Practical File

Remote Sensing and GIS

Paper Code: 12291502
B.A. (Hons) Geography, V Semester

Submitted to

(2023-24)
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
MIRANDA HOUSE
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

University Roll No. 20047513018

College Roll No. 2021/660

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 PREFACE
Welcome to the exploratory journey encapsulated within the Practical file titled REMOTE
SENSING AND GIS.' This document chronicles a dynamic traverse through the intricate
world of geographic information systems, showcasing the practical application of various GIS
techniques.
From the meticulous digitization of points, lines, and polygons to the adept use of satellite
data downloaded from the USGS Landsat series, this endeavor unveils a comprehensive
exploration. Aerial photography takes center stage, with a focus on stereo model orientation,
radiometric corrections, and geometric corrections, enhancing the depth and accuracy of
spatial imagery.
The narrative unfolds further with exercises in image enhancement and the calculation of key
indices such as NDVI, NDWI, and NDBI. These indices serve as powerful tools to decode
environmental dynamics, unt raveling the intricate patterns of land cover, water bodies, and
urban landscapes. The apex of this journey manifests in the creation of Land Use/Land Cover
(LULC) maps, achieved through supervised and unsupervised classification. This final act
embodies the fusion of theoretical knowledge and hands-on proficiency, resulting in
cartographic
masterpieces that mirror the diverse landscapes under scrutiny.
'REMOTE SENSING AND GIS' is not merely a compendiuin of techniques: it is a testament
to the convergence of theory and practice in the spatial sciences. As you embark on this
concise yet illuminating expedition, 1 invite you to witness the transformative impact
of'applied knowledge within these page.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This was the first time that we were introduced to a new paper named “Remote Sensing and
GIS”. I really cherished the journey of this paper as well as completion of this project report.
This has been possible with the immense hard work and dedication of our teachers. I would
like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to my professors Dr. Ritu Ahlawat ma‟am, Dr. Om Jee
Ranjan sir and Mr.Praffulit Bisht sir for their commendable efforts to enable students to
develop conceptual understanding of the subject. I thank them for their constructive advises
throughout this report work,

reposing confidence in me and backing it up with their wisdom, professional advice and
thoughtful suggestions. Their valuable suggestions and extreme expertise in the subject
significantly improved the quality of my practical final.

I would also like to thank my classmates for their continuous support and motivation which
was very important for the completion of my work.

My thanks and appreciations also go to my whole class in developing the project and people
who have willingly helped me out with their abilities.

I would like to extend deep gratitude to my parents for providing unconditional love and
support always, which is very important for one‟s well-being.

At last, I would like to extend gratitude to all the people who have been directly or indirectly
associated with this project report and made it a fruitful learning experience for me.

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S. CONTENT PAGE
NO. NO.
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AERIAL PHOTOGRAGH AND IMAGE INTERPREATION 5-23

EXERCISE 1: Annotation of Aerial Photograph 12-17

EXERCISE 2: Calculation of Photo- Scale 18-21

EXERCISE 2A: By establishing a relationship between photo distance 20

and map distance (using toposheet)

EXERCISE 2B: By establishing a relationship between Focal length of 20-21

camera lens and Flying height

EXERCISE 3: Orientation of Stereo-Model 22-23

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VISUAL INTERPRETATION 24-39

EXERCISE 3 Visual Interpretation of Aerial Photograph

EXERCISE 3A: Identification of Geographical Features using Aerial 25-31

Photograph.

EXERCISE 3B: Identification of Land cover using Aerial Photograph 32-35

EXERCISE 4 Identification of Land cover using Satellite Imagery 36-39

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GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM 40-45

EXERCISE 5: Creation of Administrative Map 43-44

EXERCISE 6: Thematic Map of the Study Area 45
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DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING 46-68

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PREPARATION OF LULC MAP 69-89

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I. AERIAL PHOTOGRAHS AND IMAGE
INTERPRETATION

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II. VISUAL INTERPRETATION

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III. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSYTEM

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Introduction:
Geographic information systems, are computer-based tools used to store, visualize, analyze,
and interpret geographic data. Geographic data (also called spatial, or geospatial data)
identifies the geographic location of features.

These data include anything that can be associated with a location on the globe, or
more simply anything that can be mapped. For example, roads, country boundaries,
and address are all types of spatial data.

Elements of GIS

1. People: People use GIS to answer specific data-related questions. People

collect data, develop procedures, identify research questions and define
analysis tasks to run in GIS.
2. Data: There are two main GIS types: vector data and raster data.
a. Vector data includes spatial features (points, lines, and polygons) and
attributes about that data (descriptive information).
b. Raster data are stored electronic images (e.g., pictures taken as an
aerial photograph or satellite images).
3. Analysis is the process of using spatial data to answer questions. There are
many different analysis techniques.
4. Hardware: GIS software is run on computers. Memory and computing
power are important because spatial data includes many attributes making it
very large.

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 5. Software: Geographic Information Systems require specialized software. The
most commonly used GIS software at CDC/ATSDR include ArcGIS and
QGIS.
GIS is applied in various domains, including urban planning, environmental science,
agriculture, natural resource management, healthcare, transportation, and many more. It plays
a critical role in addressing complex spatial challenges and supporting evidence-based
decision-making.
Thematic Maps:
Thematic maps are powerful tools for conveying specific information about spatial patterns or
distributions. Various geometric techniques are employed to represent data on these maps
effectively. Beyond traditional bar charts, pie charts, and choropleth maps, GIS enables the
utilization of diverse geometric techniques to represent data spatially:
1. Proportional Symbol Maps: Represent data through symbols of varying
sizes to convey quantitative information. This technique is ideal for
visualizing point data with magnitudes or frequencies.
2. Isopleth Maps: Use contour lines or shaded areas to depict continuous
data, illustrating changes in magnitude across a landscape. Isopleth maps are
often employed for representing elevation or temperature gradients.
3.Cartograms: Distort the size or shape of geographic regions based on a
specific variable, offering a unique perspective on spatial distributions.
Cartograms are particularly useful for emphasizing particular features or
trends.

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 EXERCISE 5: CREATION OF ADMINISTRATIVE MAP OF THE
STUDY AREA

Objective: To digitize the point, line and area of the Study Area i.e. Mansa district of Punjab.
Methodology: There are 3 types of digitization we have used here to complete the administrative map
of Mansa.
1. Point digitization for the state capital, and district headquarters.
2. Line digitization for national highways, roads, railways and rivers.
3. Polygon digitization for districts
Technique:
Open Qgis → create layer → new shapefile layer → pop – up window appear → write the file name
→ File encoding → Choose Geometry type (line, point,polygon) → Write your file name and add to
field list as String → click on ok
↓
Go to settings→ and click on the Snapping option→ (A window will pop up)→ (Click on the square
box in the left corner)→ vertex and segments→ Increase tolerance to 10 Select Pixels in units→ Click
on Enable Topological Editing option →Click on Enable Snapping on Intersection option→ Click on
Avoid intersection option→ Click on Apply and Ok Click on “Toggle Editing”→ Select Add feature
option Put cursor on area that have to digitize.
↓
After digitizing right click (A window will pop up in which ID and Name have to assign to each area)
↓
To Change the color of the districts Double click on the file → Go to Properties → Go to Style →
Select Categorized → Select your file → Click on Classify → Click on Apply→ Click OK (The color
and transparency of the district can be further changed by clicking on the district and choosing the
colour).
Note: For Line and point follow the Same process.

