MICP211 Prelim Reviewer (Lecture)
WEEK 1: SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY
WHAT IS MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY?
 Microbiology is the study of the biology of microscopic
organisms’ viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, slime molds,
and protozoa.
 Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the
relationship between them.
ORGANISMS THAT MAKE-UP THE MICROBIAL WORLD
 GERM is derived from the Latin word germen, which
means to sprout or germinate. First applied to bacteria
in the nineteenth century to explain disease-causing
cells that grew quickly.
 MICROBES, often known as microorganisms, are
microscopic living organisms that are visible only with a
microscope
 MICROBIOLOGY is the study of all living organisms that
are too small to be visible with the naked eye. This
includes bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions,
protozoa, and algae, collectively known as 'microbes'.
EVOLUTION OF MICROBIOLOGY (THE DEVELOPMENT OF
MICROBIOLOGY) PIONEERS IN THE SCIENCE OF MICROBIOLOGY:
 ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632–1723)
o Referred to as the “Father of Microbiology,” the
“Father of Bacteriology,” and the “Father of
Protozoology”.
o he ground tiny glass lenses, which he mounted in
small metal frames, thus creating what today are
known as single-lens microscopes or simple
microscopes. In many of these specimens, he
observed various tiny living creatures, which he
called “animalcules.”
 LOUIS PASTEUR (1822–1895).
o Discovered forms of life that could exist in the
absence of oxygen. He introduced the terms
“aerobes” (organisms that require oxygen) and
“anaerobes” (organisms that do not require
oxygen).
o Developed a process (today known as
pasteurization) to kill microbes that were causing
wine to spoilage.
o Developed a vaccine to prevent rabies in dogs
and successfully used the vaccine to treat human
rabies.
o Discovered what occurs during alcoholic
fermentation. He also demonstrated that different
types of microbes produce different fermentation
products. For example, yeasts convert the glucose
in grapes to ethyl alcohol (ethanol) by
fermentation, but certain contaminating bacteria,
such as Acetobacter, convert glucose to acetic
acid (vinegar) by fermentation, thus, ruining the
taste of the wine.
 JOSEPH LISTER (1827-1912)
o During the 1860s Joseph Lister, an English surgeon,
reasoned that surgical infection (sepsis) might be
caused by microorganisms.
o (Sepsis = The condition resulting from the presence
of pathogenic microbes or their products in blood
or tissues.)
o Devised methods to prevent microbes from
entering the wounds of his patients. His procedures
came to be known as antiseptic (against sepsis)
surgery, and included handwashing, sterilizing
instruments, and dressing wounds with carbolic acid
(phenol).
o was a British surgeon, medical scientist,
experimental pathologist and a pioneer of
antiseptic surgery and preventative medicine.
o revolutionized the craft of surgery in the same
manner that John Hunter revolutionized the science
of surgery.
 IGNAZ PHILLIP SEMMELWEIS (1818-1865)
o About this same time (1840s), a physician began
using antiseptic procedures to prevent "childbirth"
or puerperal fever (a serious and often fatal disease
associated with infection contracted during
delivery
o A Hungarian physician and scientist, who was an
early pioneer of antiseptic procedures.
o Described as the "savior of mothers", he discovered
that the incidence of puerperal fever (also known
as "childbed fever") could be drastically reduced by
requiring hand disinfection in obstetrical clinics.
Puerperal fever was common in mid-19th-century
hospitals and often fatal.
o He proposed the practice of washing hands with
chlorinated lime solutions in 1847 while working in
Vienna General Hospital's First Obstetrical Clinic,
where doctors' wards had three times the mortality
of midwives' wards. He published a book of his
findings in Etiology, Concept and Prophylaxis of
Childbed Fever.
 ROBERT KOCH (1843-1910)
o Direct evidence demonstrating that bacteria were
disease-causing agents (etiological agents) was
provided by Robert Koch, a German physician, in
1867.
o Koch was working with a disease of sheep and
cattle called anthrax and determined the
causative agent to be a type of bacteria he called
Bacillus anthracis.
o Koch established a sequence of experimental steps
that could be used to demonstrate beyond a
doubt that a specific type of microorganism was
responsible for a specific disease. These came to be
known as Koch's postulates.
o Made many significant contributions to the germ
theory of disease. For example, he proved that the
anthrax bacillus (B. anthracis), which had been
discovered earlier by other scientists, was truly the
cause of anthrax.
o He accomplished this using a series of scientific
steps that he and his colleagues had developed;
these steps later became known as Koch’s
Postulates.
 Koch discovered that B. anthracis produces
spores, capable of resisting adverse conditions.
 Koch developed methods of fixing, staining,
and photographing bacteria.
 Koch’s work on tuberculin (a protein derived
from M. tuberculosis) ultimately led to the
development of a skin test valuable in
diagnosing tuberculosis.
 RICHARD J. PETRI (1852-1921
o A German microbiologist. Developed the Petri dish
in which microbial cultures could be grown and
manipulated.
o Assistant of Robert Koch
 FANNY HESSE (1850-1934)
o Developed the use of agar as a solidifying agent for
microbiological media.
 HANS CHRISTIAN GRAM (1853-1938)
o Developed the Gram stain, a stain technique that
could be used to separate two major groups of
disease-causing bacteria.
 EDWARD JENNER (1749-1843)
o In 1796, Edward Jenner (a British Physician) reported
the use of material scraped from the skin of an
individual infected with cowpox to immunize a child
against smallpox.
 PAUL EHRLICH (1854-1915)
o A German physician by the name of Paul Ehrlich
searched for a “magic bullet”, and in around 1910
developed the first effective cure for a bacterial
disease.
o was a Nobel Prize-winning German physician and
scientist who worked in the fields of hematology,
immunology, and antimicrobial chemotherapy.
Among his foremost achievements were finding a
cure for syphilis in 1909 and inventing the precursor
technique to Gram staining bacteria. The methods
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 MICP211 Prelim Reviewer (Lecture)
he developed for staining tissue made it possible to ORGANISMS AND BIOLOGICAL ENTITIES STUDIED BY
distinguish. between different types of blood cells, MICROBIOLOGISTS CAN BE:
which led to the ability to diagnose numerous blood
diseases.
o The drug he developed was called salvarsan and
was an arsenic compound that was effective
against “syphilis”.
 ALEXANDER FLEMING (1881-1955)
o A short time later (1928), Alexander Fleming, a
Scottish physician, discovered penicillin.
o best known for discovering the world's first broadly
effective antibiotic substance, which he named
penicillin. TWO TYPES OF CELLULAR MICROBES
o Noticed that mold growing on one of his culture  EUKARYOTES – cells where genomes not contained
plates inhibited the growth of bacteria there, and within a nucleus. Include such microorganisms as fungi,
eventually isolated the substance responsible. protozoa, and simple algae. Eukaryotic cells are larger
and more complex than prokaryotic cells. They contain
MICROORGANISMS variety of cellular bodies called organelles.
 It is an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in  PROKARYOTES - genome contained in a nucleus; are
its single-celled form or as a colony of cells. probably the smallest living organisms. They can range
 The two major categories of microbes are called in size from 0.15 μm (mycoplasmas) to 2.0 microscopic
acellular microbes (also called infectious particles) and (many of the bacteria). Some bacteria have a comma
cellular microbes (also called microorganisms). shape (vibrio) or a flexible, wavy shape (spirochete).

TWO TYPES OF MICROBES

 Acellular microbes
o lacking cellular organization; not delimited by
cytoplasmic membrane (viruses, viroid, virusoids,
prions).
o CANNOT BE SEEN IN A LIGHT MICROSCOPE. Include
viruses and prions.
 Cellular microbes
o cytoplasmic membrane present. Broken into
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
o includes all bacteria, all archaea, some algae, all BACTERIA
protozoa, and some fungi.  are prokaryotic organisms with no nucleus or nuclear
membrane in their cells. It takes the form of rods (bacilli),
Character Unicellular Multicellular spheres (cocci), or spirals (spirals) (spirilla or spirochetes).
Organism Organisms It reproduces through binary fission, has unique
Cell single cell. multiple cells.
ingredients in its cell walls, and can be found in nearly all
Shape irregular in shape. well-defined.
of the world’s ecosystems. It can survive in temperatures
Size small. large.
ranging from 0° to 100°C and in oxygen-rich or oxygen-
Nature Microscopic. Macroscopic. depleted environments.
Cell type It includes only eukaryotic cell FUNGUS
organisms having types.  Eukaryotic microorganisms such as multicellular molds
both prokaryotic and unicellular (single-celled) yeasts are classified as
and eukaryotic cell fungi. Yeasts are slightly larger than bacteria and are
types
employed in the production of alcoholic beverages and
Cell simple. complex.
bread. Candida albicans, for example, is a pathogenic
organization
yeast (disease causing). Molds are filamentous,
Cell Generally, absent, Specialized cell
differentiation but unicellular differentiation Occurs branching fungus that reproduce through spores. The
yeasts may fungi prefer acidic surroundings, and the majority of
undergo them can survive at ambient temperature in an oxygen-
differentiation rich environment. A fungus is what the common
Life span Short Longer mushroom.
Evolution The oldest life forms These evolved from PROTOZOA
evolved 3.8-4 the prokaryotes  are unicellular eukaryotic creatures. Many species have
billion years ago a feature of movement, and protozoa can be classed
Operational low High according on how they move: Some protozoa have
efficiency flagella, whereas others have cilia or pseudopodia.
