9/17/2023

B.TECH FIRST YEAR

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023-2024

“UNDERSTAND THE BASIC

SESSION OUTCOME PRINCIPLES OF WAVE OPTICS”
COURSE NAME: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
COURSE CODE : PY1001
LECTURE SERIES NO : 01 (ONE)
CREDITS : 3
MODE OF DELIVERY : ONLINE (POWER POINT PRESENTATION)
COURSE COORDINATORS: DR. NILANJAN HALDER & DR. ANUPAM SHARMA
EMAIL-ID : nilanjan.halder@jaipur.manipal.edu

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Diffraction
Topics
 Diffraction and wave theory of light
 Single-slit diffraction
 Intensity in single-slit diffraction
ASSIGNMENT  Double-slit interference and diffraction
QUIZ
MID TERM EXAMINATION
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA’S combined
END TERM EXAMINATION  Multiple slits
 Diffraction gratings

Text Book:
PHYSICS VOL 2 by Halliday, Resnick and Krane

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DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE__(similarities)

Both involve superposition of coherent light waves.
The phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of Diffraction and interference are similar phenomena.
obstacles or slits, and hence its encroachment into the region Interference is the effect of
of geometrical shadow is known as diffraction. superposition of 2 coherent waves.
For diffraction effects to be noticeable, the size of the object Here Slit width a<<λ very small and
causing diffraction should have dimensions comparable to the neglected. So, fringes are of equal
wavelength of light falling on the object. width and intensity on the screen is of
uniform distribution.

Diffraction is the superposition

Diffraction pattern of razor blade viewed in of many coherent waves. Slit
monochromatic light width ‘a’ is finite. Intensity on the
screen is non-uniform.

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DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

Diffraction v/s Interference
 Bending of light around the obstacle.
 The interfering beam originate from
continuous distribution of sources
(secondary wavelets).
 The waves emerging from different
paths of the same wave front
superimpose with each other to
produce Diffraction pattern.
 The width of the diffraction fringes are
not equal.
 Minimum intensity point will not be
perfectly dark
 Bright fringes in the diffraction pattern
are not of same intensity.
• Diffraction pattern occurs when coherent wave-fronts of light
fall on opaque barrier B, which contains an aperture of
arbitrary shape. The diffraction pattern can be seen on screen
 Meeting of two waves. C.
 The interfering beam originate from • When C is very close to B a geometric shadow is observed
discrete number of sources.
because the diffraction effects are negligible.
 The superposition of waves coming
from two different wave front
originating from the same source,
produce Interference pattern.
 The width of the interference fringes
may/ may not be equal.
 Minimum intensity point will be
perfectly dark.
 Bright fringes in the interference
pattern are of uniform intensity.

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DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT Huygens’ Principle

• Every point on a propagating
Ꙫ A single slit placed between a distant light source and a wavefront serves as the source
screen produces a diffraction pattern. of spherical wavelets, such that
Ꙫ It will have a broad, intense central band called the
central maximum
the wavelets at sometime later
Ꙫ The central band will be flanked by a series of narrower, is the envelope of these
less intense secondary bands called side maxima or wavelets.
secondary maxima
• If a propagating wave has a
Ꙫ The central band will also be bordered by a series of
dark bands called minima.
particular frequency and speed,
Ꙫ The diffraction pattern consists of the central maximum the secondary wavelets have
“Isotropic”
and a series of secondary maxima and minima. that same frequency and
Ꙫ The pattern is similar to an interference pattern as speed.
shown in figure.
The phenomenon of diffraction is caused by the interference of
innumerable secondary wavelets that are produced by
unobstructed portions of the same wave front or from the portions
of the wave front which are allowed to pass through a aperture.

