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This layer is referred to as the buffy coat because of its colour; it normally constitutes less than 1%
of a blood sample. It has a viscosity approximately five times greater than water. Cardiac cycle - all
events of systole and diastole during one. Damage to this endothelial lining and exposure of blood
to the collagenous fibers beneath is one of the primary causes of clot formation. Finally, the
albumins in blood plasma help to balance the osmotic concentration of the body’s cells by
maintaining an isotonic environment. The cardiac cycle begins with atrial systole and progresses to
ventricular systole, atrial diastole, and ventricular diastole, when the cycle begins again. As with
blood volume, this makes intuitive sense, since the increased surface area of the vessel will impede
the flow of blood. However as the heart rate rises, there is less time spent in diastole and
consequently less time for the ventricles to fill with blood. These include the limbic system that links
physiological responses to psychological stimuli, as well as generalized sympathetic and
parasympathetic stimulation. Most adults have around 600 million alveoli, which are surrounded by
capillaries. Some of the most common blood tests—for instance, those measuring lipid or glucose
levels in plasma—determine which substances are present within blood and in what quantities.
Students trace flow of blood through the heart both in writing and in diagram form. Because they
are low-pressure vessels, larger veins are commonly equipped with valves that promote the
unidirectional flow of blood toward the heart and prevent backflow toward the capillaries caused by
the inherent low blood pressure in veins as well as the pull of gravity. Table 8 compares the features
of arteries and veins. At some point, genetic therapy may become a viable option. Start with the
three main components (heart, blood vessels, and blood), and continue by specifying all the
constituent parts of each. Auricles are relatively thin-walled structures that can fill with blood and
empty into the atria or upper chambers of the heart. The diastolic pressure is the lower value (usually
about 80 mm Hg) and represents the arterial pressure of blood during ventricular relaxation, or
diastole. This vessel remains to the left of the vertebral column and is embedded in adipose tissue
behind the peritoneal cavity. The impact of thyroid hormone is typically of a much longer duration
than that of the catecholamines. Postcapillary venules join multiple capillaries exiting from a capillary
bed. The percentage of other formed elements, the leukocytes and platelets, is extremely small so it
is not normally considered with the hematocrit. Ventricular contraction ejects blood into the major
arteries, resulting in flow from regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure, as blood
encounters smaller arteries and arterioles, then capillaries, then the venules and veins of the venous
system. The left coronary artery arises from the left posterior aortic sinus. This pathway is prompted
by damage to the walls of blood vessels that exposes the initiating clotting factor (clotting factor XII)
to collagen. The six primary processes of the digestive system include: 1) Ingestion of food; 2)
Secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes; 3) Mixing and movement of food and wastes through the
body; 4) Digestion of food into smaller pieces; 5) Absorption of nutrients; and 6) Excretion of
wastes. Increased blood pressure results in increased rates of baroreceptor firing, whereas decreased
blood pressure results in slower rates of fire, both initiating the homeostatic mechanism to restore
blood pressure. The septa are physical extensions of the myocardium lined with endocardium. Most
common type is AAA ( abdominal aortic aneurysm ). The specific functions of blood also include
defense and maintenance of homeostasis.
Increased physical activity results in increased rates of firing by various proprioreceptors located in
muscles, joint capsules, and tendons. Any factor that causes cardiac output to increase, by elevating
heart rate or stroke volume or both, will elevate blood pressure and promote blood flow. Damage to
this endothelial lining and exposure of blood to the collagenous fibers beneath is one of the primary
causes of clot formation. To prevent any potential backflow, the papillary muscles also contract,
generating tension on the chordae tendineae. Above the buffy coat is the blood plasma, normally a
pale, straw-coloured fluid, which constitutes the remainder of the sample. It, too, empties into the
posterior portion of the atria, but inferior to the opening of the superior vena cava. Since water
follows sodium, this increases the reabsorption of water. The systemic circuit transports oxygenated
blood to virtually all of the tissues of the body and returns relatively deoxygenated blood and carbon
dioxide to the heart to be sent back to the pulmonary circulation. These sinuses contain the aortic
baroreceptors and chemoreceptors critical to maintain cardiac function. The respiratory system's
primary organs and anatomical features include the lungs, the airways - including the mouth, nose,
and trachea - and the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles. Note the differences in the relative
size of the lumens, the region inside each ventricle where the blood is contained. Mechanism:
vibration resulting from resistance to rapid. Treatment is initiated with any of 4 drugs depending on.
The greater the number of leads an electrocardiograph uses, the more information the ECG provides.