Reproduction occurs via budding occurs via gamete Some animals are not mobile. Because they lack cell
and binary fission Fusion walls, protozoa can take on an unlimited number of
Regeneration greater tendency low shapes. Malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery, and
ability to regenerate. regeneration ability toxoplasmosis are all caused by different species
Examples Bacteria, Humans, Animals,
ALGAE
Protozoans, Plants, etc.
 refers to a wide range of plant-like creatures. Several
Unicellular
species of single celled algae are essential in
amoeba, etc.
microbiology. Their cells are surrounded by cell walls
made of cellulose, a type of carbohydrate. Diatoms and
dinoflagellates, which live in the oceans and are found
at the bottom of marine food chains, are examples. In
the process of photosynthesis, most algae catch sunlight
and convert it to chemical energy in the form of
carbohydrates.

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VIRUSES
 are tiny amounts of genetic material (DNA or RNA)
encased in a protein shell and, occasionally, a
membranous envelope. Because viruses lack a
metabolism, interfering with their structures or activities
with medications is challenging. Viruses reproduce in
living cells utilize cells’ chemical machinery for their own
purposes. In process of duplicating, they frequently
damage the cell.
BACTERIOPHAGES
 A special type of virus that infects primarily bacteria.
MICROORGANISM THAT CAUSES THE FOLLOWING INFECTIONS:
1. Streptococcus pneumoniae = Bacteria
2. Escherichia coli = Bacteria
3. Amoeba = Protozoa
4. Rhabdoviridae = viruses
5. Candida infection = Fungi
6. HIV = Viruses
7. Pneumocystis = Fungi
DIVISION OF MICROBIOLOGY (Branches)
 PURE MICROBIOLOGY
o Organisms are thoroughly investigated. It can be
subdivided further.
 APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY
o Organisms themselves are not examined in applied
microbiology; rather, they are applied to a specific
process.
PURE MICROBIOLOGY
 Microbial cytology Study of microorganisms'
microscopic and submicroscopic features
 Microbial physiology Study of how the biochemistry of a
microbial cell works. Includes the study of microbial
growth, microbial metabolism, and microbial cell
structure.
 Microbial pathogenesis Study of the process by which a
microorganism causes a disease.
 Microbial Ecology Relationship between
microorganisms and their environment
 Cellular Microbiology Reveals how pathogenic
microorganism interacts with host cells in what is turning
out to be a complex evolutionary battle of competing
gene products.
 Microbial Genetics Study of how genes are structured
and regulated in microbes in relation to their cellular
functions Closely related to the field of molecular
biology.
 Evolutionary Microbiology Study of microbial evolution.
This field can be classified into the following categories:
o Microbial systematics. Study of microbial diversity
and genetic relationships.
o Microbial taxonomy. Science of naming and
classifying microbes
 Generation Microbiology Study of those microorganisms
that have the same characters as their parents.
 Phylogeny Study of the genetic relationships between
different organisms.
 Systems microbiology Bridge systems biology and
microbiology.
 Astro microbiology Study of microorganisms in outer
space.
 Biological Agent Study of those microorganisms which
are being used in weapon industries.
 Nano microbiology Study of those microscopic
organisms on nano level.
 Predictive microbiology Quantification of relations
between controlling factors in foods and responses of
pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms using
mathematical modelling.
APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY
 Medical microbiology Study of the pathogenic
microbes and the role of microbes in human illness.
Includes the study of microbial pathogenesis and
epidemiology and is related to the study of disease
pathology and immunology. This area of microbiology
also covers the study of human microbiota, cancer, and
the tumor micro environment.
 Pharmaceutical microbiology Study of microorganisms
that involved in the manufacturing of antibiotics,
enzymes, vitamins, vaccines, and other pharmaceutical
goods that cause pharmaceutical contamination and
spoil.
 Industrial microbiology Explore microbes for use in
industrial processes. Examples include industrial
fermentation and wastewater treatment. Closely linked
to the biotechnology industry. This field also includes
brewing, an important application of microbiology.
 Microbial biotechnology Manipulation of
microorganisms at the genetic and molecular level to
generate useful products.
 Food microbiology.Study of microorganisms causing
food spoilage and foodborne illness. Using
microorganisms to produce foods, for example by
fermentation.
 Agricultural microbiology Study of agriculturally relevant
microorganisms. This field can be further classified into
the following:
o Plant microbiology and Plant pathology – Study of
the interactions between microorganisms and
plants and plant pathogens.
o Soil microbiology - Study of those microorganisms
that are found in soil
 Veterinary microbiology. Study of the role of microbes in
veterinary medicine or animal taxonomy.
 Environmental microbiology Study of the function and
diversity of microbes in their natural environments. This
involves the characterization of key bacterial habitats
such as the rhizosphere and phyllo sphere, soil and
groundwater ecosystems, open oceans or extreme
environments (extremophiles). This field includes other
branches of microbiology such
o Microbial ecology
o Microbially mediated nutrient cycling
o Geomicrobiology
o Microbial diversity
o Bioremediation. Use of micro-organisms to clean
air, water and soil
 Water microbiology (or aquatic microbiology). Study of
those microorganisms that are found in water
 Aero microbiology (or air microbiology). Study of
airborne microorganisms.
 Biotechnology Related to recombinant DNA technology
or genetic engineering.
MICROBIOLOGY CAN BE ALSO CLASSIFIED BASED ON TAXONOMY.
BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY BY TAXONOMY
ARE:
 Bacteriology - Study of bacteria.
 Immunology - Study of the immune system. It looks at the
relationships between pathogens such as bacteria and
viruses and their hosts.
 Mycology - Study of fungi, such as yeasts and molds.
 Nematology - Study of nematodes (roundworms).
 Parasitology - Study of parasites. Not all parasites are
microorganisms. Protozoa and bacteria can be
parasitic; the study of bacterial parasites is usually
categorized as part of bacteriology.
 Phycology - Study of algae.
 Protozoology - Study of protozoa, single-celled
organisms like amoebae.
 Virology – Study of viruses
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF MICROBIOLOGY
❑ Genetic Engineering. Engineered microorganisms are used to
make hormones, antibiotics, vaccines and other products. New
genes can be inserted into plants and animals.
❑ Biotechnology. Commercial applications include the synthesis
of acetone, organic acids, enzymes, alcohols and many drugs.
❑ Biological Warfare. Also known as germ warfare, is the use of
biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses,
insects, and fungi with the intent to kill, harm or incapacitate
humans
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❑ Microbial Ecology. Recycling Vital Elements. Martinus Beijerinck  The time it takes for one bacterial cell to split into two
and Sergei Winograd sky were the first to show how bacteria help cells is referred to as that organism’s generation time
recycle vital elements between the soil and the atmosphere. Bacteria Basic Shapes.
❑ Microbial ecology, the study of the relationship between  Bacteria come in three basic shapes: spherical (cocci),
microorganisms and their environment rod-shaped (bacilli), and spiral-shaped (spirilli)
 Microbes are essential for life. Some produce oxygen by (sometimes referred to as spirilla).
the process photosynthesis. Variety Of Morphologic Arrangements.
Ex. algae & cyanobacteria (group of photosynthetic  Following binary fission, the daughter cells can either
bacteria that produce oxygen). separate or remain connected, resulting in a variety of
 Plenty of microbes are involved in the decomposition of morphologic arrangements. The specifics are as follows:
dead organisms and the waste products of living DESCRIPTION IMAGE EXAMPLES
organisms. Collectively, they are referred to as Diplococci-  Streptococcus
decomposers or saprophytes. A saprophyte is an (diplococcus) pneumonia,
organism that lives on dead or decaying organic matter. Cocci that  Moraxella
❑ Medical microbiology is important because it aids in detection, divide and catarrhalis,
remain attached  Enterococcus spp,
isolation, diagnosis, and treatment of pathogenic bacteria, as
in pairs.  Neisseria
well as the production of helpful organisms such as yeasts and gonorrhea
antibiotics. Streptococci -  Streptococcus
 There are 500 to 1,000 different species of bacteria on (streptobacillus) pyogenes,
and in humans, according to estimates. They are known Rods that remain  Streptococcus
as our indigenous microflora (also known as our attached in pneumonia,
indigenous microbiota). Mostly beneficial to us. chains after cell  Streptococcus
 Opportunistic pathogens are microbes that colonize division.
(inhabit) human body. Although these microbes usually Staphylococci  Staphylococcus
do not cause problems, if they gain access to a part of (staphylococcus epidermidis,
the body where they are not supposed to be. they might ) Cocci in a  Staphylococcus
cause diseases. grapelike cluster haemolyticus,
or broad sheet.  Staphylococcus
 Microbes that cause disease are known as pathogens.
aureus,
Those that do not cause disease are called
 Staphylococcus
nonpathogens.
