte
being very slightly salted water. Five perfect steel spheres
were available to represent the precipitation-SKF balls of the
following diameters: 5/8-inch; 15/16-inch; 11/4-inch; 1'/2-
inch, aind 11/,6-inch. To avoid appreciable polarization
small currents were used for brief intervals sufficient to make
a reading; for each ball an additional reading was made after
removing the sphere from the container.
If 2a = A is the edge length of the cube and 2r = D the ball
diameter, then the relative volume v of the sphere is
v = 7r(D/A )3/6 and D/A = r/a =
/6v/r
Table I shows the calculated values of the relative volume
correspondinig to the five spheres used and also the increase of
capacit;anee (or "effective dielectric constant") measured on
the model. Fig. 3 represents these results by the solid curve.
Practically Encountered Values of the Space-Enclosing
Precipitation Volume
The following authoritative information concerning the
maximum relative volume v of precipitation per unity of
spacewas
obtained.
RAIN
According to the United States Army Electronics Research
and Development Laboratory, Atmospheric Physics Branch,
Fort Monmouth, N. J. (see also reference 10):
4.4
0 2 41 0 2
Ai
(A)
494 Timaschef-Effeciive Dielectric Constant of Atmosphere During Snowstorms
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"The ratio of the total volume of raindrops to the volume
of considered space in a heavy downpour turns out to lie
somewhere between 1:500,000 and 1: 20,000 (v= 1/5000%0 to
'1/200%,O) with the former value being representative of
p 0 2 44 pI thunderstorms and the latter being an absolute maximum."
I 2 ~~~~~~Fig.4(A) shows to scale the total precipitation volume
XH 1 2 shape of a sphere placed in the middle of an ele-
in the
0 mentary cube. The increase of the effective constant with
even the absolute maximum of rain (v = 1/200%) is com-
pletely negligible as can be seen from Fig. 3.
QI
SNOW
According to the Atmospheric Sciences Research Center,
State University of New York:
"The space-enclosing volume of clustered snow of the type
which falls in the air as snowflakes should range from 2 to 8%.
A value of 5% would be a good average value. Dry stellar
crystals would be 2 to 4%. Wet stellars and needles have a
higher figure,". . .but it is doubtful. .. "that they would ever
exceed 10% except under very unusual conditions."
Fig. 4(B) shows to scale the total precipitation volume in the
manner of Fig. 4(A) for v = 5% (average) and 10%0 (extreme).
The increase LE/E of the effective dielectric constant and there-
fore of the surface gradient of high-voltage conductors is then,
according to Fig. 3, approximately 13% and 28% respectively.
This gradient increase will produce extremely high corona
losses if the normal gradient is already marginal.
Conclusions
1. It can be stated on the basis of evidence collected from
authoritative sources that the space-enclosing relative volume
v per unity of space during snowstorms can attain 5 to 10%,
whereas the same relative volume for the heaviest rain down-
pour never exceeds 1/200%.
2. It has been shown how a homogeneously distributed pre-
cipitation can increase the effective dielectric constant of space.
For v = 1/200%0 (rain) this increase is negligible, but for v = 5%
(snow) it is of the order of 13%.
3. The increase of the effective dielectric constant of spae
will have several effects:
(a). The surface potential gradient and therefore the corona
losses of the marginally designed high-tension lines will increase
drastically.
(b). Mvar (reactive megavolt-ampere) demand meters will
show sharp peaks (positive or negative depending upon the sign
of the sustained mvar load).
(c). The propagation speed of electromagnetic
waves will decrease, which willw=c/V,\e
produce during heavy snow-
storms exaggerated readings on the altimeters of landing air-
craft.
6 10.6
4 0 2 4 6 8 l0o
41 Fig. 6. Original tracings accord
\ < \[ B-r/a=0.75
.50
(B) (C) C-r/a=0
MIAY 1964
 Table 1I
r-r/a=
a
0.2:5
0.20- 0.50
0.50 0.75
0.75
100 7rr , =
r
49 196 442
(2a)2*
Affe %= 10 50 165
Appendix
It is of some interest to compare the model test results with
approximate calculations based on different assumptions con-
cerning the character of the homogeneous distribution of the
precipitation
preiptatonin the space. 1- *a1
The simplest way of calculation is* the "one-dimensional
approach." The volume of precipitation is assumed to be
homogeneously distributed in the shape of thin equidistant
infinite sheets. In an elementary cube a sheet is assumed
~the
parallel toto
parallel th~ ~
opost
opposite eqioeta sie.afa
equipotential sides halfway between
ewe
them. It is evident in this simplest case that the relative
increase of capacitance and of the effective dielectric constant is
As 1 V
-=--1=
e 1-v 1-v
where v is the thickness of the sheet referred to the distance
between opposite sides (see dashed line in Fig. 3).
The "2-dimensional approach" is better. The volume of
precipitation is assumed to be distributed in space homogeneously
in the shape of infinite parallel circular cylinders (of a radius r).
The square PP'QQ' in Fig. 5 with the side length 2a represents
one element of this 2-dimensional problem with boundary
conditions. PP' and QQ' are traces of equipotential planes.
The relative number of flux tubes between PP' and QQ' in
presence [Fig. 5(A)] and absence [Fig. 5(B)J of the cylinder is
then the ratio of the corresponding capacitances. It can be
found easily using a graphical trial-and-error method leading to
a field distribution with quadratic meshes.