When pressure within the ventricles drops below pressure in both the pulmonary trunk and aorta, the
semilunar valves close to prevent backflow into the heart (Figure 24). Defecation removes
indigestible substances from the body so that they do not accumulate inside the gut. Average lifetime
the human heart will beat more then 2.5 billion times. Bear in mind, however, that dilation and
constriction of the arterioles feeding the capillary beds is the primary control mechanism. Pulmonary
veins then return freshly oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart to be pumped back out into
systemic circulation. The P wave represents depolarization of the atria and is followed by atrial
contraction (systole). These vessels branch to supply blood to the pulmonary capillaries, where gas
exchange occurs within the lung alveoli. There is no single better word to describe the function of the
heart other than “pump,” since its contraction develops the pressure that ejects blood into the major
vessels: the aorta and pulmonary trunk. The platelets begin to clump together, become spiked and
sticky, and bind to the exposed collagen and endothelial lining. These conditions in turn stimulate
the release of NO, a powerful vasodilator, from endothelial cells. As platelets collect, they
simultaneously release chemicals from their granules into the plasma that further contribute to
hemostasis. In this case, oxygen and nutrients exit the systemic capillaries to be used by the cells in
their metabolic processes, and carbon dioxide and waste products will enter the blood. Physicians
sometimes recommend that patients at risk for cardiovascular disease take a low dose of aspirin on a
daily basis as a preventive measure. However, blood pressure quickly rises above that of the atria that
are now relaxed and in diastole. When two independently beating embryonic cardiac muscle cells are
placed together, the cell with the higher inherent rate sets the pace, and the impulse spreads from the
faster to the slower cell to trigger a contraction. In this graph, a blood pressure tracing is aligned to a
measurement of systolic and diastolic pressures.
Most adults have around 600 million alveoli, which are surrounded by capillaries. On both the left
and right sides, the subclavian vein forms when the axillary vein passes through the body wall from
the axillary region. The systemic circuit transports oxygenated blood to virtually all of the tissues of
the body and returns relatively deoxygenated blood and carbon dioxide to the heart to be sent back
to the pulmonary circulation. In a clinical setting, the valve is referred to as the mitral valve, rather
than the bicuspid valve. The pulmonary veins conduct blood into the left atrium, which pumps the
blood into the left ventricle, which in turn pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta and on to the
many branches of the systemic circuit. R ventricles; since left ventricle much larger, Purkinjes. At
lower blood pressures, the degree of stretch is lower and the rate of firing is slower. Water may
merely trickle along a creek bed in a dry season, but rush quickly and under great pressure after a
heavy rain. As more air is released from the cuff, blood is able to flow freely through the brachial
artery and all sounds disappear. This mechanism, known as the skeletal muscle pump (Figure 34),
helps the lower-pressure veins counteract the force of gravity, increasing pressure to move blood back
to the heart. The pericardial membrane that surrounds the heart consists of three layers and the
pericardial cavity. Within the mediastinum, the heart is separated from the other mediastinal
structures by a tough membrane known as the pericardium, or pericardial sac, and sits in its own
space called the pericardial cavity. Once factor X has been activated by either the intrinsic or
extrinsic pathway, the enzyme prothrombinase converts factor II, the inactive enzyme prothrombin,
into the active enzyme thrombin. (Note that if the enzyme thrombin were not normally in an inactive
form, clots would form spontaneously, a condition not consistent with life.) Then, thrombin converts
factor I, the soluble fibrinogen, into insoluble fibrin protein strands. The pulmonary valve is
comprised of three small flaps of endothelium reinforced with connective tissue. In children,
hemopoiesis can occur in the medullary cavity of long bones; in adults, the process is largely
restricted to the cranial and pelvic bones, the vertebrae, the sternum, and the proximal epiphyses of
the femur and humerus. The mean plasma percentage is the percent of blood that is not erythrocytes:
for females, it is approximately 59% (or 100 minus 41), and for males, it is approximately 53% (or
100 minus 47). All of these non-protein solutes combined contribute approximately 1% to the total
volume of plasma. Terminal stage of coronary artery disease characterized. The tunica externa in
veins also contains groups of smooth muscle fibers. Myocardial conduction cells initiate and
propagate the action potential (the electrical impulse) that travels throughout the heart and triggers
the contractions that propel the blood. A metal pipe, for example, is not compliant, whereas a
balloon is. It will also trigger sympathetic stimulation of the peripheral vessels, resulting in
vasoconstriction. The cardiac centres monitor baroreceptor firing to maintain cardiac homeostasis, a
mechanism called the baroreceptor reflex. The aortic arch descends toward the inferior portions of
the body and ends at the level of the intervertebral disk between the fourth and fifth thoracic
vertebrae. The AV node is sometimes called the pacemaker since it keeps heart beat regular. Several
body organs carry out excretion, but the kidneys are the most important excretory organ. Next, a
platelet plug forms to temporarily seal small openings in the vessel. (b) Coagulation enables the repair
of the vessel wall once the leakage of blood has stopped. The urinary system maintains an
appropriate fluid volume by regulating the amount of water that is excreted in the urine. The nervous
system provides a very fast and narrowly targeted system to turn on specific glands and muscles
throughout the body. Superior to the diaphragm, the aorta is called the thoracic aorta, and inferior to
the diaphragm, it is called the abdominal aorta.