Tetrad - A group  Aerococcus
 Disease-causing microorganisms are technically known of four cocc  Pediococcus
as pathogens (also referred to as infectious agents).  Tetragenococcus
Only around 3% of known microorganisms can cause Sarcina / Octad -  Sarcina
disease. Thus, nonpathogens— microorganisms that do (plural: sarcinae) aurantiaca,
not cause disease— make up the vast majority of known A group of  Sarcina lutea,
microbes eight bacteria  Sarcina ventriculi
that remain in a
MICROBES THAT CAUSE DISEASE ARE KNOWN AS PATHOGENS packet after
LET’S DO A BRIEF EXERCISE: WHICH TYPE OF MICROORGANISM Coccobacilli -  Chlamydia
CAUSES THESE? (plural:coccoba trachomatis,
1. Covid - 19 infection = viruses cilli) A bacterium  Haemophilus
2. Tuberculosis = bacteria that is an oval influenza,
 Gardnerella
3. MRSA = bacteria
Diplobacilli -  Coxiella burnetii,
4. Dandruff = fungi
(singular:  Klebsiella
5. Red Tide infection = algae
diplobacillus) rhinoscleromatis,
6. Trichomoniasis = protozoa Rods that divide  Moraxella
7. Measles = viruses and remain
attached in pairs
WEEK 2: BACTERIAL MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH Streptobacilli -  Streptobacillus
REQUIREMENTS (singular: moniliformis,
streptobacillus)  Streptobacillus
Rods that remain Levaditi,
BACTERIA attached in  Streptobacillus
 are metabolically active single-celled prokaryotic chains after cell felis,
bacteria that divide by binary fission. Some of these division.  Streptobacillus
organisms have an important role in disease hongkongensi
pathogenesis. Some species can survive in severe Palisade -  Corynebacterium
temperatures and pressures. picket fence-like diphtheria that
shape due to a causes diphtheria
BACTERIAL MORPHOL bend at the site
 The size, shape, and morphologic arrangement of of division during
various bacteria can be easily viewed with a compound cell division;
light microscope. bacilli stack up
next to each
Bacteria size
other, side by
 spheres measurement usually ranges from about 0.2 um
Vibrio  Vibrio mytili,
in diameter to 10.0 um–long spiral-shaped bacteria, to
These are the  Vibrio anguillarum,
even longer filamentous bacteria. comma- shaped  Vibrio
 average coccus is about 1 um in diameter bacteria that are parahaemolyticus,
 average bacillus is about 1 um wide x3 um long slightly bent  Vibrio
 Bacteria range in size from 0.2 to 5 micrometers. Spirochetes  Leptospiraspecies
 The tiniest bacteria (Mycoplasma) are about the same - are spiral (Leptospirinterroga
size as the largest viruses (poxviruses) and are the tiniest bacteria that ns),
organisms capable of surviving outside of a host. The have a helical  Treponema
longest bacteria rods are the size of some yeasts and shape. pallidum,
human red blood cells (7 μm) - flexible & have  Borrelia recurrentis
Bacteria reproduction an axial filament
 by binary fission - bacteria divide; one cell splits in half which helps in
motility.
to become two daughter.
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- These filaments ENVELOPE STRUCTURES
are key feature  Glycocalyx (Slime Layers and Capsules)
that distinguishes - A gelatinous polymer surrounding a cell located
spirochetes from outside their cell wall.
other bacteria. o Capsule
- These filaments - An outer, viscous covering on some bacteria
travel the length
composed of a polysaccharide or polypeptide.
of the
- Function: Protects against phagocytosis
bacterium,
highly organized and firmly attached to the cell
aiding in the
twisting of the wall.
bacteria’s o Slime layer
Spirilla (Helical-  Campylobacter - A glycocalyx that is unorganized and loosely
shaped/Corkscr jejuni, attached to the cell wall.
ew form)  Helicobacter - Function: Mediates adherence to surfaces.
- Have a similar pylori,  Cell Wall
structure with  Spirillum - The outermost component of all bacteria is the cell wall
spirochete but winogradskyi. (except Mycoplasma species, which are bounded by a cell
more rigid membrane, not a cell wall).
- like spirochetes, o Murein Sacculus-
have a o Murein or mucopeptide –
flagellum, but
o Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a polymer
they lack the
made up of sugars and amino acids that forms a
endoflagella.
mesh-like peptidoglycan layer outside of most
bacteria's plasma membrane, creating the cell
OTHER SHAPES AND ARRANGEMENTS
wall.
 Appendaged Bacteria
o Murein represents a type of bacterial exoskeleton
> bacteria that produce a distinct structure such as pillus or
known as murein sacculus, that completely
fimbriae.
surrounds the cell.
> Those that produce these appendages are more virulent.
o Function of cell wall: provide rigidity, strength, and
> Example: Neisseria gonorrheae, the agent of Gonorrhea.
protection.
 Pleomorphic Bacteria
> This category includes bacteria that do not have a defined o Both gram positive and gram negative cell walls
contain an ingredient known as peptidoglycan
form.
(also known as murein)
> They can alter shape,, but in pure culture, they appear to
o Gram - positive –
have a definite form.
 Teichoic acids- A polysaccharide found in
> Examples: Mycoplasma pneumoniae, M. genitalium.
gram-positive cell walls.
 Filamentous Bacteria
 Polysaccharides – Carbohydrate consisting of
> These are filament-shaped bacteria that are long, thin.
many sugar units; glycogen, cellulose, and
> sometimes, divide to form branches resembling strands of
starch are examples
hair or spaghetti called mycelium.
> Example: Actinomycetes. o Gram - negative cell -
 Club-shaped Rod Bacteria 1. Outer membrane – gram negative cell wall has
presence of a plasma membrane located outside
> These bacteria are thinner on one side than the other.
of the peptidoglycan layers, known as the outer
> Ex. Corynebacterium.
membrane
 Box-shaped/ Rectangular Bacteria.
2. Lipoprotein - large molecules known as
> Ex. Haloarcula marismortui (not pathogenic); Triangular-
lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which are anchored into
shaped Bacteria. Ex. Haloarcula (saline environments such
the outer membrane and project from the cell into
as salt lakes, marine salterns, and salinesoils); Stalked
the environment. LPS is made up of three different
Bacteria. Possess a stalk on one end of the cell. Ex.
components:
Caulobacter crescentus (found and lakes and streams);
Star-shaped Bacteria. Ex. Stella humosa (found in freshwater, 1) the O-antigen or O- polysaccharide,
soil, and sewage). 2) the core polysaccharide, and
3) lipid
A, Periplasmic space - The space between the
WHAT IS THE GENERAL SHAPE OF THE FOLLOWING BACTERIA?
plasma membrane and outer membrane of Gram-
BACTERIA CHOICES:
negative cell wall is referred to as the periplasmic
1. Streptococcus pyogenesis The cause of strep
space.
throat It is:
o Acid-Fast –
2. Propionibacterium acnes: the reason for acne is a
- Outer-layer is lipid-rich; myolic acids (hydrophobic)
bacillus. It is shaped
3. as: - Inner layer is peptidoglycan
4. Streptococcus pneumoniae is:
PROJECTING STRUCTURES
5. The bacteria that causes leptospirosis is:
 Flagella - (plural: flagella) A thin appendage from the
6. Campylobacter coli has a helical form, which is
cytoplasm to the cell exterior.
referred to as:
 Composed of 3 structural elements, the basal
7. N. gonorrhoeae is also known as gonococcus:
body, the hook and the filament
8. Mycobacterium Tuberculosis is an acid-fast
 The movement of a bacterium toward or away
bacillus. It is a ______ shape.
from a particular stimulus is called taxis. Such stimuli
A. Round B. Rod Spiral
include chemicals (chemotaxis) and light
Classification of Bacteria As To Gram- Staining are gram-positive
or gram–negative. (phototaxis).
Some structures play specific roles, for example: in bacterial o Polar (at one or both poles or ends of the cell).
 If polar, flagella may be monotrichous (a
virulence (capsule), in bacterial identification (cell wall or
single flagellum
flagella), and in targets of antimicrobial agents (cell wall).
 at one pole lophotrichous (a tuft of flagella
Let’s elaborate these structures below:
coming from one pole
 amphitrichous (flagella at both poles of the
cell

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 Peritrichous - Having flagella distributed over  Endospores
the entire cell - A resting structure formed inside some bacteria.
 Atrichous - Bacteria that lack flagella. o Dipicolinic acid (DPA) - Forms complex with
 Function of Flagella: motility calcium ions within endospore core. plays role in
 Pili or Fimbriae endospore heat resistance & in protecting
 Fimbria (plural: fimbriae) An appendage on a endospore genome from UV light
bacterial cell used for attachment. o Sporulation - Process of spore and endospore
 Pilus (plural: pili) An appendage on a bacterial cell formation; also called sporogenesis.
used for conjugation and gliding motility. o Vegetative state - Normally-growing cell that forms
o Pilin - the endospore is called vegetative cell. Spores are
o Common Pili - metabolically inactive & dehydrated. They can
o Conjugation - The transfer of genetic material from remain viable for thousands of years. When
one cell to another involving cell-to-cell contact. exposed to favorable conditions, they can
o Function of Pili / Fimbriae: Adherence to cell germinate into a vegetative cell within 90 minutes
 Axial Filaments o Germination - Process of starting to grow from a
– The structure for motility found in spirochetes; also called spore or endospore
endoflagellum. o Function of endospore: It allows the bacterium to
o Endoflagella - other name produce a dormant and highly resistant cell to
o Bundle of fibrils – preserve the cell's genetic material in times of
o Function: motility extreme stress. Endospores can survive
environmental assaults that would normally kill the
CYTOPLASMIC MEMBRANE bacterium.
- Also called as Cell membrane -
o called as cell sac or plasma membrane too.  Toxins
o Cytoplasm -In a prokaryotic cell, everything inside the o Endotoxins
plasma membrane;  Generated during the breakdown of bacterial
o Functions of Cell Membrane: cell wall when bacteria die
- Selective permeable - The property of a plasma  Activate host complement and coagulation
membrane to allow certain molecules and ions to move cascades
through the membrane while restricting others.  Causes septic shock
- In Aerobe, it is site of:A)Electron transport chain & B) ATP  Non-disease-specific symptoms: Fever, Pain,
production Shock, Fatigue, Discomfort,
-Also contains: : Mitochondria, enzymes for biosynthesis o Exotoxins
of DNA  Produced and secreted
 Can result in severe, disease-specific
INTERNAL STRUCTURES symptoms
 Nucleoid - The region in a bacterial cell containing the  3 main categories: Enterotoxins, Neurotoxins,
chromosome. Cytotoxins
 Single circular, double-stranded DNA –  Examples: Cholera, Botulinum, Diphtheria,
 Function of Nucleiod: contains the chromosome Tetanus
 Mesosomes - an extension of the cell membrane 1. Which structure is responsible for preventing bacteria from
presence in cytoplasm as infolding being consumed by white blood cells?