Figs. 6(A), (B), (C) are traced for r/a=0.25; 0.50; 0.75.
The corresponding values of the relative volume v and of the
Radio Noise Studies on Power
Lines with the Coronaphone
J. R. Leslie, Senior Member IEEE H. O'Beirnee, Member IEEE
The exact location of radio interference (RI) sources on a
power line has been a problem of long standing in the utility
field. The difficulties have been such that even today
opinions differ as to the source of radio noise on many common
types of lines. One reason for this is that corona currents
generated at the point of an electric discharge travel in both
directions along the conductor, and a radio noise meter
responds to these currents from extensive distances along the
line by picking up induction and radiation fields around the
conductors. Thus, localization of the source by this means
has been diffcult.
Now this problem is believed to be solved by using a corona-
Pape 64-2, ecomendd hytheIEEETrasmisionand is-
tribution Committee and approved by the IEEE Technical Opera-
tions Committee for presentation at the IEEE Winter Power Meet-
ing, New York, N. Y., February 2-7, 1964. Manuscript submitted
November 1, 1963; made available for printing December 4, 1963.
J. R. LES?LIE and H. O'BEIRNE are with the Hydro-EleCtriC Power
Commission of Ontario, Toronto, Ont., Canada.
MAY 1964 Leslie, O'Beirnwe-Radio Noise Studies onb Power Lines with Corona phone
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dielectric constant increase AE/sE= AC/C are listed in Table II
and represented by the dotted line in Fig. 3.
The final, analytical 3-dimensional solution should co-
incide with the experimental curve (spheres), the solid line in
Fig. 3.
References
1. Discussion by L. Cahil. BUNDLED CONDUCTOR VOLTAGE GRADI-
ENT CALCULATIONS," J. Reichman. AIEE Transactions, pt. III
(Power Apparatus and Systems), vTol. 78, Aug. 1959, pp. 598-607.
2. A THEORY REGARDING THE GENERA~TION OF RADIO NOISE ON
HIH-OTAE TRANSMISS LLINES,
HIGH-VOLTAGE, TRANSMISSION
ION RAsom Pocsngs
S S. BB. Griscom. Proceedings
of the American Power Conference, Chicago, Ill., vol. 23, 1961.
3. MEASUREMENTS
AT THE
OF CORONA LOSSES AND INTERFERENCE LEVELS
400 KY RESEARCH STATION IN MANNHEIM-RHEINAU
(GERMANY) WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BUNDLE CONDUCTORS,
R. Bartenstein, G. Lesch. Paper no. 402, CIGRE, Paris, France, 1956,
no. 402, pp. 1-10.-
4. DIE 400-Ky FORSCHUTNGSANLAGE
NAMESSUNG (book). 400-KV RHELNAU. TEILe.V.,
Forschungsgemneinschaft, II: KORO-
Heidel-
berg, Germany, 1958.
5. ETUDES DE L'EFFET DE COURONNE SUR LIGNES AERIENNES X
TRES HAUTE TENSION, V. V. Bourgsdorf, L. V. Egorova, N. P. Emelia-
nov, N. N. Tikhodeev. Paper no. 413, CIGRE, 1960, No. 413, pp.
1-21.
6. CORONA. Loss RESEARCH AT THE ONTARIO HYDRO COLDWATER
PROJECT, 0. Nigol, J. G. Cassan. AIEE Transactions, pt. III,
vol. 80, June 1961, pp. 304-13.
7. LEADVILLE HIGH-ALTITUDE EXTR.A-HIGH VOLTAGE TEST PROJ-
ECT. PT. II-CORONA Loss INVESTIGATIONS, L. M. Robertson,
D. F. Shankle, J. C. Smith, J. E. O'Neil. Ibid., Dec., pp. 725--32.
S. 500-KV LINE DESIGN. PT. 111-CONDUCTORS, R. L. Thompson,
L. 0. Barthold, J. J. LaForest, C. B. Lindh. IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. 82, Aug. 1963, pp. 587-94.
9. INFLUENCE SUR L EFFET DE COURONNE DU DIAMETRE ET DU
PROFIL DES CABLES DES LIGNES AEiRIENNES A TREIS HRUTE TENSION.
F. Cahen, R. Pelissier. Revue Generale de l'Electricite, Juily 1949,
p. 287.
10. Electrical Engineering, Feb. 1962, p. 136 (nvk under "Progress
in Technology").
phone, described here and shown in Fig. 1. The coronap)hone
operates by detecting the audible sound produced by the
corona discharge, but this sound does not travel along the
conductor; it is confined to the immediate area of the source.
Thus, it can locate the noise source.
This paper reviews the development of the coronaphone;
it shows that a correlation between acoustic noise and radio
influence voltage (RIV) exists. Finally, application to the
study of power line corona sources on high-voltage lines is
discussed. One observation is important; on operating
lines up to 230 kv, conductor corona. has not been found to be
a major contributor to the radio noise field, either in dry or
wet weather. Hardware noise, on the contrary, is believred
to predominate. A technical description of the coronaphone
is given in the Appendix.
Description of Instrument
Brel,tecrnpoei a sebyo ihfe
quency microphone, a parabolic reflector, and an ampllifying
495