The effector then releases a hormone or moves a part of the body to respond to the stimulus. Small
blood and lymphatic vessels in the intestinal wall pick up the molecules and carry them to the rest of
the body. Thus, the body must form new blood cells and platelets quickly and continuously. Located
above the erythrocytes is a pale, thin layer composed of the remaining formed elements of blood.
Additionally, bradykinin, a vasodilator, is released, reversing the effects of the serotonin and
prostaglandins from the platelets. Except for Purkinje fibers, they are generally much smaller than
the contractile cells and have few of the myofibrils or filaments needed for contraction. In the
capillaries, the oxygen carried by the erythrocytes can diffuse into the plasma and then through the
capillary walls to reach the cells, whereas some of the carbon dioxide produced by the cells as a
waste product diffuses into the capillaries to be picked up by the erythrocytes. As with blood
volume, this makes intuitive sense, since the increased surface area of the vessel will impede the flow
of blood. As platelets collect, they simultaneously release chemicals from their granules into the
plasma that further contribute to hemostasis. The components of the cardiac conduction system
include the sinoatrial node (SA node), the atrioventricular node (AV node), the atrioventricular
bundle (bundle of His), the atrioventricular bundle branches, and the Purkinje fibers (Figure 19). The
small P wave represents the depolarization of the atria. The point at which the last sound is heard is
recorded as the patient’s diastolic pressure. The process is complex, but is initiated along two basic
pathways: the extrinsic pathway which normally is triggered by tissue damage, and the intrinsic
pathway which begins in the bloodstream and is triggered by damage to the wall of the vessel. The
blood delivers essential nutrients and oxygen and removes wastes and carbon dioxide to be
processed or removed from the body. Node through both ATRIA; the ATRIA contract about 0.1 s
after. Inhaled oxygen moves into the alveoli and diffuses into arterial blood through the capillaries; at
the same time, the veins release carbon dioxide directly into. Both bundle branches descend and
reach the apex of the heart where they connect with the Purkinje fibers (Figure 20). This squeezes
any blood in the atria into ventricles. Plug formation, in essence, buys the body time while more
sophisticated and durable repairs are being made. The impulse takes approximately 50 ms
(milliseconds) to travel between these two nodes. Average lifetime the human heart will beat more
then 2.5 billion times. The target heart rate is loosely defined as the range in which both the heart and
lungs receive the maximum benefit from the aerobic workout and is dependent upon age. The left
bundle branch supplies the left ventricle, and the right bundle branch the right ventricle. When vessel
functioning is reduced, blood-borne substances do not circulate effectively throughout the body.
Therapy is directed at preventing disease that may occur. Greater and lesser saphenous veins are
commonly used for. It can be represented mathematically by the following equation. The primary
trigger prompting the hypothalamus to release antiduiretic hormone is increasing osmolarity of tissue
fluid, usually in response to significant loss of blood volume (Figure 38). The nervous system
provides a very fast and narrowly targeted system to turn on specific glands and muscles throughout
the body. For instance, blood moves carbon dioxide to the lungs for exhalation from the body, and
various waste products are transported to the kidneys and liver for excretion from the body in the
form of urine or bile.
The specific functions of blood also include defense and maintenance of homeostasis. The great
veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae, and the great arteries, the aorta and pulmonary trunk, are
attached to the superior surface of the heart, called the base. In the latter case, it would likely be
triggered by stimulation from the limbic system or disorders of the autonomic nervous system. The
opening between the left atrium and ventricle is guarded by the mitral valve. A thrombus can
seriously impede blood flow to or from a region and will cause a local increase in blood pressure.