 Cell division - The bacterial cell cycle can be Capsule
arbitrarily divided into two segments: a DNA cycle Pilus
that includes DNA replication and chromosome Flagella
segregation 2. In conjugation and gliding motility, which structure is involved?
 Bacterial binary fission is the process that bacteria Capsule
use to carry out cell division. Pilus
 Function of mesosomes: serve in DNA replication Flagella
and guide distribution of duplicated bacterial 3. What is the name of an organism that breaths only in the
chromosomes into the two daughter cells during presence of oxygen? Obligate aerobes
cell division. They also carry the enzymes for Obligate anaerobes
aerobic respiration and increase the surface area Microaerophiles
for the 4. Oxygen is required for growth but when the level is too high,
 Ribosomes - Tiny spherical organelles that make proteins growth comes to a
by joining amino acids together. halt.
 Bacterial ribosomes are composed of two Obligate aerobes
subunits with densities of 50S and 30S. Obligate anaerobes
o 70s protein - All prokaryotes have 70S Microaerophiles
(where S=Svedberg units) ribosomes The 5. Which of the following allows the bacterium to produce a
70S ribosome is made up of a 50S and 30S dormant state? Endospore
subunits. Granules
o Svedberg - he Svedberg unit (S) offers a Ribosomes
measure of particle size based on its rate 6. Which of these can be used as a storage area? Endospore-
of travel in a tube subjected to high g- Granules
force. Ribosomes
o Function of Ribosomes: for protein 7. Which of the following have the categories Enterotoxins,
synthesis whereby they receive and Neurotoxins, and
translate genetic instructions for the Cytotoxins?
formation of specific proteins Endotoxin
 Granules or inclusion Bodies Exotoxin
– A granule or viral particle in cytoplasm or nucleus of some
infected cells; important in the identification of viruses
 Function of inclusion bodies: serve as storage
vessels. Glycogen is stored as a reserve of
carbohydrates and energy that causes
infection.

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 MICP211 Prelim Reviewer (Lecture)
BACTERIAL GROWTH REQUIREMENT  Moraxella, and the species epithet denotes that it was
Nutritional Requirement of Bacteria are as follows: isolated from cow.
1. Carbon  Bacterial names are international and Latin or latinized
Greek are used to form thename.
 The scientific name of the species is always written in
italics when the genus name and species epithet are
combined.
 You can abbreviate the genus name after it has been
written for the first time in a text, e.g. M. bovis. However,
note that there are also bacteria called
Mycoplasmabovis and Mycobacterium

TERMINOLOGIES:
 Atmospheric Requirement -
2. Nitrogen, sulfur, Phosphorous - is used in protein/amino  Biochemical Activities -
acid synthesis and nucleic acid and polymerization.  Biofilm - a complex aggregation of microbes.
3. Inorganic ions - is essential for nucleic acid synthesis and  Colony -Emerging infectious disease -
formation of phospholipids. Small amounts of inorganic  Genetic Composition -
ions are required by all bacteria e.g: sulfur, phosphorus,  Growth - an orderly and organized increased in the sum
4. potassium, magnesium and calcium. of all components of the organism.
5. Growth factors - Present in certain amino acids such as  Metabolic Activities -
cysteine and methionine.  Monomorphic - Having a single shape; most bacteria
✓ Some bacteria cannot synthesize some cell always present with a genetically determined shape.
constituents  Morphology -
o These must be added to growth environment  Motility -
o Referred to as growth factors  Nutritional Requirements -
✓ Organisms can display wide variety of factor  Pathogenicity -
requirements  Resistance - ability to ward off diseases.
o Some need very few while others require many.  Sarcina (plural: sarcinae)
o These termed fastidious. (1) A group of eight bacteria that remain in a packet
✓ Typical molecules after dividing.
o Amino Acids (2) When written as a genus, refers to gram positive,
o Nucleotide Bases anaerobic cocci.
o Enzymatic cofactors or “vitamins”  Staining -
 Streptococci (singular: streptococcus)
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS ARE THE FOLLOWING: (1) Cocci that remain attached in chains after cell
1. Moisture / Water division.
o Water is a medium in which bacteria acquire (2) When written as a genus, refers to gram positive,
nutrients catalase-negative
2. Oxygen
o Obligate aerobes (aerophilic) WEEK 3: MEDICAL AND SURGICAL
o Obligate anaerobes
o Microaerophiles MEDICAL AND SURGICAL
o Facultative anaerobs  Sepsis is a clinical condition where infectious agents are
3. Temperature spread throughout the individual's body from a localized
o Mesophiles site of infection and manifest with symptoms of organ
o Psychrotrophs damage.
o Psychrophiles  Asepsis refers to a condition in which the individual and
o Psychrophiles his surrounding environment are free of any
o Hyperthermophiles microorganisms.
4. pH o The goals of asepsis are to protect the patient from
o Neutrophiles nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections and to
o Alkaliphiles keep pathogenic microorganisms from spreading.
o Acidophilic o There are two forms of asepsis: medical asepsis
5. Osmotic Condition and surgical asepsis.
o Hypotonic MEDICAL ASEPSIS
o Isotonic  The reduction of disease-causing agents and their
o Hypertonic spread
o halophile:  Clean technique
o Facultative SURGICAL ASEPSIS
 The complete eradication of disease-causing agents
BACTERIAL GROWTH CURVE and their spores from an object.
represents the number of live cells in a bacterial population over  Sterile technique
a period of time Infection
 Lag Phase  is the growth of microorganisms in the body. An
 Log/ Logarithmic / Exponential Phase infectious disease is a disease in which pathogens
 Stationary invade a susceptible host and carry out at least part of
 Death or Decline their life cycle in that host

GOOD TO KNOW:
 Bacterial nomenclature relates to the naming of
bacteria and other organisms using the binomial system,
which was developed by Carl Linnaeus
 A species name for a bacterium is made up of a genus
name and a species epithet.
 Ex. Moraxella bovis - the genus name denotes that the
bacterium is from the genus.

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 MICP211 Prelim Reviewer (Lecture)
Infection Process
 The cycle of infection is a chain with six links. To produce
disease, each link in the infectious process must be
present in a logical sequence. Removing one link in the
chain will stop the infection cycle. The six links are as
follows:
1. Agent (microorganism) – capable of parasitizing
2. Reservoir of infection
3. Portal of exit
4. Mechanism of transmission
5. Portal of entry
6. Susceptible host
CHAIN OF INFECTION
- The cycle must be interrupted to prevent the spread of a
microorganism.
What is an agent of infection?
- An infectious agent or etiological agent is a living organism that
causes an infectious disease.
- If the microorganism causes disease in humans, it is called a
pathogen.
What is a Reservoir?
– A reservoir is any natural habitat of a microorganism that
promotes growth and reproduction.
– Examples of reservoirs are soiled or wet dressings, hospital
equipment, and carriers (person or animal who harbors and
spreads an organism).
– Food and proper atmosphere are required to thrive
What is Exit Route?
– A microorganism cannot cause disease in another host unless it
finds a point of escape from the reservoir.
– Human exit routes are gastrointestinal, respiratory, and
genitourinary systems; tissue; and blood.
– Handwashing can prevent the spread of microorganisms or
cross-contamination
What is Mode of Transmission?
- It is the process by which a pathogen spreads from one
host to another.
- Infections are transmitted through Direct Transmission (directly
from an infected person) and Indirect Transmission (not
transmitted directly)
What is Entry of Microorganisms?
– The microorganism must find a way to enter the susceptible host.
– When the host’s defense mechanisms are reduced, the
microorganism has a greater chance to enter.
– The skin is the first line of defense and should be kept intact,
lubricated, and clean.
What is susceptible host?
– An microorganism must accept the host for it to continue to live
and flourish
– An infection will develop as the strength and numbers of the
microorganism grow within the host.
– Immunizations have proved effective in providing additional
protection against infectious disease
INFECTION CONTROL
•Infection Control is one of the major concerns that
healthcare workers in healthcare facilities and hospitals
constantly address. There are certain terminologies
associated with infection control that a healthcare
worker must be familiar with. These terminologies are
often related to the chain of infection, how the
organisms are transmitted, asepsis, the specific types of
infection, and personal protective equipment(PPE).
These include the following:
• Chain of infection – how an individual acquires the infectious
agents and includes theinfectious agent, the source of infection
or its reservoir, how the organism is transmitted, and the organism’s
portal of entry into the susceptible host.
• Mode of transmission – the manner in which the infectious
organism is acquired by thehost.
• Standard precautions – the specific measures used to prevent
the spread of infectionamong all patients and healthcare
workers, including measures to protect them fromcontaminated
blood and other body fluids
• Contamination – denotes contact of a sterile or aseptic item with
microorganisms.Medically aseptic items become contaminated if
they get in contact with diseaseproducing organisms. Sterile items
become contaminated if they get in contact withitems that are
not sterile.
• Decontamination – the process where physical or chemical
means are used to remove, inactivate, or destroy pathogens on
a surface or item making them safe for handling or use and
incapable of transmitting infectious agents.
• Disinfection – the process of using physical or chemical means
to destroy pathogens, excluding the spores.
• Sterilization– the process by which all pathogens are destroyed,
including the spores. The various methods of physical and
chemical sterilization will be discussed in the succeeding
chapters.
• Antiseptic– a chemical solution that inhibits the growth of some
microorganisms. Most antiseptics can be used directly on the skin
(e.g., alcohol and iodine).
• Healthcare associated infection – any infection that is acquired
during the time a patient s admitted in a healthcare facility. The
most common healthcare associated infection is the urinary tract
infection (UTI).
