ANSCI 3- POULTY PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Prof. Milagros Isidra Q. Velarde, MS.Ansci.

Course Instructor

Course Description: Poultry production, management practices including housing,

breeding, selection, feeding and nutrition, incubation, brooding, diseases and their
preventive measures.

Course Objectives:
1. Understand the role of poultry, their economic utility, and determine the status,
problem, prospect and trends of the different poultry industries.
2. Discuss the application of genetics and breeding to poultry production.
3. Apply management practices of poultry including housing, feeding and incubation,
brooding, diseases and preventive measures and control.
4. Appreciate the importance of raising poultry as a form of livelihood and or
recreation.

TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION

At the end of this topic, the students should be able to:

1. Give the benefits that should be derived from raising poultry.

2. State the problems of the poultry industry in the Philippines.

A. Taxonomic Classification of Poultry

Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Animalia
Sub-kingdom: Metazoa (Multicellular)
Phylum: Chordata
Sub-phylum: Vertebrata
Class: Aves
Order: Galliformes (Gamebirds)
Anseriformes (Ducks, Geese and Swan)
Sub-order: Galli
Family: Phasianidae (Gamebirds)
Anatidae (water fowls)
Sub-family: Phasianinae
Tribe: Phasianini
Genus:
Species:
 B. Poultry Definition

a. Collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic services to

man. These include the following avian species.

1. Chickens - Gallus gallus

2. Ducks
2.1. Pekin - Anas boschas
2.2. Mallard - Anas. platyrynchos
2.3. Muscovy - Cairina moschata
3. Geese - Anser anser
4. Guinea fowls - Numida meleagridis
5. Pea fowls - Pavo cristatus
6. Quails - Coturnix coturnix
7. Turkeys - Meleagris gallopavo
` 8. Pigeons - Columba livia
9. Pheasants - Phasianus colchicus
10. Ostriches - Struthio camelus
11. Swans - Cygnus olor

b. Refers to the dressed carcass of fowls

c. May also be defined as the structures/buildings that house the birds.

C. Importance of Poultry Production

1. Important sources of table eggs and edible meat for the family.
2. Gives income to the family from the sale of poultry products to include
eggs, broilers, culled layers, chicken dung, and empty feed bags.
3. Chicken dung can be used as fertilizer and as a source of biogas for
cooking and lighting.
4. Feathers can be utilized for home industries.
5. Sources of joy and recreation.

D. Status of the Poultry Industry

 Most breeding farms are financed by breeding companies

 Globally competitive
 Biggest feed cost in Asia due to higher production cost
 Over supply of poultry products due to low purchasing power of the
general Filipino public

E. Future of the Poultry Industry

1. There will be an increased poultry consumption of poultry products.

2. There will be an expansion of poultry operations.
3. There will be more acceptance of cut-up or ready to cook chicken by
the consuming public.

F. Problems of the Poultry Industry

1. High cost of poultry feed with the attendant of poor quality and at
times non-availability of feeds.
2. Poor management practices despite advances in technology.
3. High mortality due to ineffective disease prevention and control.
 4. Poor marketing system and distribution of poultry products.
5. Lack of cold storage facilities.
6. Inadequate financing given by loaning institution.
7. Lack of government price support for poultry products.
8. Pollution due to improper disposal of poultry manure and other
wastes.
9. Political instability.
10. Peace and order condition.

G. Glossary of Poultry Terms

Adlibitum feeding – the giving of unlimited amount of feed to the bird, more
than what he can consume.

Antibiotics – the product of microorganisms which inhibit the growth of or kill

other microorganisms.

Artificial insemination – the deposition of the semen into the oviduct of the
female bird.

Backyard poultry raising – the raising of poultry in small scale (that is, a few
heads to a hundred) just for homed consumption. The birds are usually raised
behind the house, hence the term backyard.

Balanced ration – the feed given to the birds containing all the necessary
nutrients in such amount and proportion that will properly nourish the birds for
24 hours.

Breed – a group of domestic fowls which maintains distinctive characteristics

of shape, growth, temperament and shell color of eggs.

Breeder – one who has specialization in the breeding of fowls inorder to

improve the species in terms of production output, efficiency of production,
and quality of the product.

Breeding farm – a poultry farm concerned mainly with the production of

breeders that combine economically important traits and also the production
of hatching eggs.

Broodiness – the instinct of tendency of hens to hatch their own eggs. It is

part of natural law for the preservation of the species.

Broiler – a young chicken of either sex weighing about a kilo in 5 to 6 weeks.

Broiler farm – a poultry farm concerned with the mother hen or by artificial
heat.

Candling – a method of determining fertility of the egg by placing it against the

light.

Cannibalism – a vice characterized by picking of feathers, skin and even flesh

among birds.
Capon – a male chicken whose testes have been removed; slip refers to the
imperfectly caponized chicken.

Caponizing – the process of removing the testes by surgical operation, that is,
incising between the last two ribs and scooping the testes out.

Chick – the young of a chicken of either sex. The young of a quail is also
called a chick.

Cock – a mature male chicken. This is also referred to a rooster.

Cockerel – the male chicken ready for breeding.

Cold brooding – this is referred to as fireless brooding, that is, brooding

without heat; the chicks keep themselves warm by allowing them to come in
contact with one another in a low compartmentalized brooder.

Compounding ration – the process of mixing feeds to meet the body

requirement of a particular class of poultry.

Contract growing – a kind of arrangement in which the producer furnishes

labor, buildings and equipment, while the contractor supplies the chicks, feed
and other items including technical services.

Control – includes both preventive and curative treatment of disease.

Conventional cage – a cage arrangement wherein the short section of the

cage is put across the front.

Crossbreeding – the mating of birds of different breeds, e.g. crossing White

Leghorn and New Hampshire, Plymouth Rock and New Hampshire, New
Hampshire and Vantress, etc.

Culling – the removal of undesirable or unproductive birds in the flock.

Custom Hatching – refers to the hatching somebody’s eggs for a fee usually
per egg incubated.

Day-old chick – the newly hatched chicks taken out from the incubator and
transferred to the brooder.

Debeaking – cutting the beak of chicks, usually at about 9 days old.

Disinfection – the process of killing or destroying microorganisms by chemical

means such as the use or Lysol, creoline, etc.

Disease – any departure from normal functioning of the body; any alteration in
the body that disturbs the normal function of organ/organs or body in general.

Drake – the male of the duck, usually of breeding age.

Dressed carcass – slaughtered chicken or duck with the feathers and viscera
(internal organs) removed, including the heart and feet.

Dubbing – refers to the removal of the comb.

Duck – refers to the mature female duck.

Duckling – refers to the young of the duck.