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DIFFRACTION AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

Fresnel diffraction & Fraunhofer diffraction The pattern formed on the screen depends on the
separation between the screen C and the aperture B. Let us
Diffraction patterns are usually classified into two consider the following three cases.
categories depending on the source and screen are placed.
Case 1: Very small separation: when screen C is very close to B.
Fresnel diffraction: When either the source or the screen is Aperture Screen
near the aperture or obstruction, the wavefronts are
spherical and the pattern is quite complex. (near-field)
From Geometrical
distant shadow of the
Fraunhofer diffraction: When both the source and the screen source aperture

are at a great distance from the aperture or obstruction,

the incident light is in the form of plane wave and
the pattern is simpler to analyze. (far-field)
11
B C
The waves travel only a short distance after leaving the
aperture, and the rays diverge very little. The effects
diffraction are negligible, and the pattern on the screen is
the geometric shadow of the aperture.
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Case 2: Very large separation: When screen C is far from

the aperture (Fraunhofer diffraction).
Plane wave front Plane wave front

f f

C In the laboratory, two converging lenses are used to achieve

Very large separation Very large separation
this condition.
When the screen is so far from the aperture, then we can
regard the rays as parallel or wavefronts as planes. The first lens converts the diverging light from the source in
In this case , we also assume the source to be far from the to a plane wave, and the second lens focuses plane waves
aperture, so that the incident wavefronts are also planes. leaving the aperture parallel to the point on screen.
This is one way of achieving Fraunhofer diffraction.

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Case 3: Intermediate separation: When screen C and Plane wave front Plane wave front

source (S) are at finite distances from the aperture (Fresnel

diffraction):
Spherical Spherical
wave front wave front
P

Source (S) Very large separation Very large separation C

B In Fraunhofer type of diffraction:

Finite distance Finite distance C 1. Both the source and the screen are effectively at infinite
In Fresnel diffraction: distances, from the aperture causing diffraction.
1. the incident and the diffracted wave fronts are 2. both the incident and emergent wavefronts are plane. That is,
spherical. both the incident and the diffracted beams are parallel.
2. The source and the screen are at finite distances from 3. can be realized in practice by using a pair of converging lenses
of suitable focal lengths (L1 and L2) and placing the source
the aperture/slit or obstacle causing diffraction.
and the screen at the foci of L1 and L2 respectively.
3. No lenses/ mirrors are used.
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SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

Fraunhofer diffraction is a special (limiting) case of

the more general Fresnel diffraction.

But, analysis of Fresnel diffraction is complicated

compared to Fraunhofer. That is, Fraunhofer
diffraction is easier to handle mathematically.
All the diffracted rays arriving at P0 are in-phase.
So, in our study on diffraction phenomenon, we Hence they interfere constructively and produce maximum
deal only with Fraunhofer diffraction. (central maximum) of intensity I0 at P0.

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SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

At point P1,
path difference between r1
and r2 is
(a/2) sin

So the condition for first minimum,

a 
⁕The finite width of slits is the basis for understanding Fraunhofer diffraction. sin  
⁕According to Huygens’s principle, each portion of the slit acts as a source of light waves. 2 2
⁕Therefore, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light from another portion. or a sin   
⁕The diffraction pattern is actually an interference pattern. This is satisfied for every pair of rays, one of which is from upper half
⁕The different sources of light are different portions of the single slit. of the slit and the other is a corresponding ray from lower half of the
slit.

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SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION Where are the diffraction Maxima?

At point P2, • After the central maximum the next maximum occurs about
halfway between the first and second minimum.
path difference between
minima a sin   m m=1, 2, 3..
r1 and r2 is (a/4) sin 1
maxima a sin   (m  ) m =1, 2, 3..
So the condition for second minimum, 2
a 
sin   or a sin   2 
4 2
This is satisfied for every pair of rays, separated by a distance a/4.
In general, the condition for m TH minima,
a sin   m  m   1,  2,  3, . . .
There is a secondary maximum approximately half way between
each adjacent pair of minima.

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Position of dark fringes in single-slit diffraction Width of central maximum

•We can define the width of the central maximum to be the distance
m
sin   between the m = +1 minimum and the m=-1 minimum:
a
D D 2 D
If, like the Young’s 2-slit treatment we assume small angles, sin ≈ tan  =ymin/D, then y   
a a a
Dm Positions of intensity
ymin  MINIMA of diffraction the narrower the slit,
a pattern on screen, the more the diffraction
measured from central pattern “spreads out”
position.
a sin θ = λ first minima
Very similar to expression derived for 2-slit experiment:
If we narrow the slit the
m Intensity image of diffraction angle must get bigger -
ym  D But remember, in this case ym are positions of MAXIMA
distribution pattern more flaring
d In interference pattern
- what happens when a
= λ?