• Iatrogenic infection – infection that is acquired in the course of
undergoing diagnostic tests or therapeutic procedures.
• Occupational exposure – the acquisition or exposure to an
infectious agent of a healthcare worker during the course of
his/her work.
• Personal protective equipment (PPE) – specialized equipment
and attire used by healthcare workers to protect them from
infections. These include gloves, masks, gowns, and goggles.
ASEPSIS
✓Asepsis refers to a condition in which the individual and his/her
surrounding environment are free of any microorganisms. Sepsis,
the opposite of asepsis ,refers to the clinical condition where an
individual develops a systemic reaction to a bacterial infection
that starts from a localized infection in one part of the body.
✓The goals of asepsis are to protect the patient from hospital
acquired or nosocomial infections and to prevent the spread of
pathogenic microorganisms.
✓All patients in healthcare facilities are vulnerable to pathogenic
organisms. Some of the factors that play a role in the occurrence
of infection among patients include:
✓ (1) suppression of the immune system
✓ (2) prolonged duration of illness
✓ (3) procedures that patients undergo in the healthcare facility
such as insertion of in dwelling catheters, use of antibiotic and
insertion of intravenous lines or endotracheal tubes.
ASEPTIC TECHNIQUES
 are techniques used to minimize contamination. In the
hospital facility, a break in infection’s chain of
transmission is possible by encouraging the nurse to use
aseptic technique.
 General Aseptic Procedure are as follows:
o Frequent hand washing by hospital personnel.
Hand washing is known as the most basic and
universally. accepted measure used to prevent the
spread of infection.
o Use of Personal Protective Equipment. PPE are
specialized equipment and attire used in
healthcare facilities to protect the health worker
and the patient and his visitors against infection.
These include masks, gowns, googles and others.
Gloves – offer protection when handling body
secretions or open wounds while Gowns & Face
Mask serve as barriers to spread of potentially
pathogenic microorganisms.
 Fingernails should be kept clean and short
o Health education – is the best way to prevent the spread
of communicable.
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 MICP211 Prelim Reviewer (Lecture)
CONTROL OF HEALTHCARE-ASSOCIATED INFECTIONS ❑ Also, Standard and Airborne Precautions are strictly enforced.
 A healthcare-associated infection (HAI) is an illness that
develops during a patient's stay in a health-care facility What type of transmission-based precaution should be instituted
but was not present when they were admitted to the ff:
 Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections are as (Make an advance search)
follows: 1. Chickenpox
o Universal precautions - In health care & residential 2. Clostridium difficile
settings, universal precautions are used to minimize 3. COVID-19
spread of microbes to protect patients/ residents, staff, 4. Influenza
& visitors from contact with pathogens. 2 general 5. Measles
categories: standard & transmission-based precautions. 6. Meningitis
o Standard precautions are fundamental, minimum 7. Pneumonia
measures that are applied to every person, every time, 8. Salmonella
to avoid pathogen transmission from one person to 9. Shigella
another for all levels of health care, regardless of 10. The common cold
whether a patient's infection status is confirmed, 11. Tuberculosis
suspected, or unknown. 12. Whooping cough
 Standard precautions are hand hygiene, Choices:
use of PPE, respiratory hygiene & cough A. Contact Precautions
etiquette, disinfection of patient-care B. Droplet Precautions
equipment/instruments, environmental C. Airborne Precaution
cleaning/ disinfection, safe injection
practices, patient placement, safe Surgical asepsis
resuscitation and lumbar puncture  is the absence of all microorganisms within any type of
o Transmission-based precautions are procedures to invasive procedure.
component standard precautions in individuals with Sterile technique
known or suspected infections that are highly  is a set of specific practices and procedures performed
transmissible or epidemiologically important pathogens. to make equipment and areas free from all
 Utilized when standard precautions do microorganisms and to maintain that
not completely interrupt the transmission  is most practiced in operating rooms, labor and delivery
route. Three categories of transmission- rooms, and special procedures or diagnostic areas.
based precautions: contact, droplet, and  Likewise, it is used when performing sterile procedure at
airborne. the bedside, such as inserting devices into sterile areas
o Contact precautions. Used for patients that have of the body or cavities (e.g., insertion of chest tube,
infections that can be spread by contact with the central venous line, or indwelling urinary catheter).
patients’ feces, urine or other body fluids, skin, vomit, or  In health care, sterile technique is used when skin
wounds or by equipment or environmental surfaces integrity is accessed, impaired, or broken such as in
contaminated by the patient. patient with burns or during surgical incisions.
o Droplet precautions. For patients with infections that can  A Sterile technique includes use of sterile equipment, a
be spread through close contact with droplet nuclei sterile gown and gloves as cited in Perry
from respiratory secretions that spread only short
distances. HERE ARE THE PRINCIPLES OF SURGICAL ASEPSIS.
o Airborne precautions. Used for patients with infection  All objects used in a sterile field must be sterile.
that can spread by droplet nuclei over long  A sterile object becomes non-sterile when touched by
a non-sterile object.
SURGICAL ASEPSIS IS THE ABSENCE OF ALL MICROORGANISMS  Items below the waist level, or items held below waist
WITHIN ANY TYPE OF INVASIVE PROCEDURE. level, are non-sterile.
❑ Sterile technique is a set of specific practices and procedures  Sterile fields must always be kept in sight.
performed to make equipment and areas free from all  When opening sterile equipment and adding supplies
microorganisms and to maintain that sterility. to a sterile field, take care to avoid contamination.
❑Sterile technique is most commonly practiced in operating  Any puncture, moisture, or tear that passes through a
rooms, labour and delivery rooms, and special procedures or sterile barrier must be considered contaminated.
diagnostic areas.  Once a sterile field is set up, the border of one inch at
❑ Likewise, it is used when performing sterile procedure at the the edge of the sterile drape is considered non-sterile.
bedside, such as inserting devices into sterile areas of the body or  If there is any doubt about the sterility of an object, it is
cavities (e.g., insertion of chest tube, central venous line, or considered non-sterile.
indwelling urinary catheter).  Sterile persons or sterile objects may only contact sterile
❑ In health care, sterile technique is used when skin integrity is areas; non-sterile persons or items contact only non-
accessed, impaired, or broken such as in patient with burns or sterile areas.
during surgical incisions.  Movement around & in the sterile field must not
❑ A Sterile technique includes use of sterile equipment, a sterile compromise or contaminate the sterile field.
gown and gloves as cited in Perry et al., 2014.
1. free of living microorganisms
ISOLATION Clean Technique
- is the process of separating an individual with an infectious Sterile Technique
disease from rest of healthy population to prevent spread of 2. Medical asepsis
infection to other individual. Clean Technique
❑ For patients on Airborne Precautions, single rooms are always Sterile Technique
3. reduces the number and transmission of disease-causing
indicated and preferred for patients requiring Contact or Droplet
microorganisms.
Precautions. Patients who may contaminate the hospital
Clean Technique
environment. Essential to keep proper environmental control.
Sterile Technique
❑ Airborne Infection Isolation Rooms (AIIR) is a single-patient room
4. Sterile technique involve the use of regular gloves, and
that is equipped with special air handling and ventilation systems
maintain sterile objects below the waist
under negative pressure.
True
❑ Prevent room air from entering hospital corridor when door is
False
opened; to remove pathogens, air that is evacuated from such
rooms passes through high- efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters
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 MICP211 Prelim Reviewer (Lecture)
5. keep all surfaces of sterile field dry
True
False
6. Do not turn your back on the sterile field and
True
False
7. When the is a possibility of transmission by direct bodily
contact with an uninfected person and infected person,
use the:
Contact Precaution
Airborne Precaution
Droplet Precaution
ISOLATION
 is the process of separating an individual with an
infectious disease from rest of healthy population to
prevent spread of infection to other individual.
o For patients on Airborne Precautions, single rooms
are always indicated and preferred for patients
requiring Contact or Droplet Precautions. Patients
who may contaminate the hospital environment .
Essential to keep proper environmental control.
o Airborne Infection Isolation Rooms (AIIR) is a single-
patient room that is equipped with special air
handling and ventilation systems under negative
pressure.
 Prevent room air from entering hospital
corridor when door is opened;
 to remove pathogens, air that is
evacuated from such rooms passes
through high-efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) filters .
 Also, Standard and Airborne Precautions
are strictly enforced.
PREVENTING INFECTION IN THE COMMUNITY
 To prevent the spread of infection at the community
level, proper health education on the sources of
infection as well as transmission of infection in important.
 Sanitation techniques such as-water purification, proper
garbage disposal, proper sewage disposal and other
measures to a clean environment
 improvement of health practices : educating people on
proper handling, storage & preparation of food
 Vaccination
NORMAL FLORA OF THE HUMAN BODY
MICROBIAL ECOLOGY
 Is the study of the relationships between microorganisms
and their environment. Among these relationship of
microbes with humans and such include normal flora
(indigenous flora) of the human body.
 There are two types of flora:
✓ RESIDENT FLORA – are organisms that are relatively
fixed types and found in the given area of the body at a
given age.
✓TRANSIENT FLORA – are those who inhabit the skin and
mucous membrane for hours, days and weeks and are
derived from the environment.
✓NORMAL FLORA ARE BENEFICIAL TO OUR BODY BECAUSE:
 they can inhibit the growth of pathogenic
microorganisms by priming the immune system of
newborns.
 It protects the body organs and systems that are in
direct contact with the external environment.
 It synthesizes important vitamins that are essential to
humans.
• NORMAL INTESTINAL FLORA SECRETE VITAMIN K that is needed
for the activity of some clotting factors, Other beneficial effects of
normal flora include the following:
1. Normal flora can prevent pathogenic organisms from
attaching to and penetrating the skin and other tissues
by producing mucin which it make difficult for the
pathogenic organisms to attach to the tissues to
produce disease.