Egg – compact package of well-balanced food nutrients enclosed hermetically

within nature’s well-shaped attractive container, the egg shell.

Egg farm – a poultry farm devoted primarily for the production of table eggs.

Feed – any feedstuff or group of feedstuffs given to the animal to support life,
e.g. grains, mashes, pellets, grits, grasses, etc.

Fertile egg – an egg obtained from a mated flock containing a live chick
embryo.

Flock – refers to a group of birds taken together.

Flock mating – mixing and allowing the rooster/s to mate with a number of
hens in a pen.

Fryers – an overgrown broiler; a young chick between the ages of 3 to 4

months and weighing 2 ½ to 3 ½ lbs.

Gander – refers to the mature male goose.

Goose – refers to the mature female goose.

Gosling – refers to the young of a goose.

Grading up – the mating of a mongrel or unimproved bird to a purebred or

improved bird.

Green duck – refers to the young duck of either sex which is soft and tender
meated.

Hatchability – the percent number of eggs that hatched based on the number
of eggs incubated.

Hatchery – the establishment concerned in the production and sale of day-old

chicks and perhaps, started chicks.

Hen – mature female chicken; also refers to the mature female turkey and
pigeon.

Inbreeding – the mating of related animals, that is, animals having common
ancestors within the first four to six generations.

Incubation – the hatching of eggs either with the use of a mother hen or
artificial incubator.

Infertile eggs – an egg without chick embryo; this is usually coming from
caged or unmated flock.

Layer – a female bird that has already laid eggs.

Limited feeding – the practice of feeding less than the full amount of energy
the hen would voluntarily consume on a daily basis. This is also known as
restricted feeding.

Maintenance ration – the feed given to the animal or bird at rest, without
giving nor losing in weight.

Molting – the shedding off of the feathers of layers after completing one laying
year; this is a psychological in process.

Nutrient – any feedstuff or group of feedstuffs having the same general

chemical composition, that aid support animal life.

Nutrition – the act of nourishing the animal or bird; the act of being nourished.

Outcrossing – the mating of animals of different species. For example

Muscovy duck x Mallard duck= Mule duck (sterile)

Parasite – an organism which depends on other living organisms for their

foods, causing injury or death to the host animal.

Parasitism – infection with parasites such as the common round worm,

tapeworm, etc.

Phase feeding – a system of feeding where the proteins and calcium

requirement of the hens is reduced according to their basic requirement.

Poults – refers to the young of turkey.

Poultry – a collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic services
to man. It also refers to the dressed carcass of fowls or the structure where
they are housed.

Poultry farming – the raising of poultry in commercial scale (i.e. by the

thousands) from which the owner derives his means of livelihood.

Prevention – the warding off of an infection; precautionary measures

undertaken to avoid the introduction of diseases.

Ration – the feed given to the animal within 24 hours, either once or several
times during the day, to support life.

Ready-to-lay pullet – a young female chicken that is about to lay eggs.

Reverse cage – a departure from the conventional cage that is, the long
measurement is on the front.

Roaster – a young chicken weighing more than 3 ½ lbs. sufficiently soft

meated to be cooked tender by roasting.

Rooster – mature male chicken. It is also called cock.

Sexed chick – often refers to female chicks whose sex had been identified
immediately after hatching.
Sexing – the process of determining the sex of day-old chicks either with the
use of sexing machine or simply inverting the vent.

Skip-a-day feeding – the practice of giving double ration in one day and no
feed for the next day.

Squab – the young of the pigeon.

Stag – refers to the mature male chickens which have been caponized.

Straight-run chicks – a mixture of male and female chicks under the same
brooder.

Strain – a family of any variety of poultry that possesses and reproduces with
marked regularity, common individual characters which distinguish from this
other families of the same variety.

Started chicks – chicks which have been brooded for a few days before they
are sold.

Stud mating – bringing the female to a rooster in a cage for mating.

Type – the purpose of which the bird is raised such as egg type, meat type,
dual-purpose type, or fancy type.

Variety – a term used to distinguish fowls having the standard shape and
other characteristics of the breed to which they belong, but differing in color
plumage, shape of comb, etc. from other groups of the same breed.

Vaccination – method of administering biologics or antigen to stimulate the

production of specific antibodies to immunize the birds.
 TOPIC 2. ESTABLISHING A POULTRY FARM

At the end of this topic, the students should be able to:

1. Give the factors to consider in determining the site of a poultry project.

2. Classify poultry production system
3. Name the desirable characteristics traits of a successful poultryman.

A. Location of the Poultry Farm

Factors to be considered:

1. Topography of the land

2. Availability and cost of the land.
3. Nearness to the road and good transportation facilities.
4. Presence of good water supply, abundant feeds and also electricity.
5. Away from residential houses.
6. Peace and order condition in the area.
7. Acceptability of the poultry business.

B. Classes of Poultry Farms.

1. Backyard poultry – raising in small scale primarily for home

consumption
2. Poultry farming – raising in large or commercial scale.

Four specialized branches of poultry farm:

1. Egg poultry farm – devoted exclusively for the production of table eggs.
2. Broiler farm – concerned with the production and sale of broilers.
3. Breeder farm – specialized in the production of poultry breeder and
also hatching eggs.
4. Hatchery – concerned with the production and sale of day-old chicks
or started chicks.

Two Kinds of Hatchery

1. Commercial hatchery – does not maintain a breeding flock as a

source of hatching egg; it buys egg from outside for hatching.
2. Breeder hatchery – raises breeding flock from which hatching egg
come.
C. Qualifications of a Good Poultryman

1. Has a good working knowledge in poultry production.

2. Has experience and skill in poultry raising.
3. Has sufficient capital.
4. Practice farm diversification
5. Has good inherent personal qualities
a. Interest or love in raising
b. Right attitude towards work.
c. Resourceful and full of initiative.
d. Has observant and clinical eye.
e. Has good business acumen.
f. Ambitious: has the punch, push, pull, patience and persistent
g. Thrifty, economical, careful and judicious in his investment.
 TOPIC 3. BREEDS OF POULTRY

At the end of this topic, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss and support the theories of the origin of the domesticated fowl.
2. Classify the different breeds of poultry, giving their distinguishing features
and also the breeds belonging to each class.
3. Expound on how the commercial strains of chickens have been
developed.
4. State the factors to consider in selecting a particular breed/ strain to raise.