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SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION

Problem: 1 Problem: 2
In P-1, what is the wavelength ’ of the light whose first
A slit of width a is illuminated by white light. For what value
diffraction maximum (not counting the central maximum)
of a does the minimum for red light ( = 650nm) fall at  =
falls at 15o, thus coinciding with the first minimum of red
15o?
light?

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SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION

Problem: E42-5 • Aim is to find an expression for the intensity of the entire
pattern as a function of the diffraction angle.
A single slit is illuminated by light whose wavelengths are
• The phase difference between two waves arriving at point P
a and b, so chosen that the first diffraction minimum of
a component coincides with the second minimum of the from two points on the slit (with separation x) is,
b component.
(a) What is the relationship between the two 2
   x sin 
wavelengths? 
(b) Do any other minima in the two patterns coincide?

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Each strip acts as a At point P - any pair of

source of coherent adjacent strips have the
radiation of same (constant) phase
Huygens wavelets, difference Δф

r1 and each phase difference path difference


contributes an 2 
r2
incremental electric 2
Or    x sin 
field of magnitude 
δE0 at some point
on the screen.

All the light from a

given strip arrives Where δx sinθ –path difference for rays originating from corresponding points
Slit width ‘a’ can be thought of as being divided into
at point P0 with the of adjacent strips.; Δφ-phase difference between adjacent rays.
N parallel strips, each of width δx φ- phase difference between top and bottom rays.
same phase.
a = N δx , is the width of the slit

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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION

To find the total electric field at a point (P) on the screen due to
the superposition of N vectors of the same amplitude, each differing Phasor showing
in phase from the next by Δф:
a) Central maximum
“Find the resultant phasor amplitude Eθ by adding the contributions
from all the strips” b) A direction slightly shifted
from central maximum
Note: The resultant electric field c) First minimum
Eθ varies with θ,because the
d) First maximum beyond the
phase difference Δф varies with θ.
central maximum
(corresponds to N = 18)

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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION

From diagram,
  is the phase difference
E   2 R sin
2 between rays from the top
Em
Also   and bottom of the slit.
R
Combining, So we can write,
E  2
E   m sin  a sin 
 2 
2  a
sin  So,    sin 
Or , E   E m 2 


where  
2

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2
INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION  sin   Maxima lie approximately
I   I m  halfway between the
  
2
 sin  
The intensity    E 2  E m2   minima
  
2
 sin  
  m   where  m  E m is the max. intensity
2

   Intensity minima occur

From the above eqn., for minima, sin   0 Intensity maxima occur
   m  where m   1,  2,  3,..... when phase difference:
when phase difference:
or, a sin   m  where m   1,  2,  3,..... sinα=0, or α =m π
α =(m +1/2)π (maxima)
(minima) Or the path difference:
Or the path difference:
a sinθ = (m+1/2)λ (maxima)
a sinθ= m λ (minima)
m= ±1,±2, ±3………
m= ±1,±2, ±3……

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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
The intensity distribution in
single-slit diffraction for three
different values of the ratio a/
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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
Problem: SP42-4
Find the width  of the central maximum in a single slit
Fraunhofer diffraction. The width can be represented as the
angle between the two points in the pattern where the
intensity is one-half that at the center of the pattern.
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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
Problem: SP42-3
Calculate, approximately, the relative intensities of the
maxima in the single slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
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INTENSITY IN SINGLE – SLIT DIFFRACTION
Problem: E42-11
Monochromatic light with wavelength 538 nm falls on a slit
with width 25.2m. The distance from the slit to a screen is
3.48m. Consider a point on the screen 1.13cm from the
central maximum. Calculate (a)  (b)  (c) ratio of the
intensity at this point to the intensity at the central
maximum.
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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND In case of double slit experiment:

DIFFRACTION Each of the two slit has a finite width and
the light is diffracted through it in a single slit diffraction pattern