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Interpretation: Mansa district lying in the south west of Punjab forms a part of the Indo-
Gangetic alluvial plain. Mansa previously a Sub-division of Bathinda district is having
geographic area 2198.0 Sq. Kms.
It lies between the 29o33’ to 30o13’North latitude and between 75o 10’ to 75° 47’ East longitude.
It is surrounded by Bathinda in the North and West, Barnala in north, Sangrur in the East and
Fatehabad (Haryana State) in the South. Mansa district comprises of three tehsils namely
Sardulgarh, Budhlada and Mansa and consists of five CD blocks namely Mansa, Budhlada,
Jhunir, Sardulgarh & Bhikhi. There are 240 villages and 5 towns.
Mansa city is on Firozpur-Delhi main railway line. Headquarters of the district is located at
Mansa, a town with a population of 82,956 as per 2011-Census and this is the biggest town in
the district in population size.
The National Highway (NH 703) here is shown by Red line and State Highway (SH12A) by
Yellow line and District roads from White.

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 EXERCISE 6: THEMATIC MAP OF THE STUDY AREA.
Objective: The objective is to show the Population Composition of the study area.
Methodology: Proportionate -pie is used.
Data Source: The Data has been taken from Census of India,2011.

Interpretation: This map depicts the Population composition of Mansa District of Punjab. The size
of Proportionate Circle is representing the Population and the pie is composition of male and female.
Highest number of population is in Mansa tehsil because it is the district headquarter availability of
health care, infrastructure, employment opportunities and better education for which majorly
population resides here Number of females are more than males in this tehsil.
There was change of 11.76 percent in the population compared to population as per 2001. In the
previous census of India 2001, Mansa District recorded increase of 19.85 percent to its population
compared to 1991.

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IV. DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

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Introduction:
Digital Image Processing (DIP) in remote sensing is a critical component that enhances the extraction
of valuable information from satellite, aerial, and drone imagery. This field has revolutionized the
way we collect, analyze, and interpret data from Earth's surface, contributing to applications in
agriculture, environmental monitoring, urban planning, and more.

 One primary application of DIP in remote sensing is image enhancement. Raw satellite
images often suffer from atmospheric interference, sensor noise, and distortions.
Enhancement techniques, such as contrast adjustment and filtering, improve image
quality, aiding analysts in identifying and interpreting features more effectively. These
enhancements also play a key role in automated analysis by algorithms.

 Image classification is another pivotal use of DIP in remote sensing. Classification algorithms
assign pixels to predefined land cover classes, generating thematic maps. Supervised and
unsupervised methods leverage spectral signatures to distinguish between surface materials,
such as vegetation, water bodies, and urban areas. Machine learning algorithms, including
support vector machines and neural networks, enhance the accuracy and efficiency of image
classification.

 Change detection is crucial for monitoring dynamic environments, and DIP facilitates this
process by comparing images acquired at different times. Change detection algorithms use
techniques like image differencing and object-based analysis to identify alterations in land
cover, deforestation, urban expansion, and natural disasters.

 Image fusion is an additional application where DIP combines data from multiple sensors or
spectral bands to create composite images with enhanced information. This allows for a more
comprehensive analysis by leveraging the strengths of different sensors, such as high spatial
resolution from optical sensors and unique spectral information from infrared or radar sensors.

 The rise of deep learning has further advanced image analysis in remote sensing.
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) excel in feature extraction and pattern recognition,
enabling tasks like object detection, land cover mapping, and scene understanding with high
accuracy and automation.

 Despite these advancements, challenges remain, including data privacy concerns, cloud cover
in satellite imagery, and the need for real-time processing. Bridging the digital divide in
access to remote sensing technology is also crucial for ensuring equitable benefits globally.

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In summary, Digital Image Processing in remote sensing plays a vital role in extracting meaningful
information from Earth observation data. From image enhancement and classification to change
detection and deep learning applications, DIP continues to drive advancements in remote sensing,
contributing to informed decision-making and sustainable resource management.

Image Rectification:

Image rectification is a crucial process in digital image processing that involves correcting geometric
distortions present in images, ensuring their accurate representation of the Earth's surface. The
distortions may arise due to factors such as the curvature of the Earth, sensor characteristics, terrain
variations, or platform movement during image acquisition.

 The primary objective of image rectification is to align images with a specific map
projection or coordinate system, eliminating distortions and ensuring that spatial relationships
in the rectified image correspond accurately to real-world features. This is essential for
applications in remote sensing, GIS (Geographic Information Systems), cartography, and
various fields where precise spatial analysis and mapping are critical.

 Common techniques for image rectification include orthorectification, rubber sheeting,

polynomial transformation, and bundle adjustment. Orthorectification is particularly effective,
as it corrects images for terrain relief distortions by incorporating a Digital Elevation Model
(DEM). Control points, or Ground Control Points (GCPs) with accurately known coordinates
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 on the Earth's surface, are essential for the rectification process. These control points serve as
reference markers to establish the transformation required to align the image with the desired
coordinate system.

 The benefits of image rectification extend to diverse applications. In remote sensing,

rectified images contribute to accurate interpretation and analysis of environmental features.
GIS relies on rectified images for spatial analysis, map creation, and overlay with other
geographic data layers. Cartographers use rectification to create precise maps, while urban
planners utilize it for analyzing land use patterns and infrastructure development. In disaster
management, rectified images assist in assessing the impact of natural disasters and planning
emergency response efforts.

Despite its advantages, image rectification requires careful consideration of factors such as control
point accuracy, sensor calibration, and the availability of high-quality DEMs. Overcoming these
challenges ensures that the rectified images provide reliable and accurate geospatial information,
supporting informed decision-making in various fields.