2. Normal flor in the intestines aid in the digestion of food
by producing enzymes such as cellulase, galactosidase
and glucosidase.
3. Intestinal flora also help in the metabolism of steroids.
THERE ARE CERTAIN BODY TISSUES AND BODY FLUIDS THAT ARE
NORMALLY STERILE:
✓ BODY FLUIDS
1. CSF – Cerebrospinal Fluid
2. Synovial Fluid
3. Blood
✓ BODY TISSUES
1. Urinary Bladder
2. Uterus
3. Fallopian Tubes
4. Middle Ear
5. Paranasal sinuses.
REMEMBER: Presence of bacteria in these tissues and body fluids
may lead to serious infections. (e.g: bacteria in CSF can enter CNS
leading to fatal encephalitis)
NORMAL FLORA ON DIFFERENT SITES OF THE BODY
• SKIN
- Most exposed part of human body in microorganisms.
- There are certain factors that eliminate non-resident flora from
skin.
o Lysozyme in the skin
o Acidic pH of the skin due to sweat
o free fatty acids in sebaceous secretions
o Constant sloughing off the skin
NORMAL FLORA FOUND ON THE SKIN
1. Staphylococcus Epidermidis Major skin inhabitant,
comprising approximately 90% of resident aerobic flora.
2. Staphylococcus Aureus Most commonly found in nose
and perineum; in the nose, number varies with age
(greater in newborns than in adults)
3. Micrococci (Micrococcus Luteus) Accounts for 20-80%
of micrococci in the skin
4. Diphtheroid (Coryneform) Classified into: lipophilic
(common in axilla) or non-lipophilic (more on glabrous or
hairless skin such as palm of hands)
5. Anaerobic diphtheroid (Propionibacterium acnes) –
areas rich in sebaceous glands
6. Gram-negative bacilli (Enterobacter, Klebsiella, E.coli
and proteus spp) Seen in most intertriginous areas such
as toe web and axilla
7. Nail Flora Similar to that of the skin Fungi maybe also
present (Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Mucor)
MOUTH AND RESPIRATORY TRACT
▪ The tongue and buccal mucosa are inhabited mostly by
Streptococcus viridans group, which includes S. mutans, S. milleri,
S. salivarius, and S. sanguis. Although they are part of the normal
flora of the mouth, the viridans streptococci have been implicate
in the pathogenesis of dental caries.
▪ The gingival crevices and the tonsillar crypts are primarily in
habited by anaerobic flora. The normal flora of the pharynx and
trachea are similar to those found in the oral cavity. However,
there may be transient carriage in the pharynx of potentially
pathogenic organisms. These include Haemophiles and
Mycoplasma. influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria
meningitidis and mycoplasma.
▪ In the upper respiratory tract, initial colonization by pathogenic
organisms may be seen. These include Neisseria meningitidis,
Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Bordetella pertussis. The lower
respiratory tract is usually sterile and organisms that reach this
region are usually destroyed by the defense mechanisms of the
body such as the alveolar macrophages.
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 MICP211 Prelim Reviewer (Lecture)
CONJUCTIVA
✓ The normal flora in the conjunctivae are very scanty because
they are held in check by the flow of tears that contain lysozyme.
The lysozyme may interfere with the cell wall synthesis of
organisms. However, some bacteria may transiently colonize the
conjunctiva including Neisseria, Moraxella, and
Corynebacterium. Staphylococci and streptococci may also be
present.
DIGESTIVE TRACT
✓ The esophagus contains transient mouth flora. Minimal bacteria
may be found in the stomach due to the relatively hostile
environment in the stomach. Bacteria that may be found in the
stomach are those that may be swallowed with the food or those
that are dislodged from the mouth.
✓ One of these is Helicobacter pylori, the most common cause of
duodenal ulcer. This organism produces urease that causes
alkalinization of gastric acid thereby enabling it to colonize the
stomach.
✓ The colon is inhabited predominantly by anaerobes (95%–99%)
which includes Bacteroides fragilis (most common),
Bifidobacterium/Lactobacillus bifidum (predominant in breast fed
infants), Eubacterium, Pepto-streptococcus and Clostridium. In
bottle fed infants, the predominant intestinal flora is Lactobacillus
acidophilus. About 1%–4% of the flora of the colon are facultative
aerobes, predominantly Escherichia coli and other
Enterobacteriaceae.
✓ Intestinal flora play important roles in the body, namely:
o synthesis of vitamin B complex and vitamin K
o conversion of bile into bile acids
o competition with transient flora for nutrients
o prevention of colonization of the intestines by transient
flora
o production of potentially pathogenic end products of
metabolism that are toxic to transient flora.
✓ Intestinal flora play important roles in the body, namely:
o synthesis of vitamin B complex and vitamin K
o conversion of bile into bile acids
competition with transient flora for nutrients
o ▪prevention of colonization of the intestines by transient
flora
o production of potentially pathogenic end products of
metabolism that are toxic to transient flora
WEEK 4: HOST RESPONSE TO INFECTION
IMMUNOLOGY - is the study of the immune system & the immune
response.
IMMUNOGEN - is any substance that can induce immune
response, whether humoral, cellular or both.
ANTIGEN - is a substance that is recognized by a particular
antibody (Ab) or T cells & serves as the target of the immune
response.
IMMUNITY - is also known as resistance; is the ability to guard
against disease caused by microbes,their products including
pollution, toxins, and animal dander. Lack of immunity is referred
to as susceptibility.
TWO TYPES OF IMMUNITY IN GENERAL:
 Innate immunity - refers to all body defenses that protect
the body against any kind of pathogen.
 Adaptive immunity - refers to defenses (antibodies)
against specific microorganisms.
INNATE IMMUNITY
 Innate immunity- aka natural immunity exist from the
time we are born, prior to exposure to antigen.
 Innate immunity first-line defenses include skin and
mucous membranes. These are non- specific host
barriers; the second-line defenses include natural killer
cells, phagocytes, inflammation, fever, and
antimicrobial substances.
 Basic resistance to disease that an individual is born with
(innate)
 Rapid protection against microbes
 Response is in place before foreign challenge (antigen)
presents.
 Same response regardless of antigen or previous
exposure (no memory)
THE LINES OF DEFENSES
 1st line of defense- includes the INTACT SKIN, enzymes in
tears in body secretions, normal flora.
 2nd line of defense- is the INNATE arm of immune system:
These are inflammation, natural killer cells (kills virus-
infected cells), neutrophils & macrophages
(phagocytes). Interferons is a substance released by
activated cells and inhibit viral replication.
 3rd line of defense- ADAPTIVE arm of immune system- B
cells and T cells.
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
 Is also known as the Acquired Immunity
 occurs AFTER exposure to antigen, improves upon
repeated exposure.
 It is Antigen specific - recognizes and acts against
foreign substances.
 It is a Systemic -immunity is not restricted to the initial
infection
 It is responsible for conferring lifetime protective
immunity to re- infection with same pathogen. There is a
Memory that recognizes and mounts a stronger attack
on previously encountered pathogens.
 Protection develops more slowly (days)
 Developed by an individual only after a specific
challenge (antigen)
 Resulting products effective only against the specific
antigen
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 Has enhanced ability to deal with recurring antigen
(memory)
 Two arms of the adaptive defense system: Humoral
immunity & Cellular immunity.
o Humoral immunity
 antibody-mediated immunity. Provided
by antibodies present in body fluids
 Humoral immunity primarily involves B
cells and neutralizes threats outside
human cells.
o Cellular immunity
 cell-mediated immunity. Living cells
target virus-infected cells, cancer cells,
and cells of foreign grafts
 Cellular immunity primarily involves T cells
and deals with threats inside cells.
 Active immunity and passive immunity are two types of
adaptive immunity. Immunity or resistance acquired as
a result of the active production of antibodies is Active
Acquired Immunity while Passive Acquired Immunity is
an Immunity or resistance acquired as a result of receipt
of antibodies produced by another person or by an
animal.
 Lymphocytes are cells that circulate in your blood that
are part of the immune
IMMUNE SYSTEM (2 arms)
1. INNATE IMMUNITY (NATURAL OR NATIVE IMMUNITY)
• INSTANT
• IMMEDIATE
• INTEGRATES WITH ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM
2. ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM
• ACQUIRED
• AWAIT DAYS = NO IMMEDIATE RESPONSE
• ACCURATE = SPECIFIC AUTOREGULATION
• AUTOIMMUNITY
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM:
 The Main function of immune system: to defend the host
against infection (infxn)caused by viruses, bacteria,
fungi, parasites
 Cells involve in the immune system are:
- B lymphocytes or B cells, T lymphocytes or T cells.
Primary (central) lymphoid organs:
1. Thymus
2. Bone marrow (where B & T originates)
B cells remain in bone marrow to reach maturity
T cells – need to migrate in the thymus where they
mature
Upon maturation, B and T cells enter blood stream and
migrate to secondary lymphoid organs.
Secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs
 ln, spleen, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (tonsils,
appendix, peyer’s patches of si)
 sites where antigens from organisms entering body or
present on body surface are trapped.
B lymphocytes (B cells)
 differentiate into antibody producing plasma cells.
 produces antibodies.
 Antigen presenting cell.
 Possesses immunologic memory.
 with Ig on its surface (IgM & IgD)
T lymphocytes (T cells) has 2 main subsets:
 T helper cells (CD4+ T cells)- promote inflammation &
antibody production
 Cytotoxic T cells (CD8T cells)- recognize & kill virus
infected cells, tumor cells & foreign cells also possess
immunologic.