A. Origin of the Domestic Fowl

Ornithology – study of birds
Name of the First Bird: Archaeopteryx (combination of reptile and bird)

History records that the fowl has been domesticated a long time ago. The
earliest record of domestication dates back to about 3200 BC in India. In Egypt,
chickens have been breed and captivity their eggs artificially incubated, and the
chicks grown for sale of meat and eggs since about 1400 BC. Domestication of
poultry in China also dates back to about 1400 BC. The red jungle fowl (Gallus
bankiva) was brought by the explorers from jungles of Ceylon, and India to Persia,
Europe, and British isles. When the Romans invaded Gaul and England, domestic
fowl were there. By the year 1 AD domesticated chickens were located in many
parts of western Asia and Eastern Europe. From there they were taken by the
explorers to South Africa, Australia, Japan, Russia, Siberia and Scandinavia. In 1607
chickens were brought to the Americans by the English and became an important
part of the first permanent English Settlement in North America.

Wild chickens of the Gallus genus still inhabit the jungles of Southeast Asia,
and many colorful survivors of natural mating and selection can be seen today
roaming freely through the small villages as well as large cities of the Philippine,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam and Thailand.

A.1. Theories Regarding the Origin of the Chicken:

1. Monophyletic theory – (Charles Darwin, 1968), Chickens originated from a

single species of fowl, the wild red jungle fowl (Gallus bankiva).
Proponents of these theory claims that:

a. Plumage color of native chickens and some other external

characteristics resemble those of the G.gallus.

b. Domestic fowl mated freely with G. gallus, rarely with others.

c. Progeny from the cross were fertile.

 2. Polyphyletic theory – (Anchestory), chickens were originated from more
than one species to include:
** Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus bankiva) by Linnaeus, 1758
**Grey or Sonnerat’s Jungle Fowl (Gallus sonneratti) by
Temminck,1831.
**Ceylon Jungle Fowl (Gallus lafayettei) by Lesson, 1831.
**Green Jungle Fowl (Gallus varius) by Shaw and Nodder, 1798.

a. Difference between the mediterranean breeds and the Asiatic in

plumage color and other external characteristics.

b. Differences between in some physiological characters. In comparison,

the heavy breeds, the white leghorns are:

 Less subject to broodiness

 Better able to withstand extreme heat
 More resistant to Salmonella pullorum and vitamin B1
deficiency also slipped tendon due to manganese
deficiency.
 More susceptible to the nematode Ascaridia sp.

A.2. Philippine Native Chicken

The native chickens are non descript and mongrel or mixed origin. They are
multi colored and have slow rate of growth and small body. In spite of these
deficiencies, the native chickens are preferred by the villagers to be raised in their
backyard for the following reasons:

1. They are adapted to the rigorous conditions in the farm, i.e. Poor and
scanty feeds, inadequate shelter, sudden changes of weather, and
rampant diseases. As a result of these, however, they’ve acquired
unusual hardiness and resistance to diseases.

2. They don’t require special care and feeds. They’re generally left to shift
for themselves and be self supporting. Nevertheless, they still supply the
farmer and his family some egg and occasionally meat for home
consumption or even sale.

3. Eggs and meat of native chickens are believed to be tastier more savory
compared to exotic breeds.

B. Classification of Poultry (Chicken)

a. Economic or Utility (According to purpose)

1. Egg type
a. comparatively small
b. white or creamy white earlobe
c. clean legged, i.e., no feathers on the shank
d. active and nervous in temperament
e. early maturing
f. lay large white eggs but non sitters
Breed Example:
 Ancona - non-sitting fowl
 excellent layers
 rapid growth and weight
 yellow skin color
 white shelled eggs

 Mikawa
 Minorca
 Leghorn

2. Meat type
a. large body size
b. slow in movement
c. quiet and gentle disposition
d. late maturing
e. brown-shelled eggs
f. sitters and good mothers

Breed Example:
a. Cochin - Chinese shanghai fowl
 profuse soft feathers
 bulky appearance
 yellow sin color
 brown-shelled eggs

b. Cornish - known as the Indian Game

 composite of several blood lines
 Asil
 Black-Red Old English
 Malay
 both male/female is of the same body conformation
c. Brahmas - with many names
 Chittagongs
 Gray Shanghai’s
 Brahma Pootras
d. Langshan

3. General-Purpose type
a. medium body size
b. less active than egg breeds
c. brown shelled eggs
d. sitters and good mothers

Breed Example:
a. Plymouth Rocks - known as Indian Game
- yellowish skin color

b. Cornish - known as the Indian Game

 composite of several blood lines
  Dominique male
 Black cochin female
 brown shelled eggs

c. Wyandottes - known as American Sebright

 broad feathers
 smooth fitting plumage
 medium weight
 yellow skin color
 eggshell vary from light to brick brown
d. Rhode Island Red
 crossbred of Red Malay Game
 Leghorn
 Asiatic Native
 excellent egg production
 yellow skin color
 brown-shelled eggs

e. New Hampshire - from foundation of RIR

 very light shade of surface color
 rapid growth and weight
 yellow skin color
 brown-shelled eggs
f. Cantonese
g. Nagoya

4. Fancy type
a. unusual appearance and beauty of plumage
b. raised as ornamental fowls

Breed Example:
a. Frizzles
b. Silkies
c. Bantams

C. According to Place of Origin

a. Standard Classification based on the place of origin

1. American Class – from USA

a. Black Jersey Giants
 Crosses of
 Black Java
 Dark Brahmas
 Black Langshans
 Large and very heavy
 Rapid growth and weight
 Yellow skin color
 Brown-shelled eggs

2. Mediterranean Class – from Europe esp. along the shores of

Mediterranean sea
  Small and flighty
 Produce large white eggs
 Egg type breeds

3. English Class – English origin

 Kept for both meat and eggs

Breeds:a. Australorps
 Noted for its splendid egg production
 Medium weight
 Active eggs laying and tinted egg
b. Orpington
c. Cornish
 The only meat breed

4. Asiatic Class – Asian in origin

 Heavy meat birds characterized by the presence of feathers on
their shank except the Cantonese, Nagoya and Mikawa

Breeds: Brahmas, Cochin, Langshan

5. Other Classes
 Raised more for fancy or ornaments than utility e.g. Polish-
Hamburg
 Producers of both eggs and meat e.g. French and Continental
 Famous for their fighting ability e.g. Malay and Malay Bantams,
Transylvanian Naked Neck.