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Radiometric Correction
Radiometric correction is a crucial step in remote sensing data processing that aims to normalize pixel
values in satellite imagery, correcting for atmospheric effects and variations in sensor sensitivity.
In QGIS, radiometric correction can be performed using various methods, and one common approach
is to utilize the Semi-Automatic Classification Plugin (SCP). Here are the essential steps for
radiometric correction in QGIS:
STEPS TO DO RADIOMETRIC CORRECTION:
STEP:1-Conversion to Top of Atmosphere (TOA) reflectance: Landsat Level-1 data can be converted to
TOA spectral radiance using the radiance rescaling factors in the MTL file:
Lλ = ML * Qcal+AL
where:
Lλ = TOA spectral radiance (Watts/( m2 * srad * µm))
ML =Band-specific multiplicative rescaling factor from the metadata
(RADIANCE_MULT_BAND_x, where x is the band number)
AL=Band-specific additive rescaling factor from the metadata (RADIANCE_ADD_BAND_x, where
x is the band number)
Drag the specific band of L08 on your QGIS window
↓
Do the conversion (remove area of zero value)
After the process this new layer is appears, the data has been processed to remove the zero value area
from the recorded data.
↓
Open Raster Calculator.Open MTL File Of Landsat 08.
Apply The Formula Of Radiance On Raster Calculator Using MTL File.
↓
Press ‘OK’ New Layer Is Added

STEP:2- Conversion to Top of Atmosphere (TOA) reflectance WITHOUT SUN ANGLE:

Reflective band DN's can be converted to TOA reflectance using the rescaling coefficients in the MTL
file:

ρλ′=Mρ * Qcal + Aρ

where:

ρλ' = TOA planetary reflectance, without correction for solar angle. Note that ρλ' does not contain a
correction for the sun angle.
Mρ=Band-specific multiplicative rescaling factor from the metadata

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(REFLECTANCE_MULT_BAND_x, where x is the band number)
Aρ =Band-specific additive rescaling factor from the metadata
(REFLECTANCE_ADD_BAND_x, where x is the band number)
Qcal = Quantized and calibrated standard product pixel values (DN)
Open the Raster Calculator
↓
Open the MTL file and Apply the formula of Reflectance on the Raster Calculator using it
↓
Press “OK”
STEP 3: Conversion to Top of Atmosphere (TOA) reflectance with a correction for sun angle:

Open the Raster Calculator

↓
Open The MTL File Landsat08 And Apply The Values Of Formula On The Calculator
↓
Press “OK”

Radiometric correction in QGIS, particularly with the assistance of theSCP plugin, allows users to
enhance the accuracy and reliability of satellite imagery for various applications, including land cover
mapping, change detection, and environmental monitoring. The correction processensures that pixel
values are consistent and comparable, providinga reliable foundation for quantitative analysis and
interpretation.

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Radiometric correction in QGIS, particularly with the assistance of the SCP plugin, allows users to
enhance the accuracy and reliability of satellite imagery for various applications, including land cover
mapping, change detection, and environmental monitoring. The correction process ensures that pixel
values are consistent and comparable, providing a reliable foundation for quantitative analysis and
interpretation.

Geometric Corrections
Geometric correction in QGIS is a critical process in remote sensing that involves rectifying satellite
or aerial imagery to correct distortions caused by factors such as terrain variations, sensor
characteristics, and platform movement. This correction ensures that the imagery accurately
represents the Earth's surface in terms of scale, distance, and location. Here's a concise overview of
the geometric correction process in QGIS:

The first step is to load the Georeferencer plugin in QGIS. This plugin provides tools for
aligning raster data with real-world coordinates.
↓
Load the raster image that requires geometric correction into QGIS. This could be a satellite
or aerial image with noticeable distortion.
↓
Access the Georeferencer window by going to the "Raster" menu and selecting
"Georeferencer" from the dropdown. This opens a new window dedicated to the
georeferencing process.
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Load reference data, such as a basemap or vector layers with known coordinates, that can be
used to align and rectify the raster image. This reference data should be georeferenced and
accurate.
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Identify control points in both the raster image and the reference data. Control points are
recognizable features present in both datasets, such as road intersections or distinct landmarks.
↓

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 In the Georeferencer window, assign control points by clicking on corresponding locations
in the raster image and the reference data. QGIS uses these control points to perform the
transformation needed for geometric correction.
↓
Select an appropriate transformation method based on the nature of distortions in the
image. Common methods include linear, polynomial, or spline transformations.
↓
Specify the output file for the corrected image by clicking the "File" menu in the
Georeferencer window and selecting "Save As." Choose a location and name for the rectified
raster.
↓
Click the "Start Georeferencing" button to initiate the transformation process. QGIS
applies the selected transformation method to the raster image, aligning it with the reference
data.
↓
After the transformation is complete, validate the results by comparing the rectified image
with other geospatial datasets or ground truth information. Ensure that the corrected image
accurately represents the Earth's surface.

Geometric correction in QGIS is essential for ensuring spatial accuracy in remote sensing applications,
enabling accurate analysis, mapping, and integration of raster data with other geographic datasets.

Merging and Clipping

Merging

Merging process is common in remote sensing and image processing when dealing with multispectral
or hyperspectral imagery. Here are the steps to merge bands in QGIS:

Open QGIS on your computer.

↓
Add the raster layers containing the individual bands that you want to merge. You can do
this by clicking on the "Add Layer" button or dragging and dropping the raster files into the
QGIS canvas.
↓
Open the Processing Toolbox by going to the "Processing" menu and selecting "Toolbox."
↓
In the Processing Toolbox, search for the "Merge" tool. This tool is commonly used for
combining raster bands.
↓
In the "Merge" tool, set the input layers by clicking the ellipsis (...) button next to the "Input
layers" parameter. Select the raster layers corresponding to the bands you want to merge.
↓
Specify the output location and name for the merged raster by clicking the ellipsis (...) button
next to the "Merged" parameter.
↓

Click the "Run" button to execute the merge operation. QGIS will combine the selected raster
bands into a single multi-band raster layer.
↓

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 Load the merged raster layer into the QGIS canvas to verify that the bands have been
successfully combined. The merged layer should contain all the spectral bands from the input
raster layers.
↓
Depending on your analysis requirements, you may need to adjust the layer properties. Right-
click on the merged layer in the Layers panel, go to "Properties," and navigate to the
"Symbology" tab. Here, you can customize the color rendering and styling of the merged
bands.
↓
If you're satisfied with the results, you can save or export the merged layer. Right-click on the
layer in the Layers panel, select "Export" or use the "Save As" option, and choose the desired
format and location for the output file.

Clipping
Here are the steps to perform clipping in QGIS:

Import the Shapefile into the QGIS, From the main menu ,Layers > Add Layer >Add Vector
Layer> select the desired .shp file.

In the Toolbar menu, click on Raster > Conversion > translate

Conversion will remove the area with zero value.

↓
Again in the Toolbar menu, click on Raster > Extraction select Clip by mask layer .
↓
On the appeared Pop-up window, Add the desired Layer that is need to be clipped in the Input
Layer option.
↓
Add the shapefile out of which the input layer in needed to be clipped in the Mask layer
section . Save Clipped output file.
↓
Add your target CRS (i.e. here, UTM zone 43N)
↓
Click ‘RUN’
Now your result will show in the Layers panel, and also map canvas in QGIS.

Image Enhancement
Enhancements are used to make it easier for visual interpretation and understanding of imagery. The
advantage of digital imagery is that it allows us to manipulate the digital pixel values in an image.
Although radiometric corrections for illumination, atmospheric influences, and sensor characteristics
may be done prior to distribution of data to the user, the image may still not be optimized for visual
interpretation. Remote sensing devices, particularly those operated from satellite platforms, must be
designed to cope with levels of target/background energy which are typical of all conditions likely to
be encountered in routine use. With large variations in spectral response from a diverse range of
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targets (e.g. forest, deserts, snowfields, water, etc.) no generic radiometric correction could optimally
account for and display the optimum brightness range and contrast for all targets. Thus, for each
application and each image, a custom adjustment of the range and distribution of brightness values is
usually necessary.