1.Young’s double-slit experiment is an idealized
situation in which slits were assumed to be very narrow
(a << λ).
2.This cannot occur with actual slits because the
condition a << λ cannot usually be met.
Usually, the width of each of the slits (a) is quite a bit less than the
separation (d) between their centers
Two single slit diffraction pattern is to be superposed
to get the final intensity
The final result can be obtained by drawing a two slit interference
pattern inside the envelope of a single slit diffraction pattern

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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED
Substituti ng this in eqn( A ), we get,
Interference

sin  cos 
I  , INT  I m, INT cos 2
β  2
From sin gle  slit diffractio n, we have,
the electric amplitude at P due to one slit,
 sin  
Diffraction 2 E1  Em  
 sin α    
I  , DIF   m, DIF  α 
    sin  
 E   2E1 sin ie, E   ( 2Em )  cos 
2   
2
 sin  
     m (cos )2  
  
Interference + Diffraction
 sin α
2 DOUBLE-SLIT
I  m cos 2   INTERFERENCE PATTERN
SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION
 α 
PATTERN

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Diffraction and Interference by a double slit DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

I = I (double slit interference) x I(diffraction) Problem: SP42- 6

sin2 
I( )  Im cos2 ( ) 
2 In a double slit experiment, the distance D of the screen
DOUBLE-SLIT
INTERFERENCE PATTERN
SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION from the slits is 52cm, the wavelength is 480nm, slit
PATTERN
separation d is 0.12mm and the slit width a is 0.025mm.
 d sin  a) What is the spacing between adjacent fringes?
 dsin  =m  m =0,1,2.. maxima

b) What is the distance from the central maximum to the
a sin 
 asin  = m  m = 1,2, 3.. minima first minimum of the fringe envelope?


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DOUBLE-SLIT INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION COMBINED

Problem: SP42- 7

What requirements must be met for the central maximum

of the envelope of the double-slit interference pattern to
contain exactly 11 fringes?

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Interference pattern from 3 slits

MULTIPLE SLITS: Width of the Central maximum

53 54

For N slits, intensity of the primary maxima is N 2 times greater than that due to a
single slit.

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MULTIPLE SLITS

Multiple slit arrangement

will be the interference
pattern multiplied by the
single slit diffraction
envelope. This assumes
For N slits, intensity of the primary maxima is N 2 times greater than that due to a that all the slits are
single slit.
As the number of slits increases, the primary maxima increase in intensity and become identical.
narrower, while the secondary maxima decrease in intensity
As number of slits increases, number of secondary maxima also increases. In fact,
the number of secondary maxima is always N - 2, where N is the number of slits.

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MULTIPLE SLITS MULTIPLE SLITS

Condition for principal

maxima,
d sin  = m 
where d is the
separation between Intensity pattern for
adjacent slits. (a) Two-slit diffraction
(b) Five-slit diffraction
Location of principal (diffraction effect is
maxima is independent neglected)

of number of slits.

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MULTIPLE SLITS MULTIPLE SLITS

Width of the maxima: Central maximum
 The pattern contains central maximum with minima on Width of the maxima: Central maximum
either side.
 At the location of central maximum, the phase difference    
L    
between the waves from the adjacent slits is zero.  2  N
 At minima, the phase difference is such that,
 Also we know,
2  L  d sin  0
  where N is the number of slits
N
 From the equation, for given  and
 d sin  0
 Corresponding path difference is, N d if we increase number of slits (N),
 then the angular width of principal
    sin  0 
L     Nd maximum decreases. ie the
 2   N principal maximum becomes

 0  sharper.
Nd
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MULTIPLE SLITS MULTIPLE SLITS

Width of the maxima: Other principal maxima Width of the maxima: Other principal maxima
λ
d sinθ  θ  mλ 
For the mth principal N
maximum at  by a   
grating: d sin = m . d sin  cos
   cos  sin
   m 
   N
For the first minimum 1
at  +  after the mth d   d cos   
sin  m   N
principal maximum 
m   d cos      m   N
 ANGULAR HALF WIDTH OF mTH
 
λ N d cos  PRINCIPAL MAXIMUM AT 
d sinθ  θ  mλ 
N The principal maximum become sharper as
MINIMUM AT θ MINIMUM AT θ
+θ number of slits (N) increases +θ

mth PRINCIPAL mth PRINCIPAL

MAXIMUM AT θ MAXIMUM AT θ

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MULTIPLE SLITS MULTIPLE SLITS