Breeds: a. Polish Class

 Large protuberance on top of the skull
 Large cavernous nostrils
 Ornamental fowls
 Non-sitters
 White-shelled eggs
b. Hamburg Class
 German breed name but Dutch origin
 Good layers
 Ornamental fowls
 Non-sitter
 White skin color
 White shelled eggs
c. Transylvanian Naked Neck
 Known as Turken
 Skin turns red when exposed to sun
 No feathers on the neck
 Less feathers on its body
 Less resistant to cold temperature

D. Other Avian Species

1. Ducks
 1.1. Egg type Ducks
a. Mallard ducks – Anas boschas
 Female voice is a loud quack
 Male voice is soft and whispery
 Males develop a curled feather on top of the tail

1.2. Meat type Ducks

b. Muscovy ducks – Cairina moschata
 Coloration is black and white
 Feet are equipped with strong sharp claws
 Bright red crest around their eyes and above the beak
 Don’t swim much
 Larger males than females

c. Pekin ducks – Anas platyrhynchos

 Chinese origin
 White and creamy white plumage
 Orange shanks and toes
 Bill color is rich yellow
 Pekin ducks will never sit

2. Geese – Anser anser

Breeds: Embden, Toulouse
Geese – Cygnopsis cygnoides
 Longer neck
 Knob on its forehead
 Develop is distinct
 Orange shanks and toes

3. Quails – Coturnix coturnix

Eggs are mottled brown
Breeds: a. Button or Chinese quails
b. Japanese sheattle (preferred) by most quail raisers
c. Eurasian Pharaoh
d. Common European
e. Harlequin quails
 Sound
 Female - sharp high pitch and long shrilling chirp
 whee-whee-whee
 have blackish or grayish vent
 Male - have a throaty hoarse cry
 ti-ek-tik-ek
 Crowing cock – grr-rrr-rrr
 the upper protruding vent has a cream-like substance coming out of the
vent if pressed upward

3. Guinea Fowls – Numida meleagridis

 Known as the worst parents in the world
 Bony ridge on the head – helmet
 White spots on its plumage
 Female - sound two syllable shrieks
 Male – one syllable shrieks

4. Pigeons – Columba livia

  Survive in inhospitable climate

5. Turkeys – Meleagris gallopavo

Breeds: Black, Bourbon, Royal Palm, Bronze, Narragansett Slate,
White
 Red snood
 Red caruncles
 Males has a beard on its breast
 Males are larger in size than females

6. Ostriches – Struthio camelus

 Lays the largest egg of any species
 Fastest two-legged running animal on planet at speed of
about 65km/h (40 mph)
 Lifespan of domestic birds is 75 years while wild ostrich live
20-30 years
Five Subspecies are reorganized:

 S.c. australis in Southern Africa or Southern Ostrich

 S.c. camelus in North Africa, the North African
Ostrich or Red-necked Ostrich
 S.c. massaicus in East Africa, sometimes called the
Masai Ostrich
 S.c. syriacus in Middle East, the Arabian Ostich or
Middle Eastern Ostrich
 S.c. molybdophanes in Somalia, Ethiopia, and
northern Kenya, is called the Somali Ostrich

7. Peafowls – Pavo cristatus

8. Swans – Cygnus olor

Commercial Strains of Chickens

Hatchery Names Broiler Type Layer type

1. General Milling Pilch Dekalb
Corporation
2. Golden Country Farm, Hubbard -
Inc.
3. Lorenzo Poultry - Kimber
Farms
4. Republic Flour Mill Peterson H&N
Corp.
5. Robina Farms Starbro Starcross
6. Magnolia Poultry Arbor Acre broiler Arbor Acre egg
Products , San Miguel
Corp.
7. Sarmiento Agricultural Cobbs Babcock
Development Corp.
8. Winmar Poultry Farm Indian River Hy-line
D. Factors to consider in deciding on the Breed/Strain to be raise

1. Purpose for which the bird will be raised.

2. Adaptability of the breed/strain to local conditions
3. Cost and availability of the stock
4. Productivity
 TOPIC 4. PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY HOUSING

At the end of this topic, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the importance of poultry housing in the efficient operation of the

farm.
2. Give and discuss the essential requirements that must be met in the
construction of the poultry house.
3. Name the different types of poultry houses to be constructed to provide
comfort to the birds and also ease of operation.
4. Give the housing requirements for poultry with reference to floor space,
feeding and watering space.
5. Name the various facilities and equipment needed in poultry operation.

Poultry housing, in a narrow sense, refers to the construction of the roof, floor,
walls and partitions to house the birds. In a broader sense, it includes the equipment
and facilities that go into the efficient operation of the farm.

A. Importance of Good Poultry Housing

The construction of the poultry house can be viewed from three important
aspects:

1. As an important aspect of biology – the poultry house should provide comfort

to the birds to minimize stress and other environmental conditions that will
make them unproductive.

2. As a problem of engineering – the poultryman should consider the essentiality

of the design f the poultry house so that all areas are functional, the materials
to be used and their durability, their appearance, the dimensions and all the
other details of construction.

***Structural design- the manner in which the house is built.

***Functional design – the purpose for which the house is built.

3. As a problem in economics – construction cost should be given also some

attention to avoid unnecessary expenses.

Concept of Five Freedoms in Housing Poultry

1. Freedom from discomfort – providing suitable environment and comfortable

reality area.
 2. Freedom from pain, injury and diseases – providing prompt diagnosis and
treatment when injuries or diseases occur.

3. Freedom from fear and discomfort distress – providing constant good

condition and freedom from fear from other animals.

4. Freedom to express normal behavior – providing sufficient and appropriate

space inside the house and the company of other animals.

5. Freedom from hunger and thirst – providing fresh water and right qty. of ratios

B. Essentials of Poultry Housing

1. Type of stock and production capacity.

 The building and fixtures should suit the purpose for which the birds are
raised.
 There should be sufficient space for the desired number of birds.

 The following space requirements may serve as a guide:

Broilers and Layers

Day old – 3 wks ---------------------------- 0.3 sq.ft./bird/chick

3 – 8 wks ---------------------------- 0.5 sq.ft./chick
8 – 12 wks ---------------------------- 1.0 sq.ft./chick
After 12 wks
Litter floor ---------------------------- 2.25 sq.ft./bird
Slat floor pens ---------------------------- 1.5-2.0 sq.ft./bird
Cages ---------------------------- 0.75-1.0 sq.ft./bird

 The following recommended watering requirements may serve as a guide:

Broilers and Layers

Day old – 4 wks ---------------------------- 0.5 cm/bird
6 – 8 wks ---------------------------- 0.6 cm/bird
3 – near laying age ---------------------------- 1.0-3.0 cm/bird
Layers ---------------------------- 2.0-2.35 cm/bird

 The following feeding space requirements may serve as a guide:

Broilers Layers
0 – 2 wks ------------- 2.5 cm/bird ---------------- 2.3 cm/bird
2 – 6 wks ------------- 4.5 cm/bird ---------------- 4.5 cm/bird
6 – 8 wks ------------- 7.5 cm/bird ---------------- 7.5 cm/bird
8 – 20 wks ------------- ---------------- 7.5 cm/bird
20 – more ------------- ---------------- 8.0 cm/bird
 Lack of space may result to:
 Overcrowding
 Poor egg production
 Cannibalism
 Disease
 2. Environmental Factors

a. Shape of housing – long, narrow and open sided for better circulation of
air and ventilation.
b. House orientation – constructed with the length parallel to the normal wind
direction to prevent exposure of birds to draft and heavy rains.
c. Roof style – monitor type is recommended for larger house unit.
d. Location – well drained, well ventilated (elevated and sloping topography)
e. Roofing materials – good insulator.