In raw imagery, the useful data often populates only a small portion of the available range of digital
values (commonly 8 bits or 256 levels). Contrast enhancement involves changing the original values
so that more of the available range is used, thereby increasing the contrast between targets and their
backgrounds. The key to understanding contrast enhancements is to understand the concept of
an image histogram. A histogram is a graphical representation of the brightness values that comprise
an image. The brightness values (i.e. 0-255) are displayed along the x-axis of the graph. The frequency
of occurrence of each of these values in the image is shown on the y-axis.

By manipulating the range of digital values in an image, graphically represented by its histogram, we
can apply various enhancements to the data. There are many different techniques and methods of
enhancing contrast and detail in an image; we will cover only a few common ones here. The simplest
type of enhancement is a linear contrast stretch. This involves identifying lower and upper bounds
from the histogram (usually the minimum and maximum brightness values in the image) and applying
a transformation to stretch this range to fill the full range.
In our example, the minimum value (occupied by actual data) in the histogram is 84 and the maximum
value is 153. These 70 levels occupy less than one-third of the full 256 levels available. A linear stretch
uniformly expands this small range to cover the full range of values from 0 to 255. This enhances the
contrast in the image with light toned areas appearing lighter and dark areas appearing darker, making

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visual interpretation much easier. This graphic illustrates the increase in contrast in an image before
(left) and after (right) a linear contrast stretch.

Linear Stretching Method

Linear stretching is a fundamental method of image enhancement in remote sensing and digital image
processing. This technique aims to improve the visual quality of an image by expanding the range of
pixel values to cover the entire dynamic range. In linear stretching, the original pixel values are
linearly scaled based on a new minimum and maximum range, thereby enhancing the contrast in the
image.
For Example, you can see this:

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The formula for linear stretching is:

Output Pixel Value = (Input Pixel Value−Min Input Value) / (Max Input Value−Min Input
Value) × (Max Output Value−Min Output Value) + Min Output Value
Here,

Input Pixel Value is the original pixel value in the image.

Min Input Value and Max Input Value are the minimum and maximum pixel values in the
original image.
Min Output Value and Max Output Value are the desired minimum and maximum values for
the stretched image.
Linear stretching is particularly useful when an image has pixel values concentrated in a
narrow range, resulting in low contrast. By redistributing pixel values across a wider range,
the enhanced image becomes more visually appealing and suitable for analysis. This method
is commonly applied in satellite imagery, aerial photography, and medical imaging to bring
out details and features that may be otherwise less distinguishable.

Histogram Equalization Method

Histogram equalization is a method in image processing of contrast adjustment using the image's
histogram.

This method usually increases the global contrast of many images, especially when the usable data of
the image is represented by close contrast values. Through this adjustment, the intensities can be
better distributed on the histogram. This allows for areas of lower local contrast to gain a higher
contrast without affecting the global contrast. Histogram equalization accomplishes this by effectively
spreading out the most frequent intensity values.

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Histogram equalization often produces unrealistic effects in photographs; however it is very useful for
scientific images like thermal, satellite or x-ray images, often the same class of images that user
would apply false-color to. Also histogram equalization can produce undesirable effects (like
visible image gradient) when applied to images with low color depth.

For example: if applied to 8-bit image displayed with 8-bit gray-scale palette it will further
reduce color depth (number of unique shades of gray) of the image. Histogram equalization will work
the best when applied to images with much higher color depth than palette size, like continuous data
or 16-bit gray-scale images.

Histogram equalization is a specific case of the more general class of histogram remapping methods.
These methods seek to adjust the image to make it easier to analyze or improve visual quality (e.g.,
retinex).

Example:

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 Original Equalized

An un- equalized image Corresponding histogram (red) and

cumulative histogram (black)

The same image after histogram equalization Corresponding histogram (red) and cumulative
histogram (black)

The process involves the following steps:

1. Compute the Histogram:

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 Calculate the histogram of the original image, which represents the distribution of pixel
intensities. The histogram is a plot of the frequency of each intensity level.

2. Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF):

Calculate the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) from the histogram. The CDF
provides the cumulative sum of pixel frequencies and ranges from 0 to the total number of
pixels in the image.

3. Histogram Equalization Transformation:

Apply the histogram equalization transformation to each pixel in the image using the formula:

Output Pixel Value=(CDF[Input Pixel Value]−CDF[Min Input Value])(Total

Pixels−CDF[Min Input Value])×(Max Output Value−Min Output Value)+Min Output Value

Here,
Min Input Value is the minimum pixel value in the original image, and Max Output Value
and Min Output Value are the desired maximum and minimum values for the equalized image.

4. Generate the Equalized Image:

Compute the equalized pixel values for each pixel in the original image using the
transformation formula. The result is an image with improved contrast and enhanced visibility
of details.

Histogram equalization is widely used in various applications, such as medical imaging, satellite
imagery, and digital photography, where enhancing contrast is crucial for visual interpretation and
analysis. While it effectively improves image quality, it's essential to consider its application based on
the specific characteristics of the data and the objectives of the analysis.

INDICES
Remote sensing indices are mathematical combinations of spectral bands from satellite or aerial
imagery designed to highlight specific features or properties on the Earth's surface. These indices play
a crucial role in extracting valuable information for various applications such as land cover
classification, environmental monitoring, and agricultural assessments. Here are brief descriptions of
some commonly used indices in remote sensing:

 NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index):

NDVI is calculated using the red and near-infrared bands. It highlights vegetation health, with
higher values indicating healthy and vigorous vegetation.

 NDWI (Normalized Difference Water Index):

NDWI uses the green and near-infrared bands to identify water bodies. It is useful for
mapping and monitoring water resources.

 NDBI (Normalized Difference Built-Up Index):

NDBI combines the near-infrared and shortwave infrared bands to identify built-up or urban
areas, assisting in urban growth monitoring and land-use planning.

 SAVI (Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index):

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 SAVI is a modified version of NDVI that considers soil background influences. It is
particularly useful in areas with sparse vegetation.

 EVI (Enhanced Vegetation Index):

EVI is an improved version of NDVI, designed to minimize atmospheric influences and
improve sensitivity in areas with dense vegetation.

These indices allow researchers, scientists, and analysts to extract specific information about land
features, vegetation health, water bodies, and more, providing valuable insights for diverse
applications in environmental and land management. The selection of an index depends on the
specific objectives and characteristics of the study area.