Problem: SP43- 1 Problem: E43-5

A certain grating has 104 slits with a spacing of d = 2100 nm.
It is illuminated with yellow sodium light ( = 589 nm). Find
(a) the angular position of all principal maxima observed
and (b) the angular width of the largest order maximum.
Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a
diffraction grating. Two adjacent principal maxima occur at sin
 = 0.20 and sin  = 0.30. The fourth order is missing. (a) what
is the separation between adjacent slits? (b) what is the
smallest possible individual slit width? (c) Name all orders
actually appearing on the screen with the values derived in (a)
and (b).

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Grating contains : greater

number of slits, or rulings,
as many as several 1000
per millimeter

67 68

Diffraction Gratings
Grating contains : greater number of slits,
or rulings, as many as several 1000 per
millimeter
Light passed through the grating forms
narrow interference fringes that can be
analyzed to determine the wavelength
As the number of rulings increases beyond 2
the intensity plot changes from that of a
double slit pattern to one with very narrow
maxima (called lines) surrounded by
relatively wide dark regions
69
the condition for
interference maxima at a
specific angle () is
We can use this expression
to calculate the wavelength
if we know the grating
spacing d and the angle ().
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DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
The diffraction grating, a useful device for analyzing light sources,
consists of a large number of equally spaced parallel slits.
 A transmission grating can be made by cutting parallel grooves on
a glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between
the grooves are transparent to the light and hence act as separate
slits.
 A reflection grating can be made
by cutting parallel grooves
on the surface of a reflective
material.
The reflection of light from
the spaces between the grooves
is specular, and the reflection
from the grooves cut into
the material is diffuse. 70
70
If the incident radiation contains several
wavelengths, the mth-order maximum
for each wavelength occurs at
a specific angle.
All wavelengths are seen at  = 0,
corresponding to m = 0, the
zeroth-order maximum.
The first-order maximum (m = 1) is
observed at an angle that satisfies
the relationship sin  = λ/d.
The second-order maximum (m =2) is
observed at a larger angle , and so on.
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DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

Grating spectrometer

m=0 m=1 m=2 m=3

Sample spectra of visible light emitted by a gaseous source

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DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

Problem: SP43-2

A diffraction grating has 1.20 x 104 rulings uniformly

spaced over W= 2.50cm. It is illuminated at normal
incidence by yellow light from sodium vapor lamp which
contains two closely spaced lines of wavelengths 589.0nm
and 589.59nm. (a) At what angle will the first order
maximum occur for the first of these wavelengths? (b)
What is the angular separation between the first order
maxima of these lines? (c) How close in wavelength can
two lines be (in first order) and still be resolved by this
grating? (d) How many rulings can a grating have and just
resolve the sodium doublet lines?

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DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
Problem: E43-9
Given a grating with 400 rulings/mm, how many orders of
the entire visible spectrum (400-700nm) can be produced?
A grating has 315 rulings / mm. For what wavelengths in the
visible spectrum can fifth-order diffraction be observed?
77
QUESTIONS – DIFFRACTION
Discuss the diffraction due to single-slit. Obtain the
locations of the minima and maxima qualitatively.
Obtain an expression for the intensity in single-slit
diffraction pattern, using phasor-diagram.
Calculate, approximately, the relative intensities of the first
three secondary maxima in the single-slit diffraction
pattern.
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DIFFRACTION GRATINGS
Problem: E43-11
White light (400 nm <  < 700 nm) is incident on a grating .
Show that, no matter what the value of the grating spacing d,
the second- and third-order spectra overlap.
78
QUESTIONS – DIFFRACTION
Obtain an expression for the intensity in double-slit
diffraction pattern, using phasor-diagram.
Discuss qualitatively the diffraction due to multiple slits
(eg, 5 slits).
Obtain an expression for the width of the central
maximum in diffraction pattern due to multiple slits.
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QUESTIONS – DIFFRACTION

Obtain an expression for the width of a principal

maximum at an angle in diffraction pattern due to
multiple slits.

Obtain an expression for dispersion by a diffraction

grating.

81