3. Sanitary Provisions

a. Easy to clean/disinfect
b. Good drainage inside and outside
c. If possible, natural light can enter
d. If ample area is available, houses should be reasonably spaced from one
another, for health safety measure.

4. Economy of construction

a. Cheap, durable and locally available materials

b. Convenient designs (saves time and effort)
c. Functional structural design

5. Provision for easy expansion

- Building should be built that it permits the setting up of additional

houses/extension that is maybe needed later.

C. Types of Poultry House

1) According to the requirements of specific group of bird

1. Brooder house – houses birds or chicks for approximately 4 wks. When

they no longer need heat to keep them warm and comfortable.

Types

a. Litter floor pens

b. Slat floor
c. Battery or cage brooder

2. Grower house – after the brooding periods until about to lay (17 – 15 wks
of age).

Types

a. Range – grower houses. The poultry house is located at the middle of

the pasture. This is becoming obsolete for it requires a wide area of
land.
b. Litter – floor
c. Slat – floor
d. Cages
Note: Some poultry operations use one building which serves as brooder and
growers. The design provide fixtures that can be adjusted to accommodate
the growing chickens especially broilers.

3. Layer house – from 17 – 18 or 20 wks of age up to end of production.

a. Litter – floor
b. Slat – floor
c. Combination of a and b
d. Cage system – current trend in housing layers

Size of layer cages

- Height of the cages uniform at about 41 cm (16 in.) at the cage
floor slope
- 47 cm (18 in.) at the higher level of the slope

Common floor measurements of cage compartments

In inches In centimeters
10 x 16 25x41
12 x 16 31x41
12 x 18 31x46
14 x 16 36x41
16 x 18 41x46
24 x 36 61x91 (colony cage)
26 x 48 91x122 (colony cage)

Advantages of Caging layers

a. Saves space
b. Prevents cannibalism
c. Facilitates detection of non producers

Type of cage system

a. Single bird (expensive)
b. Multiple birds
c. Colony cages (cannibalism, broken eggs, egg eating cases)
Cage Arrangement

1. Single deck – this require much space but is practical in areas with warm
climate and also expensive.

Single Deck

2. Double deck – usually an offset arrangement and is often called the stair-
step system

Double deck

3. Triple deck – offset or vertical

Triple deck

4. Four deck – offset or vertical

Four deck

5. Flat deck – close together (good for automated, waterer and feeder)

Flat deck
 b. Light Requirement

Expose pullets to decreasing or steady daylight from brooding to 20 weeks

old and to increasing day length there after until they are culled. Lighting
schedules to be adopted.

Age (weeks) Period of continuous Lighting

(hrs/d)
0-4 24
4-20 13
20-24 14
24-28 15
28-older 16

2.) According to Roof style

a. Shed or Single Span – this is the simplest type of roof. Usually used for a
small construction.

b. Gable or Double Span – this is the most conventional system of roof

construction.

c. Monitor – Desirable for big establishment. It has an outlet of air at the top of
roof.

d. Semi-monitor – like a monitor type, except the outlet on top is only one side
of the roof.
3.) According to Floor type

a. Litter floor- using rice hull, saw dust, sand or any absorbent materials.

Advantages (Litter Floor)

1. Not Expensive.
2. Lesser incidence of breast blisters, especially broilers.

Disadvantages
1. Volume of manure may become bulky that disposal is a problem.
2. Higher incidence of parasitism.

b. Slat- floor Housing- floor can be made of bamboo splits, lumber or wire.

Advantages
1. Affords better air circulation.
2. Lessen chances of parasitism.

Disadvantages
1. High incidence of breast blisters, especially on wire floors.

c. Combination of Litter and slat floors- In this type of housing the slat may cover
only half the floor, usually in the strip down the center of a long house. The
slat portion is raised high enough above sub floor to provide a pit for the
accumulation of manure.

4.) Broiler House

Constructed to be able to put the entire flock under one house.
i.e. from brooding until the birds are ready for market.

Broiler House Standard:

Orientation: N. East, Southwest direction

Distance between houses: 50 ft.
Ground floor clearance: 6 ft.
Floor to ceiling clearance: 8 ft.
House width: 30 ft.
Roofing design: Monitor
Roof angle: 20o
Roof hang: 4 ft.
Floor slats: 1 inch
Floor slats spacing: ½ inch
 Warm air exits out of ridge

20 ft

-------------------------------------- 4 ft
-
Warm air exits on
Wind 8 ft opposite side of
prevailing wind
30 ft direction.

6 ft

Body heat of Ridge creates

secondary air current

5.) Isolation House- sick birds; and newly acquired stocks are housed for quarantine.

6.) Other basic Structures:

 Feed bodega- at least one week feed supply
 Sheltered manure pit
 Egg sorting and storage room
 Store room for poultry equipment etc.
 Incineration-for safe disposed of dead birds
 Lagoon – for waste/ manure disposal.

D. Poultry Housing Equipment/Facilities

1. Feeding through or feeders- a device where the chicken get their feed.
- can be placed inside or along the front of the cages (built-in feeders)
- consider ease in cleaning and avoidance of spillage.
- consider age of birds and house design.

a. a chicken feed box (paper, wood plastic and metal)

b. automatic feeder
c. plastic feeders
2. Waterers – a device where the chicken drink.
a. plastic tube waterer (shallow pan with a plastic hurdle as a reserve
container in the inverted position.
b. bamboo waterers- are cheap ( but don’t last long and prove to slime
growth)
c. deep pan waterer
 d. long, shallow water through with continuous flow

e. tire halved

3. Feed cart- useful in bringing feeds from the bodega to the feeders

4. Egg Basket- these are usually made of strong wire that will not flex with the
pressure of egg load.

5. Roof Sprinklers- used in sprinkling galvanized iron roof of poultry when the
temperature is high.

Other tools:
1. Catching hook or net
2. Catching crate
3. Catching panels
4. Brooms
5. Rubber hose
6. Shovels
7. Wheel borrow
8. Mower
9. Nests
- Individual nest- a box measuring 12 in. x18 inch good for 5-6 layers.
- Community nests- a compartment with 2x8ft floor area which is good for 35
layers.
- Roll-away nest – individual or community sizes with sloping floors for the eggs
to roll out on one side.
 TOPIC 5. PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY FEEDING

At the end of this topic, the students should be able to:

1. Be aware of the essential nutrients needed by poultry and the role they play
in the development of the body.
2. To nutrient requirements of poultry, with special emphasis on protein
metabolizable energy, vitamins and minerals; the important sources of
each.
3. Formulate rations that would satisfy the body needs of the birds.
4. Understand the different feeding practices for poultry and their implications.