Normalised Difference Vegetation Index

The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is a widely used vegetation index in remote
sensing to assess and monitor vegetation health. In QGIS, one can calculate NDVI using raster data
containing the necessary spectral bands (typically, near-infrared and red bands).
Plants have a unique reflectance characteristic, they reflect more near-infrared (NIR) light and absorb
more visible light. When plants are healthy, they have a high chlorophyll content, which allows them
to absorb more light in the red region of the spectrum and reflect more light in the NIR region. So
NDVI uses this characteristic of plants to differentiate healthy vegetation from non-vegetation or
unhealthy vegetation.
NDVI is calculated by subtracting the reflectance of the NIR band from the reflectance of the red
band and then dividing that value by the sum of the reflectance of the NIR and red bands. NDVI
values range from -1 to 1, with -1 indicating no vegetation, 0 indicating bare soil or water, and values
closer to 1 indicating greater amounts and healthier vegetation.

NDVI = (NIR-Red)/(NIR+Red)

For Landsat 7 data, NDVI = (Band 4 – Band 3) / (Band 4 + Band 3)

For Landsat 8 data, NDVI = (Band 5 – Band 4) / (Band 5 + Band 4)

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Generally, healthy vegetation, which contains a good measure of chlorophyll and cell structures, tends
to absorb a significant amount of visible light while reflecting NIR light. On the other hand, unhealthy
vegetation does the opposite; it reflects more visible light while absorbing the NIR light. NDVI
allows differentiating vegetation from non-vegetation or unhealthy vegetation using the unique
reflectance characteristic of healthy plants and thus allows monitoring the growth and health of
vegetation and identifying areas of stress or damage.

Here are the steps to calculate NDVI in QGIS:

Each Landsat band contains just one value per pixel, so by default the data will be displayed in
grayscale. Now merge all the bands and clip it according to shapefile of Mansa.

In the Toolbar menu, click on Raster > Raster Calculator. In the raster calculator interface,We
are now going to put in the NDVI formula.

In the Raster Calculator Expression Box ,Double-click on a raster band in the ‘Layers’ box to
add it to the expression. Click on the operator buttons to add them to the expression or enter
them using the keyboard.

(NIRband – Redband) \div (NIRband + Redband)

It should end up with,
62
 “(“Landsat_composite@5” – “Landsat_composite@4”) / (“Landsat_composite@5” +
“Landsat_composite@4”)”
↓

Click the browse button next to “Output layer”and Navigate to your Landsat folder and type
“Landsat_NDVI” and click the Save button.

Then click the OK button!

↓
When the raster calculator has finished running the resulting NDVI layer will be added to the
QGIS interface. NDVI will be displayed as a grayscale image.

The plot is in black and white, with white areas being vegetation, Grey being bare earth and
black being water. These are the default colors, but we can change them if we want to.
↓

Right-click “Landsat_NDVI” in your Layers Panel and select “Properties”. Click on the
Symbology Tab.
↓

Change “Render type” from “Singleband gray” to “Singleband pseudocolor”.

↓
Click the small black arrow next to “Color ramp” and then navigate to “QGIS” and select
“NDVI”.
↓
Click the Classify button and Click OK.

Interpret the NDVI values in the layer. Values close to +1 indicate healthy vegetation, values around
zero indicate non-vegetated surfaces, and negative values may represent water bodies or clouds.

Calculating NDVI in QGIS is a fundamental process for vegetation analysis and monitoring. It allows
users to derive valuable insights into the health and distribution of vegetation across a landscape,
making it a key tool in various applications such as agriculture, forestry, and environmental
monitoring.
After calculating NDVI, prepare the Layout of the NDVI Map using the steps of preparing Layout of
Map.

63
Interpretation: The provided map illustrates the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) of
Mansa in the year 2019, offering insights into the vegetation status within the district. NDVI values
range from -1 to 1, with -1 indicating no vegetation, 0 indicating bare soil or water, and values closer
to 1 indicating greater amounts and healthier vegetation. Values close to +1 indicate healthy vegetation,
values around zero indicate non-vegetated surfaces, and negative values may represent water bodies
or clouds.
Here in the map, The NDVI values categorize vegetation into two types: dense vegetation and sparse
vegetation. Dense vegetation comprises sparsely spread small plantation and very limited forested
areas. whereas sparse vegetation primarily includes forests or natural green cover,.

The NDVI values for Mansa in 2019 range from 0.32 to -0.31. This range indicates the presence of
areas with dense and healthy vegetation, denoted by a value of 0.32. On the map, these areas with
dense vegetation are visually represented using a light green color and are very limited in spatial
distribution. Additionally, areas with NDVI values between 0.2 to 0.3 depict sparse vegetation and are
represented by a dark green color.

The interpretation from the map suggests a limited presence of vegetation in the district. The total area
covered by vegetation is only 165.5 km², constituting a mere 5.6% of the total land area. This
emphasizes the relatively sparse vegetation in Mansa, reflecting the impact of land use practices on
the district's green cover.

Mansa, situated in the Punjab district, is predominantly flat, featuring vast expanses of land
with fertile alluvial soil. Consequently, a significant portion of the vegetation has been cleared
for land use. The remaining vegetation is primarily concentrated in the western part of the
district, with some smaller patches also found in the southern area of Mansa.
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 TRENDS OF NDVI IN MANSA,
PUNJAB (2009-2019)
From the trend shown below, it could be interpreted that the area under visitation is decreasing in the
district. Within the past two decades. From the years of 2009 to 2019. There is a decrease in the area
under vegetation of about almost 65 km². The reasons for the decrease in the area under vegetation
from the 2009 to 2019, could be the increasing population and ever increasing food demand that let
people take more and more land under farming and other agricultural activities. Vegetation in the year
2009 is more of sparsely spread and that could be due to the human involvement by growing
plantations and tree strips along fields.

65
 ↓

Fig. NDVI over the year 2009 and 2019 in Mansa, Punjab

66
Normalized Difference Built-Up Index (NDBI)
There are lots of indexes for the analysis of built-up area. Normalized Difference Built-up Index
(NDBI), Built-up Index (BU), Urban Index(UI), Index-based Built-up Index (IBI), Enhanced Built-up
and Bareness Index (EBBI) are most common indexes for analysis the built-up areas. These different
indexes having their own formula, own calculation method. The build-up areas and bare soil reflects
more SWIR than NIR. Water body doesn’t reflect on Infrared spectrum. In case of greenish surface,
reflection of NIR is higher than SWIR spectrum.
Image classification technique (supervised classification and unsupervised classification) is lengthy
and complex process. It requires composite band & apply numbers of operation for the final result.
The accuracy derived from image classification technique depends on the image analyst & method
followed by analyst. However, NDBI calculation is simple and easy to derived. NDBI can be
calculated by following formula.
NDBI = (SWIR – NIR) / (SWIR + NIR)
For Landsat 7 data, NDBI = (Band 5 – Band 4) / (Band 5 + Band 4)
For Landsat 8 data, NDBI = (Band 6 – Band 5) / (Band 6 + Band 5)

Also, the Normalize Difference Build-up Index value lies between-1to+1. Negative value of NDBI
represent water bodies where as higher value represent build-up areas. NDBI value for vegetation is
low.

STEPS
 Navigate to the raster calculator tool within QGIS, to perform mathematical operations on
raster datasets.