Gas exchange occurs in the pulmonary capillaries (oxygen into the blood, carbon dioxide out), and
blood high in oxygen and low in carbon dioxide is returned to the left atrium. First, vascular spasm
constricts the flow of blood. The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, veins, arteries and
capillaries. Although the connotation of the term “pump” suggests a mechanical device made of steel
and plastic, the anatomical structure is a living, sophisticated muscle. In a clinical setting, the valve is
referred to as the mitral valve, rather than the bicuspid valve. Clinical syndrome characterized by
paroxysmal chest. The primary functions of the kidneys are to maintain a stable internal environment
(homeostasis) for optimal cell and tissue metabolism. A mean stroke volume for a resting 70 kg (150
lb) individual would be approximately 70 mL. Cardiac muscle responds to exercise in a manner
similar to that of skeletal muscle. However, as heart rate continues to increase, stroke volume
gradually decreases due to decreased filling time. Thus, the body must form new blood cells and
platelets quickly and continuously. When pressure in a sphygmomanometer cuff is released, a
clinician can hear the Korotkoff sounds. Veins of the thoracic and abdominal regions drain blood
from the area above the diaphragm, returning it to the right atrium via the superior vena cava.
Platelets are essential for the repair of blood vessels when damage to them has occurred; they also
provide growth factors for healing and repair. This can lead to excessive bleeding, even from minor
wounds. Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of sodium into the blood by the kidneys. The AV
node is sometimes called the pacemaker since it keeps heart beat regular. So a 40-year-old individual
would be expected to hit a maximum rate of approximately 180, and a 60-year-old person would
achieve a heart rate of 160. A platelet is not a cell but rather a fragment of the cytoplasm of a cell
called a megakaryocyte that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. The aortic arch descends toward
the inferior portions of the body and ends at the level of the intervertebral disk between the fourth
and fifth thoracic vertebrae. These chemoreceptors provide feedback to the cardiac centres about the
need for increased or decreased blood flow, based on the relative levels of these substances (Table 4
and Table 5). They are not monitored with the standard limb leads. It is pumped from the heart into
the arteries at high pressure. Blood also carries antibodies that provide specific immunity to
pathogens that the body has previously been exposed to or has been vaccinated against. Blood
vessels near the skin’s surface open during times of overheating to allow hot blood to dump its heat
into the body’s surroundings.
However, aspirin can also lead to serious side effects, including increasing the risk of ulcers. Renin is
an enzyme, although because of its importance in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway, some
sources identify it as a hormone. It is pumped from the heart into the arteries at high pressure.
Platelets next release chemical clotting factors and begins to produce the protein fibrin to act as
structure for the blood clot. In addition to these shared functions, many systems enjoy a unique
relationship with the circulatory system (Figure 39). The cardiac skeleton also provides an important
boundary in the heart electrical conduction system. A pharmaceutical form of heparin is often
administered therapeutically, for example, in surgical patients at risk for blood clots. Lack of patient
compliance is the most common reason. It is performed by spinning the blood sample in a specialized
centrifuge, a process that causes the heavier elements suspended within the blood sample to separate
from the lightweight, liquid plasma (Figure 1). The branches of the carotid arteries supply blood to
numerous structures within the head and neck. The tunica externa remains but is very thin (Figure
39). It is the localized, irreversible dilatation of an artery. Before this division, the abdominal aorta
gives rise to several important branches. All arteries have relatively thick walls that can withstand the
high pressure of blood ejected from the heart. As the atrial muscles contract from the superior portion
of the atria toward the atrioventricular septum, pressure rises within the atria and blood is pumped
into the ventricles through the open atrioventricular (tricuspid, and mitral or bicuspid) valves. When
the ventricle relaxes and blood attempts to flow back into the ventricle from the aorta, blood will fill
the cusps of the valve, causing it to close and producing an audible sound. Dissolved or suspended
within this water is a mixture of substances, most of which are proteins. Is the inflammation of the
pericardium which occurs. The regions of each bone where muscles attach to the bone grow larger
and stronger to support the additional force of the muscle. They are not monitored with the standard
limb leads. Since resting rates are considerably less than this, it becomes evident that
parasympathetic stimulation normally slows heart rate. When blood flow is too high, the smooth
muscle will contract in response to the increased stretch, prompting vasoconstriction that reduces
blood flow. The blood in the superior and inferior venae cavae flows into the right atrium, which
pumps blood into the right ventricle. Sperm and the male sex hormones are produced in the testes. As
each femoral artery passes posterior to the knee near the popliteal fossa, it is called the popliteal
artery. As with blood volume, this makes intuitive sense, since the increased surface area of the vessel
will impede the flow of blood. The heart is located within the thoracic cavity, medially between the
lungs in the mediastinum. If perfusion of an organ is too low (ischemia), the tissue will experience
low levels of oxygen (hypoxia). The immune system can identify a number of different disease
agents: everything from viruses and bacteria to parasitic worms. It efficiently differentiates between
these invaders and the body’s own healthy tissues and cells. Likewise, if the vessel is shortened, the
resistance will decrease and flow will increase.