It is said that “good nutrition is the key to better health”. A well nourished-
bird, one that is given the right quantity and quality of feeds, is not only more
resistant to poultry diseases but also more efficient in converting its feed into eggs
and meat. Hence attempts should be made to provide all the necessary nutrients
needed by the bird that would meet its body requirement.

A. Objectives of Poultry feeding

1. To secure the most economical gains in weight during growth and

fattening.
2. To get the most economical production eggs throughout the laying years.

B. Nutrients Needed by Poultry

The nutrients in feedstuffs are classified on the basis if their physical,

chemical, and biological properties into the following six general groups: water,
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins. Among these six nutrients,
water alone is a definite chemical compound; the other five classes of nutrients are
classes or groups of compound each of which, for the most part, serves as a
particular function in nutrition.

1. Water

a. composed of hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of 2 to 1; they

constitute the largest bulk:

Fowl’s body - 55-56%

 Eggs - 68%

b. Functions
1. Facilities cell reaction only minimum rise in temperature.
2. Regulates body temperature.
3. Lubricates joints and acts as water cushion for nervous system.
4. Aids in digestion and absorption of feeds.
5. Serves as transport of food nutrients to different parts of the body.
6. Helps eliminate waste products of the body.

2. Carbohydrates

a. Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with the hydrogen and

oxygen nearly always being in the same ratio as in water.

b. Classes of carbohydrates:

1. Digestible carbohydrates (nitrogen-free extract)

1- Starch
2-Sugar
3-Soluble portion of more complex carbohydrates

2. Non-digestible carbohydrates
1- Cellulose and lignin (not good source of energy)

c. Functions
1. Source of energy
2. for production of fat

3. Fats- essential fatty acids (Linoleic/Arachidonic)

a. Comprise the:
1. True fats composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen differing from
carbohydrates in that the proportion of oxygen in the fats being
much lower.
2. Certain fat-like substances

b. Function
1. Source of energy from the body, yielding approximately 2.25x as
much energy as carbohydrates.

4. Proteins

a. Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen; most proteins also contain
sulfur, and a few of them contain iron and phosphorus. Proteins contain
16% nitrogen; hence total protein is multiplied by 6.25.

b. All proteins are made up of Amino Acids

1. Essential amino acids (cannot be synthesized in the body)-
arginine, histidine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine,
threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
 2. Non- essential amino acids (those that can be synthesized) -
Cystine, praline, and tyrosine are required under certain conditions.

c. Functions
1. For growth and repair of worn out body tissues
2. For production of eggs

5. Minerals

a. These are inorganic substances which are needed in exceedingly small

amounts.
b. Minerals performing essential functions in the body: calcium, phosphorus,
sodium, magnesium, chloride, potassium, iron, sulfur, iodine, manganese,
copper, zinc and fluorine.
c. Functions
1. Essential for muscular activity (Ca, Na, K, salts)
2. Used for bone formation (Ca, P, Mg)
3. Important constituent of blood (iron, copper. Chlorine)
4. Necessary for optimum growth (Zinc)
5. For proper functioning of thyroid gland (Iodine)

(N.B. Aside from providing mineral constituents for the fowl’s body, mineral in the diet
is of great importance in enabling fowls to utilize other nutrients to best advantage.)

6. Vitamins - regulators of metabolism

- Organic substances needed for proper functioning of the body.

Classification:
1. Fat soluble Vitamins

a. Vitamin A (Retinol)
- Yellow pigment or related caroteinoids.
- Converted to Vitamin A during absorption
- Vitamin A, D, E and K
- Deficiency sign include
 Reduced production of hatchability
 Reduced appetite and growth
 Rough plumage
 Night blindness
b. Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol)
- Synthesis of calcium- binding proteins
- Controlling intestinal absorption
- Blood translocation of calcium
- Deficiency sign include
 Rickets in the young
 Osteomalacia in adult binds
 Rachitic deformities
 Thin or soft shelled

c. Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
- Antioxidants
- Cereal germs, most oilseed and green plant materials
are rich in Tocopherol.
 Easily oxidized in air
 - Deficiency signs:
 Encephalomalacia in young growing birds
 Nutritional muscular dystrophy

d. Vitamin K antihemorrhagic vitamin

- For blood coagulation
- prothrombin formation

2. Water Soluble vitamins

- B complex Vitamins include 9 vitamins
- absorbed in the digestive tract through blood circulation
- Not stored in any of the tissues or in any organs.

1. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
- derived from the thiazole and pyrimidine rings in the structure
- Synonym is “aneurin“
 Relates to antineuritic properties
- present in almost all living tissues, plant and animal
- Deficiency signs include:
 Loss of appetite and growth
 Weakness and paralysis
2. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
- essential for growth and health
- “curled toe paralysis”
3. Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
- present in red meat and tissue, eggyolk, yeast, cereals
4. Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
5. Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) - scaly lesions on eyelids, mouth
6. Vitamin B4 or B7 (Choline) - prevention of perosis from young
7. Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
8. Biotin- can cure or prevent perosis
9. Folacin (Folic Acid) - retarded growth, abnormal
10. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) - Not needed by poultry

Note: For more thorough and detailed discussion of the above nutrients, these will
be taken up in the higher Nutrition courses (A.S. 141 and A.S. 142)
C. Nutrients Requirements of poultry

The nutrients requirements of poultry are given in the succeeding table. Study
very well the information given for your guidance in formulating rations.

Table1. Nutrients requirements of Poultry

Stages Protein ME Ca P Total

% Kcal/kg % avail. % %

CHICKENS

Broiler starter 24 –26 3000 1.0 –1.1 0.45 0.7 – 8

Broiler finisher 20 – 21 3200 0.7 – 0.9 0.40 0.6 – 8
Starter (0-6 wks) 20 2640 – 2700 1.0 – 1.2 0.40 0.60
Grower (6-12 wks) 18 2850 – 3050 0.8 – 1.0 0.40 0.60
Pullet developers 14.5 2850 – 3200 0.8 – 1.0 0.35 0.50
(12-20 wks)
Layer (20-40 wks) 18 – 18.5 2950 – 3000 2.6 – 2.8 0.45 0.70
Layer (40 wks up) 16 – 16.5 3000 – 3200 3.0 – 3.5 0.45 0.70
Breeder (22-40 wks) 18 – 18.5 2900 – 3000 2.6 – 2.8 0.45 0.70

TURKEYS

Starting poults 28 2450 1.2 0.40 0.80

(0-8 wks)
Growing turkeys 20 2600 1.2 0.40 0.80
(8-16 wks)
Breeding turkeys 15 2850 2.25 0.375 0.75

DUCKS

Starting and growing 17 ? ? ? ?