 In the raster calculator, input the NDBI formula using the Red and NIR bands. Ensure the order
of bands is correct for subtraction.
The formula to input is: NDBI = (SWIR – NIR) / (SWIR + NIR)

 Designate an output file for your NDBI result, preferably saving it as a TIFF file for optimal
compatibility.Click “OK”.

Once the NDBI calculation is complete, it will be shown on QGIS screen in Grey color,you can adjust
the symbology to better visualize the values.Use color ramps to differentiate between high (Dense
Built-up Area) and low (sparse or no Built-up Area) NDBI values.

67
Interpretation: The provided map illustrates the Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) of
Mansa in the year 2019, offering insights into the built-up status within the district. NDBI values
range from -1 to 1, with -1 indicating no Built-Up, 0 indicating Barren land , and values closer to 1
indicating greater amounts man-made features. Values close to +1 indicate dense buildings and
settlements. Here in the map, The NDBI values consists all man-made features like settlements, roads,
buildings, bridges etc; all of which is represented by red colour .
The NDBI values for Mansa in 2019 range from 0.2 to -0.41. This range indicates the presence of areas
with built-up denoted by a value of 0.26
The interpretation from the map suggests a limited presence of buildings in Mansa in year 2019. The
total area covered by vegetation is only 95.5 km², constituting a mere 3.6% of the total land area.

In the year 2019, the district Mansa in Punjab has very limited settlement area because people
tend to have large stretches of land and sparsely spread isolated settlement in between of these
large lands. People back then have joint family culture so there land assets are also joined and
the whole family lives in a single settlement. That is why the number of settlements or the area
under settlement is very limited. Also then infrastructural development in 2019. Punjab was not
so prominent as of today so there are limited roads and bridges around the district.

TRENDS IN NDBI IN MANSA, PUNJAB

(2009-2019)
From the trend shown below, it could be interpreted that the area under built-up is increasing in the
district. Within the past two decade. From 2009 to 2019. There is an increase in area under built-up of
about 600sq.km. The reason for the increase in area under built-up could be the increasing population
and the nuclear family culture. People tend to live in smaller family and have separate settlements.

68
Also the population of Punjab has increases more than five folds in the decade. Between 2009 to 2019.
additionally, the infrastructure of the district have improved over the years which resulted in more
roads, bridges and industries.

Fig. NDBI over the year 2009 and 2019 in Mansa, Punjab

69
V. Preparation of LULC Maps

70
USGS EARTH EXPLORER
The Earth Explorer (EE) user interface, developed by the United States Geological Survey (USGS),
provides online search, browse display, metadata export, and data download of satellite, aircraft, and
other remote sensing inventories. NASA LP DAAC Collections in EE include: MODIS land data
products from both the NASA Terra and Aqua missions, AST_LT and ASTER GDEM data products
acquired from the NASA ASTER mission. NASA Measures products, ASTER Global Emissivity
Datasets, VIIRS data products from the NOAA/NASA joint Suomi National Polar-Orbiting
Partnership (Suomi NPP, satellite, and ECOSTRESS products.
Earth Explorer requires the use of NASA Earth data Login and USGS EROS Registration System
(ERS) accounts to download data products from the LP DAAC.

Downloading the Data:

For downloading the data from USGS, following are the steps:

Step 1: Open the google chrome. Earth Explorer

Step 2: Search for the website name USGS Earth Explorer.

Step 3: After that, the main window appears and the USGS will open.

71
Step 4: Create your account on the website and fill the required details.

Step 5: After creating your account, they send you a confirmation mail on your mail id and you have
to follow up the process and then you can log in with your account. And now, you can start the
process of the downloading the data.
Step 6: Select the Search criteria option and fill the details as in below screenshot.

72
Step 7: In the section of Geocoding Method, select the option of Address/Place and then in State
option you have to write name of your study area.
For example, I choose my study area as Mansa district of Punjab.

Step 8: After this your study area is shown on the window and you have to make polygon to cover the
whole study area.

73
Step 9: select the date range , while selecting the date range keep the same Month and Year .

Note: If you want compare the changes occur in the area you have to compare between 2 to 3 decades
data for which you have to keep in mind that the date and month should be the same or if not, their
would be not more than 15-20 days gap from the previous one data you have downloaded.
Step 10: After this you to click on the cloud cover and it should be between 0-20 percent.

Step 11: Then move to the data set option.

Step 12: Choose the Landsat > Landsat Collection 2 Level 1 and select Landsat 8-9; Landsat 7 and
Landsat 4-5

74
Step 13: And after that click on Result
Select the tile which cover your area and has no cloud cover.

Step 14: Click on the download option and the download the data.

75
Step 15: After the data downloaded , extract files from the data and make another folder for that
extracted files.

76
 ↓

When the data is downloaded and after extraction folder is made like this:

Here,
L = Landsat i.e.,8
X = Sensor (“C”=OLI/TIRS combined, “O”=OLI-only, “T”=TIRS-only, “E”=ETM+, “T”=“TM)
Here, C which means OLI/TIRS combined Processing Correction Level = L1 TP
Path (PPP) = 147
77
Row(RRR) = 039
Acquisition (YYYY/MM/DD) = 2019/11/04
Processing (YYYY/MM/DD) = 2020/08/25
Collection Number (CC) = 02
Collection Category (TX) = T1 ( Tier – 1)

Note: Follow the same process for downloading data of other Landsat.

GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING OF THE AREA

Introduction:
Mansa was declared as district on 13 April 1992 from the east while district of Bathinda. It is a small
district both in terms of Population and Area. The geographical characteristics of Mansa district are as
following:
Physical Features:
(1) Location and size:
Mansa district lying in the south west of Punjab forms a part of the Indo- Gangetic alluvial plain.
Mansa previously a Sub-division of Bathinda district is having geographic area 2198.0 Sq. Kms.
It lies between the 29o33’ to 30o13’North latitude and between 75o 10’ to 75° 47’ East longitude.
It is surrounded by Bathinda in the North and West, Barnala in north, Sangrur in the East and
Fatehabad (Haryana State) in the South. Mansa district comprises of three tehsils namely Sardulgarh,
Budhlada and Mansa and consists of five CD blocks namely Mansa, Budhlada, Jhunir, Sardulgarh &
Bhikhi. There are 240 villages and 5 towns.
Mansa city is on Firozpur-Delhi main railway line. Headquarters of the district is located at Mansa, a
town with a population of 82,956 as per 2011-Census and this is the biggest town in the district in
population size.

78
↓

79
 (2) Physiography:
 Plain Area: Mansa district forms part of Satluj plain and is characterized by low lying flat area.
The elevation of the land surface ranges from 208 meters in the southwest to 223 meters in the
northeast. Thus, the slope of the ground is from northeast to southwest. The range of elevation
in the district is about 15 meters; hence, gentle slope is the characteristic feature of the area.
 Water bodies (Ghaggar River): The Ghaggar River crosses the district through its southern
part running in the North East to South West direction and results in the topographical
variation, which is due to flooding of river and presence of sand dunes in some parts of the
district.