5 MAIN CLASSES OF ANTIBODIES (GAMED)
 IgG- predominant antibody in secondary response &
major defense against bacteria & viruses
o only antibody to CROSS THE PLACENTA. MOST
ABUNDANT ANTIBODY IN THE NEWBORNS
o MAIN immunoglobulin in CHRONIC infections
 IgM - LARGEST immunoglobulin (Ig) . main
immunoglobulin produced early in primary response.
o Predominant Ig in ACUTE infections, Together w/
IgG , it can activate complement.
o Present on surface of B cells were acts as Ag
binding receptor. Present in small amounts in serum
 IgA - main Ig in secretions (colostrum, saliva, tears, resp,
intestinal, genital secretions
o Prevents attachment of organisms (bacteria &
viruses) in mucous membranes
 IgD – no known Ab function. Found on surface on many
B cells, serves as marker for Bcells
o May also function as Ag receptor. Present in small
amounts in serum.
 IgE- mediates immediate (anaphylactic) hypersensitivity
reactions.
o Provides defense against certain parasites
(helminthes)
o Binds on surface of mast cells & basophils. Serves as
Ag receptor for Ag (allergen)
PRIMARY RESPONSE
 Involved during 1st encounter with Ag.
 Ab become detectable in serum after a period of 7-10
days but can be longer depending on nature & dose of
Ag & route of administration. First to appear are IgM
followed by Ig IgG or IgA
SECONDARY RESPONSE
 Occurs after re-exposure to same Ag
 A 2nd encounter w/ same Ag or a closely related one
occurring months or yrs after primary response leads to
a rapid Ab response of a much higher intensity than
primary response.
 This is explained by persistence of Ag- specific memory
cells after 1st contact.
 During the secondary response, IgM amount is less than
amount of IgG produced.
 IgG levels tend to persist much longer than primary
response.
CELL - MEDIATED IMMUNITY (CMI)
 In many bacterial (tuberculosis) & viral infxns. CMI -
imparts resistance & & aids in recovery.
 Impt in defense against fungi, parasites, tumors,
rejection of organ transplants.
 Components of CMI:
o 1.Macrophages—present the Ag to T cells, ingest &
destroy microbes
o 2.Helper T cells- participate in Ag recognition & in
regulation of B cells & cytotoxic T cells fxns
o 3.Natural killer cells (NK cells)- can inactivate
pathogens
o 4.Cytotoxic T cells—can kill virus-infected cells with or
without antibody ( Ab).
o Macrophages & helper T cells produces substances
called cytokines w/c can activate further helper T cells
& cytotoxic T cells
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 MICP211 Prelim Reviewer (Lecture)
1. What is the major function of the B-Cells?
 Produce Antibodies
 To kill viruses
2. As part of the immune system, white blood cells fight germs.
Another name for white blood cells is:
 Leukocytes
 Glands
 Nodes
3. Acquired Immunity is :
 Innate Immunity
 Adaptive Immunity
4. Natural immunity is:
 Innate Immunity
 Adaptive Immunity
5. Getting these when you are young helps your immune system
fight off diseases:
 Shots (immunizations)
 Visitor’s saliva
 bandages
6. To be “immune” means what?
 you are protected
 you are more likely to get sick
7. Someone who has suffered severe burns would lose a portion of
their innate immunity.
 True
 False
HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS
- Hypersensitivity is used when an immune response results in an
exaggerated or inappropriate reactions that are harmful to the
host
4 Main TYPES OF HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS
 Type I- Immediate Anaphylactic Hypersensitivity
o What we know as allergy. The process begins when
an allergen induces the formation of IgE, which
binds to mast cells and basophils. Re-exposure to
same Ag results in the release within minutes by the
mast cells & basophils of chemicals (histamine).
The 1st contact with the allergen sensitizes, that is
induces the Ab. Subsequent contact elicit the
allergic response.
o Examples of allergens( pollens, animals fur, foods
various drugs)
o C/M: urticaria (hives), eczema, rhinitis,
conjunctivitis (also known as hay fever), asthma.
o Most severe form is anaphylaxis, severe
bronchoconstriction, hypotension or shock can be
fatal. Common cause of anaphylaxis- foods (
peanuts, shellfish), bee venom, drugs (penicillin)
 Type II- Cytotoxic/Cytolytic Hypersensitivity
o 3 possible mechanisms
1. Ab dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Entry
of Ag stimulates formation of IgG w/c binds to Ag.
Binding causes activation of the NK cells, w/c are
responsible for the destruction of
2. Ab complement dependent lysis- occurs when an
Ab directed at Ag of the cell membrane activate
complement. This generates membrane attack
complex,w/c damages cell membrane. The Ab
IgG or IgM attaches to Ag & this binding leads to
activation of complement. As a result, there is
complement mediated lysis. Ex:Hemolytic
anemias, BT reactions, Blood incompatibility
3. Formation of antibodies Ab directed against
receptors. Ex: Myasthenia Gravis
 Type III- ImmuneComplex Hypersensitivity
o Occurs when Ag- Ab complexes activate
complement & induce an inflammatory reaction
in tissues. Whenever immune complex are
deposited, they activate the complement system.
Neutrophils are attracted to site, inflammation &
tissue injury occur. In persistent bacterial or viral
infxns, immune complexes may be deposited in
organs (kidneys) resulting in damage.
o Ex: Malaria, Dengue, Hepatitis B
 Type IV- Delayed (cell- mediated) Hypersensitivity
o Involves T lymphocytes, not Ab. The response is
delayed in that it starts hours or days after contact
with the Ag & often lasts for days. Involves either
helper T cells or cytotoxic T cells.
o Ex: Contact hypersensitivity. Occurs after
sensitization of simple chemicals (nickel) plant
materials (poison ivy) topically applied drugs,
some cosmetics, soaps & other substances.
o CMI involving cytotoxic T cells is induced after
contact w/ same substances. Cytotoxic T cells
attack skin cells & the sensitized skin develops
erythema, itching, vesicles, eczema or necrosis
within 12 hours.
o Involvement of helper T cells is seen in
granulomatous conditions(tuberculosis) or
systemic fungal infections. Also involves in
tuberculin skin test (PPD). When a pt previously
exposed to M. tuberculosis is injected w/ a small
amount of tuberculin or PPD, there is a little
reaction in 1st few hours. Gradually, the reaction
reaches a peak in 48-72 hours hrs. A (+) skin test
indicates that the person has been infected with
the agent, but does not confirm the presence of
the disease.
VACCINE
 vaccine is a substance that is used for the production of
antidotes in the body and provides immunity against
one or a few diseases. In biological terms, a vaccine is
defined as a biological and formulated preparation to
provide acquired immunity for a particular disease.
 a vaccine is an agent which contains a weakened or
killed form of the disease-causing agent, its surface, or
its toxins. When this solution is introduced to the human
body, the immune system is able to identify the threat
and destroy it. More than this, the human body will
recognize the threat and can initiate an appropriate
response in the future also.
Definition
 The process of implementing the vaccine is called
vaccination. It is responsible for the clearance of many
diseases, especially infectious diseases like smallpox and
chickenpox. The word "vaccine" is derived from the Latin
word "vaccines" which means "from the cows".
Invention of Vaccine
 The practice of immunization of the body dates back
hundreds of years, but the first official vaccination was
developed by Edward Jenner who is considered the
founder of vaccinology. In 1796, he injected a 13 year-
old- boy with cowpox (vaccinia virus) and established
immunity to smallpox. In 1798, the very first smallpox was
developed. During the 18th and 19th centuries,
systematic implementation of mass smallpox
immunization culminated in its global establishment in
1979.
Types of Vaccines
 There are many initiations to vaccine development, but
vaccines can be mainly classified by how the antigen
active component, that produce a specific immune
response against the disease-causing organism, are
prepared.
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Classification of Vaccines
A. Live Attenuated Vaccines:
Attenuated vaccines are developed in many several
ways. The common methods include passing the
disease-causing virus through a series of cell cultures or
animal embryos. When the vaccine virus is implemented
in a human, it will be unable to replicate enough to
cause illness, but still promotes an immune response that
can protect against future infection.
B. Inactivated Vaccine:
Vaccines of this category are developed by inactivating
a pathogen, typically using chemicals or even heat such
as formaldehyde or formalin. This destroys the
pathogen's ability to replicate but keeps it intact so that
the immune still remembers it.
C. Toxoid Vaccine:
There are some bacterial diseases that are not directly
caused by a bacteria itself, but by producing toxins by
the bacterium. For this type, immunization of pathogens
can be developed by inactivating the toxin that causes
disease symptoms. As the viruses or organisms used to kill
or inactivate vaccines, this can be done through
treatment with a chemical such as formalin or by heat.
D. Subunit Vaccine:
Subunit vaccines are only used as part of a target
pathogen to promote a response from the immune
system. This can be done by isolating a specific protein
from a pathogen and presenting it as an antigen on its
own.
E. Conjugate Vaccine:
Conjugate vaccines are somehow similar to
recombinant vaccines, they are made up of a
combination of two different components. Conjugate
vaccines, however, are made up of using the pieces
from the coat of bacteria. These coats are chemically
linked to a carrier immune protein, and this is how a
combinational vaccine is used.
F. Valence Vaccine:
Vaccines may be monovalent. The monovalent vaccine
is designed to be immune against a single
microorganism or single antigen. A multivalent or
polyvalent vaccine is made to immunize against two or
more viruses of the same microorganism.
G. Heterotypic Vaccine:
Heterologous vaccines are also called "Jennerian
vaccines". These vaccines are pathogens of different
animals that either do not cause disease or cause
disease or cause mild disease in the organism being
treated.
H. mRNA Vaccine:
An mRNA Vaccine (or RNA Vaccine) is a different type
of vaccine which is a combination of nucleic acid RNA,
packaged within a vector such as lipid nanoparticles.