Ducks
Source: Training Manual in Poultry Production

D. Common Feedstuff for Poultry

The common feedstuffs for poultry rations include the following:

a. Energy sources

1. Rice and its milling by – products like rice bran (tiki-tiki), rice polishing, and
rice middling or binlid.
2. Corn and its milling by – products like corn grits, corn bran, corn germ
meal, and corn gluten feed. [N.B. yellow corn is
 preferred to white corn because of its high vitamin A
content.]
3. Sorghum
4. Wheat bran or pollard
5. Cassava, sweet potato, gabi meal
6. Molasses (The protein content is very low but is high in energy and also
rich in vitamins like niacin and pantothenic acid).
7. Fats and oils

b. Protein sources

1. Fish meal
2. Shrimp meal
3. Meat meal, meat and bone meal
4. Dried skim milk, dried whey
5. Soy bean oil meal (can replaced totally fish meal)
6. Ipil-ipil leaf meal (contains toxic substance called mimosine)
7. Mungo meal and other beans like winged beans
8. Copra meal (best used in combination with other protein sources due to
some amino acid deficiencies)
9. Blood meal (often used as source of lysine in poultry feeds)
10. Feather meal

c. Mineral sources

1. Salt
2. Ground oyster shell powder
3. Ground limestone (calcium carbonate)
4. Tricaphos, Dicaphos
5. Bone meal

d. Vitamin sources
1. Premixes - also include some trace minerals, antibiotics, antioxidants and
other drugs.

e. Miscellaneous feed additives

1. Antibiotics
2. Antioxidants
3. Arsenical, copper salts and other chemical compounds (growth
promotants)

f. Feed Formulation

To the practical and efficient poultry raiser, there is no standard ration for any
class/ age of birds. The formula can be adjusted if there is a change in price or when
one ingredient becomes more available than others. However, it is important that the
nutrient requirements of the birds must be adequately satisfied.

Below are methods/ techniques of balancing rations:

1. By Pearson Square Method: Balancing a ration by the square method is so

important and easy, although this is most practical only when substituting one feed
ingredient for another without changing the protein contents of the rations. With this
 technique, only the protein content of the ration is given major consideration. The
digestible energy, fat, fiber, calcium, phosphorus, essential amino acids and
vitamins can be calculated once proportions are known and feed composition is
available.
SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 1- A poultry raisers need ration containing 16%
crude protein. But the ration on hand consists of 43% of protein supplement
composed of 3 parts soybean oil meal, 2 parts fish meal and 1 part each of
ipil-ipil leaf meal and copra meal with a crude protein content of 44%, 63%,
20% and 24%, respectively. If he has an adequate supply of yellow corn
containing 9.0% C.P., how much of this ingredient would he had to bring
down the protein contents of the ration to 16%.

The steps followed are:

a. Construct a square and place on the middle the desired 16% protein.

b. On the upper left hand corner, place the protein content of the protein supplement,
which is 43%

Soybean oil meal 3 parts X 44% - 132

Fish meal 2 parts X 63% - 126
Copra meal 1 part X 24% - 24
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 1 part X 20% - 20
------------------- ------------
T o t a l 7 parts 302

302
---------- = 43%
7
c. On the lower hand corner, place the protein content of corn which is 9%.

d. Draw diagonal lines from each corner and subtract, diagonally, the lower from the
higher values. Place answer on the opposite side.

Protein 43% 7 parts of protein supplements

Supplement 16%

Corn 9% 27 parts of energy

-------------------------
Total 34 parts

e. thus, 7 parts of protein supplement and 27 parts of energy (34 parts total) will
provide 16% protein.

f. The proportion can be change into kilogram per 100-kg mixture by:

7
---------- X 100 =20.58 kg protein supplement
34

27
---------- X 100 = 79.41 kg corn
34
g. The weight in kilogram of each ingredient in the protein supplement is computed
as
follows:

3/7 X 20 = 8.6 kg soybean oil meal

2/7 X 20 = 5.8 kg fish meal
1/7 X 20 = 2.6 kg copra meal
1/7 X 20 = 2.8 kg ipil-ipil leaf meal

Total = 20.0 kg protein supplement

SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 2- How much rice bran (10%) and commercial
starter mash (21% C.P.) should be mixed to prepare a 500-kilogram mixture
with 14% protein?

Starter mash 21% 14% 4 parts starter mash

Rice bran 10% 7 parts rice bran

---------------------------
Total 11 parts

4
---------- X 500 = 180 kg starter mash
11

7
---------- X 500 = 320 kg rice bran
11 ---------------------------
Total 500 kg

Note: Add 0.5 percent each of common salt and a vitamin mineral antibiotic premix
to the mixture to ensure adequate levels.

2. By Trial and Error Method: the grower rations which 16% percent protein can be
balanced using rice bran, corn and fish meal. Using Table 9 as guide, decide how
much of these feed ingredients should be used. Select any amount within the range
making sure that the total is either 10 or 1000 for easier computation. The next step
is to compute for the protein in the three ingredients.

The computation is as follows:

Amount of Feed % Protein

Rice bran 60 kg x 0.119 = 7.14

Corn 30 x 0.078 = 2.34
Fish meal 10 x 0.639 = 6.39
--------------------- ----------
Total 100 kg 15.87 % protein in
ration

The fiber is computed in the sane manner:

Amount of Feed % Fiber

Rice bran 60 kg x 0.075 = 4.50
Corn 30 x 0.025 = 0.75
Fish meal 10 x 0.007 = 0.07
-------------------- ----------
Total 100 kg 5.32 % fiber in ration

The percentage protein is very close to the desired 16 percent. To make

adjustment, the level of fish meal may be increased by 1 percent and the level of
corn or the rice bran may be decreased by the same amount. However, the content
is satisfactory, being lower than the generally recommended maximum level of 7
percent. Common Table salt is added at the rate of 0.5 percent of the mixture.
Supplementing with antibiotic – mineral- vitamin premix may make it a good ration for
laying flock.

Other ration can be formulated following the same procedure.

E. Feeding Practices in Poultry

1. Adlibitum Feeding

This refers to feeding the bird’s unlimited amount of feed, that is, more than
what the birds normally consume in a day. The practice is done to provide the birds
sufficient feeds to maintain a high level of egg production.