(3) Geomorphic Features:

The monotony of the plain surface is broken by presence of sand ridges, which are residuals of
sand dunes in different parts of the district. These sand dune features were quite apparent a few
decades ago but due to development of agriculture, many of these were levelled down but the
residuals of these dunes broke the monotony of the landscape. The sand dune is a ridge of sand
which can assume various forms. Here, in this district linear sand ridges can be observed here and
there.

 Areas with Concentration of Sand Dunes: Sand dunes are more conspicuous in three
parts of district. The first concentration of these sand dunes is quite apparent in
northwestern part of the district. The second concentration is between Uddat branch
and Boha distributary’s of Sirhind canal. These run in different directions, indicating
shifting wind direction. Most of these sand ridges are small in size. The third cluster
of sand dunes is discernible in villages north of Ghaggar River passing through
southern part of the district.
 Areas without Sand Dunes: Apart from the presence of sand dunes which break
monotony of landscape, the Ghagger River also plays a significant role in forming
low lying flood plain which differs from the upland plain in terms of alluvial
morphology.

(4) The River Systems and Water Resources:

The district lacks any perennial river system but only seasonal stream Ghaggar flows through the
district which enters the district near Hirke village. River rises in Shiwalik hills and enters the district
after flowing through the parts of Haryana state and Patiala and Sangrur districts of Punjab. Due to
climatic changes and tectonic activities, the Ghaggar River became a misfit river.

 Water Resources: The water resources of the district include canals, wells &
tubewells. Firstly, the canals serve a large part of the district. Various distributaries of
these canals provide irrigation to a large area of the district. The traditional types of
wells have been almost replaced by tubewells.

(5) Soil:
Mansa district has loamy sand and sandy loams which are major type of soil. Alkaline soil occurs in
patches in the entire area of Mansa Tehsil. The soil is good for production of Wheat, Rice, Ber, Cotton,
Sugar cane etc.

80
Desert soils belong to the arctic zone spreading over south- western part of the district, therefore, the
soil is dry and deficient in humus. It is also poor in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium because of
high evaporation and little rainfall. The soils are mainly Sandy, Sandy loams or silt loams. These soils
are suitable for cultivation of cotton, moth, citrus trees, bajra and other Kharif fodder crops.

(6) Climate:
Geographically Mansa district falls in the Central Southern part of Punjab and is distantly located
from the Himalayas. The Rajasthan desert is also not far away and its heat, sand and dust storms
influence its weather to a great extent, the district has a very hot summer, mild rainy season and dry
but bracing winter. Due to extension of irrigation facilities during the last few decades the weather has
undergone some changes.

The climate, on the whole, is dry in the district. Temperatures start rising from middle of February and
increase rapidly from the beginning of March till June, which normally is the hottest month of the
season. The temperature occasionally touches 47 0 centigrade and scorching dust-laden winds;
commonly known as loo, blow during the hot season.

Based on the climatic conditions in the district, the year may be divided into four seasons: November
to March is the cold season, which is followed by the hot season lasting up to the end of June. The
period from July to mid-September constitutes the rainy season commonly known as the period of
southwest monsoon. The second half of September and October is termed as the period of post
monsoon. The decrease in temperature is rapid after October and January is the coldest month with
the mean daily maximum temperature at about 5 o Centigrade.

(7) Rainfall:
Rainfall records of two stations in the district are available for sufficiently long period. The average
annual rainfall of the district is 120.7 mm. About 74% of the annual rainfall is received during the
rainy season, July being the rainiest month. Significant amount of rainfall also occurs in the month of
June, mostly in the form of thundershowers. During the rest of the year, a very little rainfall occurs.

(8) Forests and Green Spaces:

Mansa district have limited forested areas and green spaces, primarily in rural regions. These areas
may support local biodiversity and serve as recreational spaces. But nowdays, these forests are
transformed into agricultural lands. The District vegetation includes a wide range of crops each with
its sowing and harvesting season.

(9) Land use and Land Pattern:

Mansa district has an area of 219,000 hectares out of which 3,000 hectares is under forests 15,000
hectares is put to non-agricultural uses, no area is under miscellaneous crops and groves, 6,000
hectares is current fallow, and 190,000 hectares is net sown area.
a) Agriculture: Mansa district is mainly an agricultural district as 78.7 percent of its
population is reported to be residing in the rural areas during 2011 Census.
81
 Kharif (sawani) and Rabi (harhi) are two main harvesting seasons.
Kharif: The principle Kharif crops include paddy (rice), jawar, bajra, sugarcane and
groundnut.
Rabi: The Rabi crops include wheat, gram, barley, some oil seeds, pulses, etc.
Seasons additional crops are also grown where conditions so permit. These are
known as zaid-Kharif and zaid-Rabi.

b) Irrigation:
This district relatively falls in a low rainfall region and thus irrigation has a vital
role to play. The main sources of irrigation are the canals as the rains are low and
erratic even during the monsoons. Also the sub-soil water is low and brackish,
which is considered unsuitable for irrigation. Besides the canals, tubewells are the
other source of irrigation in the district, Irrigation by well is also resorted to but to a
limited extent.
c) Horticulture and Animal Husbandry:
Horticulture is gaining popularity in the district for the last few years. Livestock,
the back bone of the peasantry and the farmer, has traditionally been depending
upon draught animals for plouging on milch cattle, mainly cows and buffaloes for
milk and other dairy products for domestic use and for supplementing their farm
income.
d) Industry:
Village industries like handloom weaving, oil extraction by wooden Kohlus,
manufacture of agricultural implements, juti making, baan making, gur and shakkar
making, calico printing and phulkari making were in vogue in the rural areas.
Durries in floral designs were manufactured in the urban centers like Mansa,
Budhlada and Bareta etc.

Demography:
In 2011, Mansa had population of 769,751 of which male and female were 408,732 and 361,019
respectively. The sex-ratio of Mansa Tehsil is around 874. The literacy rate of Mansa Tehsil is 56.66%
out of which 61.02% males are literate and 51.68% females are literate.
Conclusion:
Mansa District, located in the heart of Punjab, stands as a testament to the state's agrarian prowess and
cultural vibrancy. Its geographical attributes, characterized by fertile alluvial soil, a flat topography,
and a diverse climate, make it an agricultural powerhouse. The district's economy, deeply rooted in
farming, influences its culture, traditions, and way of life. With a rich cultural heritage, hardworking
farming community, and a commitment to tradition, Mansa District continues to play a vital role in
the agricultural landscape of Punjab, contributing to the state's and the nation's food security and
prosperity.