Week 5: Bacteria and Disease
BACTERIA AND DISEASE
 Disease - Is An Abnormal State In Which Part Or All Of The
Body Is Not Properly Adjusted Or Is Unable To Carry Out
Usual Functions; Any Deviation From One's Current
Condition Of Health
 Infection Is Defined As Pathogenic Microorganisms
Invading The Body.
 Symbiosis. - The Relation Between The Indigenous Flora
And The Host
 Commensalism Is a Type Of Symbiosis In Which One
Organism Benefits From The Other WithoutHarming It.
 Mutualism- Form Of Symbiosis In w/c Both Organisms
Benefit From The Relationship
 Parasitism - a Connection In Which One Organism
Benefits From Another While Also Harming It.
 Pathogen- An Organism That Invades & Causes Damage
Or Injury To The Host
 Pathogenicity Refers To An Organism's Ability To Cause
Disease.
Contamination Is Defined As The Presence Of Organisms Outside
Of The Body, Such As Those FoundIn Water, Food, And Other
Biological Substances.
The Presence Of Undesired Compounds In Water, Air, Or Soil Is
Referred To As Pollution.
KOCH’S POSTULATES - Is a set of rules for establishing a relationship
between a causative microbe and a
disease.
1. The same organism must be found in all cases of a given
disease & must not be present in healthy individuals
2. The organism must be isolated & grown in pure culture
from the infected person.
3. The organisms from the pure culture must reproduce the
disease when inoculated into susceptible animal
4. The organism must be isolated in pure culture from the
experimentally infected
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE OCCURRENCE OF INFECTION
Portal of Entry - The avenue by Mucous membrane
which pathogen gains access (inhaled), skin (wounds,
to the abrasion) parenteral route
(Injection
Virulence of organism - The Capsule enables organism to
degree of pathogenicity of a evade phagocytosis.
microorganism Enzymes, toxins
Number of microbes- Microbial growth refers to an
microbe, is an organism of increase in number of cells
microscopic size, which may rather than an increase in cell
exist in its single-celled form or size; likelihood of disease
as a colony of cells; increases as umber of
pathogens
Defensive powers of host- The body’s Immune System
immune system provides resistance to disease
HOW ORGANISMS PRODUCE DISEASE
 Mechanical- organisms directly damage tissues or
surface
 Chemical- bacteria produces chemicals & toxins
 Immunologic - response of the immune
Bacterial Toxins. A toxin is a specific substance, often a metabolic
product of an organism that damages the host.
CLASSIFICATION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
According to ability for person-to-person spread
1.Communicable Disease - a disease that spreads from one host
to other, either directly or indirectly
2.Non communicable disease - not spread from one person to
another
3.Contagious disease - easily spread from one person to another
According to source of infection:
 Exogenous infection - is an infection that caused by
organisms not normally present in the body but
whichhave gained entrance from the environment.
 Endogenous infection is an infection caused by an
infectious agent that is present on or in the host prior
tothe start of the infection.
 Fulminating infection - coming on suddenly and with
great severity; infection that results in the death of
thepatient over a short period of time;
 Nosocomial infections - or healthcare associated
infections occur when a person develops an infection
duringtheir time at a healthcare facility.
 Incidence - is a measure of the number of new cases of
a characteristic that develop in a population in a
specified time period
 Prevalence - is the proportion of a population who have
a specific characteristic in a given time period,
regardless of when they first developed the
characteristic
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According to occurrence of infection
 Sporadic – refers to a disease that occurs infrequently
and irregularly; occurs occasionally
 Endemic disease A disease that is constantly present
in a certain population. (Malaria endemic in Palawan)
 Epidemic disease A disease acquired by many hosts
in a given area in a short time; many people
developdisease in a given locality at a short period of
time
 Pandemic disease An epidemic that occurs
worldwide.
 Zoonosis - disease that occurs primarily in wild and
domestic animals but can be transmitted to humans.
 Epizoonosis - disease that occur epidemic in lower
animals
 Enzoonosis - endemic in lower animals
 Bacteremia - presence of bacteria in the blood
 Septicemia - presence of actively multiplying bacteria
in blood
 Toxemia - presence of toxins in the blood
 Viremia - presence of viruses in the blood
 Pyemia - pre of pus producing bacteria in the blood
According to severity or duration of infectious disease
 Acute disease- develops rapidly but lasts for short
period of time ( ex. common colds)
 Chronic disease - develops more slowly & occur for
long period ( ex. tuberculosis)
 Latent disease - causative organism remains inactive
for a time but can become active & produce symptoms
of disease (Ex:Shingles- disease that is caused by same
virus that causes chicken pox)
According to extent of host involvement:
 Local infection - invading microorganisms are limited
to a relatively small area of the body
 Focal infection - a local infection enters blood or
lymphatic vessel & spread to specific parts where they
become confined to the specific area of the body (ex.
can arise from teeth, sinuses)
 Systemic or generalized infection - invading
microorganisms or their products are spread throughout
the body by blood or lymph
Stages of an infectious
 Incubation period - the time interval between entry of
microorganism & the first appearance of s/s
 Prodromal period - mild symptoms of a disease w/c
are non specific (fever, cough, colds, malaise)
 Period of illness - period of maximal invasion. The
disease is most acute during this period
- Carrier state - pt. does not show s/s but still
continues to shed infecting microorganisms
 Period of decline – Period of defervescence- s/s start
to subside. - Pt. vulnerable to secondary infants
 Period of convalescence - pt regains strength, body
returns to its pre-diseased normal condition
Reservoirs of infection:
 Living (animals , humans)
 Non-living (can be found in soil (clostridium tetani &
water vibrio cholera, salmonella)
ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION
 CONTACT transmission - refers to spread of
microorganism through direct contact, indirect contact
or droplet transmission.
 Direct Contact - aka person to person transmission &
involves direct transmission by physical contact
between the source of infection & the susceptible host.
(kissing, touching). Ex. Common cold, Respiratory tract
infections, chicken pox, syphilis, gonorrhea
 Indirect contact - refers to transmission of causative
agent from reservoir to susceptible host throughnon
living object(fomites) Ex of common fomites:
handkerchiefs, towels, spoons, toys.of diseases are
common colds, soreyes, tuberculosis)
 Droplet - is a form of contact transmission in w/c the
organism is spread in droplet nuclei that travel only short
distances usually <1 meter from reservoir to the host.
These dropletsare spread in to air by coughing, laughing,
talking, sneezing. Ex: pneumonia, influenza
 VEHICLE transmission - refers to transmission of organism
through media such as food, water, air.
 Food-borne - pathogens are transmitted through
ingestion of food that are improperly cooked, poorly
refrigerated , unsanitary conditions. ex. food poisoning,
gastroenteritis
 Air- borne - refers to spread of pathogens by droplet
nuclei in dust that travels >1 meter from the reservoir to
the host ( ex. measles, tuberculosis)
 Water borne -pathogen is spread through contaminated
water ( ex , typhoid fever, cholera)
 VECTORS- are animals that carry organism from one host
to another
 Insects (arthropods) - most impt group of vectors
 Mechanical transmission - refers to passive transport of
organism on insect’s feet or other parts.Ex: cockroaches
& flies
 Biological transmission - active transport of organism.
Organism enters the insect vector after insectvector
bites an infected person
TERMINOLOGIES
 Alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR)- ): A method of hand
hygiene that includes an alcohol-containing
preparation designed for application to the hands for
reducing the number of viable microorganisms on the
hands. ABHR is not an alternative for washing with soap
and water if hands are visibly soiled.
 Ambulatory care settings (ACS): Facilities that provide
health care to patients who do not remain overnight.
 Barrier precautions: Any method or device used to
decrease contact with potentially infectious body fluids.
Examples may include masks, gloves, and gowns.
 Clostridium difficile: An anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-
forming bacillus that can cause diarrhea and other
intestinal diseases when competing bacteria in the gut
are diminished by antibiotics
 Community-acquired infections: See community-
associated infections Community-associated infections
(CA): Infections that are contracted outside of a
healthcare facility and are present or incubating at the
time of admission or develop within a designated period
after admission, unlike healthcare-associated infections
(HAIs). Formerly known as community-acquired
infections.
 Epidemiologically important pathogens: Infectious
agents that have one or more of the following
characteristics: 1) are readily transmissible; 2) have a
proclivity toward causing outbreaks; 3) may be
associated with a severe outcome; or 4) are difficult to
treat. Examples include Acinetobacter, MRSA, and C.
difficile. Epidemiology:
 ICU: intensive care unit - : Hospital unit that provides
intensive observation and treatment of patients either
dealing with or at risk of developing life-threatening
problems. Also known as a critical care unit.
 Infection preventionist (IP): A healthcare worker who
specializes in infection surveillance, control, and
prevention. Also know as an Infection Control and
Prevention Professional or an Infection Control
Practitioner (ICP). Infection control and prevention
program: A multidisciplinary program that includes a
group of activities to ensure that recommended
practices for the prevention of healthcare-associated
infections are implemented and followed by healthcare
workers, making the healthcare setting safe from
infection for patients and healthcare personnel. This
program usually includes surveillance of healthcare
associated infections (HAIs),investigation of any HAI
trends or problems, implementation of prevention
practices, evaluation and management of outbreaks,
and reporting HAI data to designated authorities.
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 Invasive procedure: A medical procedure that involves
entering the body, usually by cutting or puncturing
theskin or by inserting instruments into the body
 Multidrug-resistant organism (MDRO): Type of bacteria
that has become resistant to many of the drugs that
used to be effective against it.
 Post-exposure prophylaxis: The administration of
medications following exposure to a disease to prevent
infection

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