2. Limited /Restricted Feeding

Limited feeding is a program of providing something less than the full amount
of energy hens should voluntarily consume on a daily basis. The limitation is on
energy, not amino acids, vitamins or minerals.

It is necessary not only to adjust the energy intake of layers for changes in
environmental temperatures, but to further adjust the amino acid, vitamin and mineral
content of limited rations so that these nutrients do not become limiting in periods of
high in-house temperature or reduce the economy of the program during cooling in
house temperatures.

This system of feeding is practiced to accomplish the following objectives:

1. Delay the sexual maturity.

2. Lower the body weight at the start of egg production.
3. Decrease the number of small pullet egg during the early part of
production period.
4. Increase the number of large eggs late in the production period and an
overall increase in egg size.
5. Reduce hen-house mortality during the laying years.
6. Reduce the cost of rearing birds to sexual maturity.

There are two ways of limited feeding, namely:

1. Weight limited feeding. Hens are limited to a certain percentage of feed

the full-fed group voluntarily consumes. About 10 percent feed reductions
will give satisfactory production rates with only slight loss in egg size.
 2. Time limited feeding. Hens are allowed only a short time, usually 2-3
feeding periods, to consume feed. Feed closes automatically.

The basic rules to observe in limited feeding program are as follows:

1. Don’t over restrict. While at times 10-15 % or even higher percent

restrictions may be successful, the level of 6-7% imitation carries
sufficient margin of safety that performance will not be affected.

2. Don’t restrict too early. Some programs of restrictions have been

successfully
Initiated at 20 weeks of age; however where pullets are underweight at
sexual maturity or when more than a moderate restriction is employed,
performance and profitability will decline. As a general rule of thumb, the
guide of 70% large or above egg size distribution should be used as the
appropriate time to initiate the restriction.

3. Don’t use fixed hours of feeding time o a fixed caloric intake. An inflexible
feeding schedule will result in a high failure rate other than a short term
basis. Adjust caloric intakes to caloric needs.

4. Utilize check-hens. It is necessary to utilize a full-fed group of hens as a

means of determining the quantity of feed hens required. This corrects for
variations in in-house temperature, performance rate and etc.

5. Don’t utilize a standard ratio. With limited feed intake, it is necessary to

utilize a specially formulated ration, unless there are extra margins to
safety built into the ration already, so that when feed intake in reduced,
adequate amino acid, vitamin and mineral intakes will occur.

6. Adjust ration seasonally. When ration levels of amino acids, vitamins and
minerals are adjusted due to in-house environmental temperatures and
absolute feed intakes, performance will be maintained and/or the
economics of the program will not be decreased.
7. Weigh and distribute feed accurately. For both cart and mechanical
feeding systems, there is some tolerance in the quantity of feed hens may
be given each day. However, the accuracy of the limitation must be
reasonably close on a weekly basis.

8. Don’t suddenly remove the restriction. A sudden switch to full feeding will
cause hens to over consume with no improvement in performance and
consequent difficulties may occur. If the limitation is to be removed, feed
limited hens the same quantity of feed as check hens for 10-14 days
before complete free- choice feeding is given.

Defect of limited feeding:

Dominant birds reach feeders first and get most of the feed. The more
shy birds have loss chances of getting feed resulting in uneven growth
(half of the flock are too fat, while the other half are too thin) and higher
mortality. Some birds also lay eggs too soon, while others too late.

3. Skip - a - day feeding

 Skip-a-day feeding is the practice of giving double ration in one day and no
feed for the next day. In other words, the birds are allowed all feed they can eat on
one day and left over removed.

The advantage of the practice is that it permits the smaller birds to eat; the
more aggressive birds fill up earlier and quit eating, allowing the smaller birds to eat.
In effect, there is even rate of growth. It has, however, the following disadvantages:
(1) incidence of cannibalism, and (2) water shortage. Cannibalism can be corrected
by giving green feeds at the rate of one kilo per 100 birds; deduct this amount from
the total amount of feed given on a feed day.
4. Phase Feeding

Phase feeding is the system of feeding where the protein and calcium
requirement of the hens is reduced according to their basic requirement. As the rate
of production decrease, the protein and calcium requirement also decrease.

The researchers Scott and Nesheim divided the laying season into three
periods: from 22 to 40 weeks; from 40 weeks to 65% production and thereafter. They
recommended using diets with standard 1300 M.E./lb. as shown in the table 1.

Table 1. For conditions of 55o-70o F

Phase stage of a lay Crude Energy

requirements
Protein % cal/M.E./bird/day
22-40 weeks 17.5 275

40 weeks-65% production 16.0 310-320

Less than 65% production 15.0 310-320

The other concept of phase feeding does not assume that there is a fall in
protein requirements as the bird progress in age. Researchers Fisher, Morris and
Jennings have done work collectively and individually on relating daily intake of
protein to egg production. In their experiments they used medium body weight hybrid
and divided the laying period into three stages: 22-44 weeks, 44-48 weeks and 49-63
weeks. Whether diets of 12, 14 or 16% protein were fed, they were unable to
substantiate the idea that protein requirements declined as the laying years
progressed.

In fact when dealing with the amino acids of proteins, Fisher and Morris
concluded that the requirements for methionine, for instance, actually increase in the
later stages of lay. Other scientists have found that a reduction in the dietary protein
level during the latter half of the egg production cycle can result in slightly smaller
eggs. More recently it has been suggested that the amino acid methionine has an
influencing effect on egg size.

There seems strong evidence that the first premise cannot be assumed that
much further research is required while the second is a more practical approach,
providing the range of diets is kept to a maximum of 3 or 4.

It would therefore appear that feeding recommendation are made in

accordance with the composition of the diet, and may be-

Ration A – Less than 113 g/bird/day

 Ration B – From 113-120 g/bird/day
Ration C – over 120 g/bird/day

If for example, during the laying year consumption increases from 110 g per
bird per day to 118 g per bird daily, and the birds are being fed Ration A, then
change to the less concentrated Ration B is indicated. Conversely if feed intake falls
from a higher to a lower range, a chance to the appropriate more concentrated ration
is indicated. If however, intake remains within a particular range then the ration
should not be changed.

In practice a number of complicated factors other than protein amounts can

be satisfied by feeding the specific food according to the amount which is consumed:
(1) strain of bird, (2) environmental temperature, (3) energy level of feed, (4) bulk,
density and form of food and (5) stocking density and system management.

The difference in requirements of energy can be generally related to

metabolic body size.

Further it must be remembered that temperature will have an acceptable

effect on maintenance and therefore on total energy requirements, which they rise or
fall during the latter part of lay depending on the season in relation to the stage of lay.

REFERENCES

1. ACHER, D. AND CUNNINGHAM. Animal Science and Industry. 5th

Edition. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.07548.
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