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 FALSE COLOR COMPOSITE
False color imagery is displayed in a combination of standard near infra-red, red and green band.
False color composite using near infrared, red and green bands is very popular. It is most commonly
used to assess plant density and health, as plants reflect near infrared and green light, while absorbing
red. Since they reflect more near infrared than green, plant-covered land appears deep red. Denser
plant growth is darker red. Cities and exposed ground are gray or tan, and water appears blue or black.
Here are common band assignments in false color composites:
1. Near-Infrared (NIR): Red Channel
2. Red: Green Channel
3. Green: Blue Channel
Here's an explanation of the bands used in a common false color composite, particularly in the context
of Landsat 8 imagery:
Near-Infrared (NIR):NIR is often assigned to the red channel. This band is sensitive to vegetation
health, and assigning it to the red channel enhances the visibility of vegetation. Healthy vegetation
reflects strongly in the NIR, making it appear as red in the false color composite.
Red: The red band is assigned to the green channel. This band corresponds to the visible red light
spectrum and provides information on land cover, urban areas, and other features.
Green: The green band is assigned to the blue channel. This band corresponds to the visible green
light spectrum. In false color composites, it is often used to represent water bodies and can provide
additional information on vegetation.
For Landsat 8:
TRUE COLOR
RGB – 4,3,2
True color composite uses visible light bands red (B04), green (B03) and blue (B02) in the
corresponding red, green and blue color channels, resulting in a natural colored result, that is a good
representation of the Earth as humans would see it naturally.
Custom script: return [B04, B03, B02];
False Color
RGB (2,3,4)
False color imagery is displayed in a combination of standard near infra-red, red and green band.
False color composite using near infrared, red and green bands is very popular. It is most commonly
used to assess plant density and healht, as plants reflect near infrared and green light, while absorbing
red. Since they reflect more near infrared than green, plant-covered land appears deep red. Denser
plant growth is darker red. Cities and exposed ground are gray or tan, and water appears blue or black.
Custom script: return [B02, B03, B04];

83
Advantages of False Color Composite :
1. Vegetation Health: False color composites emphasize the health and density of vegetation,
making it easier to distinguish between healthy and stressed vegetation.
2. Land Cover Classification: Different land cover types can be more essentially identified
including urban areas, forests, water bodies.
3. Mineral Identification: Certain minerals have distinct spectral signatures in specific bands ,
making false color composite useful for mineral identification
4. Enhanced Features: Features that may be less apparent in visible color composites become
more visible, providing additional information for analysis.
5. Environmental Monitoring: False color composites are valuable for monitoring changes in the
environment, such as deforestation, land use changes, and natural disasters.

Interpretation: The above given map shows the false colour composite of LT08 Mansa, Punjab. here
the false colour composite has been used to allow us to visualize and interpreted information that may
not be apparent additional RGB( red – green – blue) colour scheme
In the given false colour Composite map different bands are assigned to the red green and blue
channels, creating an image where the colour represent specific information. Here dep red colour
represent vegetation. While blue/black colour represents water body in the Mansa district. There are
small patches of vegetation present in the western and South-western part of the district and there is
sparsely spread vegetation in the Northern portion of the district. As for the water body there is no
prominent drainage in the district. There are small dots or pixelated areas having Water and the rest of
the area is represented by grey colour that represents the existence of settlements and cultivated land
in the district

84
It is clear from the map, Mansa district has more settlement and cultivated area. The vegetation is very
less and comprises very small portion of the land. Different areas with different features are
differentiable due to false colour composite.

METHOD 1: UNSUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION

Unsupervised classification is where the outcomes (grouping of pixels with common characteristics)
are based on the software analysis of an image without the user providing sample classes. The
computer user technique to determine which pixels are related and group them into classes. The user
can specify which algorithm the software will use and the desired number of output classes but
otherwise does not aid in the classification process. However, the user must have knowledge of the
area being classified when the grouping of pixels with common characteristics produced by the
computer has to be related to actual features on the ground (such as wetlands, developed areas,
coniferous forests, etc).
There are three steps for performing Supervised Classification:
1. Generate clusters
2. Assign classes.
Advantages
Unsupervised classification is fairly quick and easy to run. There is no extensive prior knowledge of
the area required, but you must be able to identify and label classes after the classification. The classes
are created purely based on spectral information; therefore, they are not as subjective as manual visual
interpretation.
Disadvantages
One of the disadvantages is that the spectral classes do not always correspond to information classes.
The user also has to spend time interpreting and label the classes following the classification. Spectral
properties of classes can also change over time, so you can’t always use the same class information
when moving from one image to another.
Steps followed for Unsupervised Classification are:
Step 1: Converting the band format to byte if it is in bit format.
Go in Processing Toolbar > Search Raster calculator > Double tap on GDAL raster calculator.
After double tap on raster calculator a new window will appear. In input layer select the clipped band.
In the same window, write A/1000 in calculation in GDAL numeric syntax and type 0 in no data value.
In Output raster type select Byte instead of Float 32.
Now save the calculated file in a new folder and click ok. A new band layer will appear in layer panel.
Step 2: Recoding the band
Now for further process we will Recode the Band which we have converted to Byte. In Processing
Toolbox search r.recode , But before starting recode we will make a code in word document.
Type the code according the values in your converted Byte band in word document.

85
Save the code in plain text format in word document.

Now double click on r. recode. Select B2 Byte band in input layer and in file recode rule select the
Code which we have created above. Save the file in some folder and then click ok .
The band has been recoded and the different codes shown with different colours are clearly visible in
the picture below.
Step 3: Calculating R. texture
Next step is calculating r. texture. For this also search in processing toolbox and then double tap on it.
After double tapping r. texture, a new box will appear: In input raster select the Recoded band and In
Textual measurement method check on asm and entr and then click ok.
In advanced parameter click on three dots and select save to directory.
Save the r. texture in Documents only, it won’t be saved anywhere else. Make new folder for saving
this data. After selecting the folder now click on Run and it is done.
↓
For viewing the r. texture asm and entr we have to bring them on project by Adding Raster layer.
Step 4: Calculating ASM
Now we will apply raster calculator on both asm and entr one by one. First on Asm > Double tap on
raster calculator, a new box will appear > select output asm band in input layer.
↓
In calculating GDAL numeric syntax type A*100 > No data value = 0 > click on three dots and select
save to file > click run.
After completion of calculation a new calculated asm layer is visible with values.
Step 5: Calculating ENTR
Follow same steps for entr calculation also. Select output entr band in input layer.
In calculating GDAL numeric syntax type A*10 > No data value = 0 > click on three dots and select
save to file > click run.
After completion of calculation a new calculated enter band is visible with values.
↓
In next we will put additional no data values zero for both calculated asm and entr. For this Double
click on Calculated asm band > properties >Transparency
Now for further steps we will will have to bring all are our clipped bands except SWIR band which 6
and as well as ASM and Entr to a new project with our main shape file.
↓

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First we have to Dissolve our main shape file by clicking on Vector > Geo processing tools > Dissove
> select the shp file to be dissolved , save it somewhere and click Run.
↓
Dissolved layer will be visible in the panel. We have to now calculate the mean of all the bands as
well as for Asm and Entr. For that search for Zonal statistics in processing toolbox > new box will
appear select the dissolved layer in input layer, in Raster layer select the one band >In output column
prefix type PCA1 > In statistics to calculate select/check mean only > Click run. Mean will be
calculated for the first band follow same steps for all other bands on panel and do rename that so that
you won’t get confused.
↓
Open the attribute table of all bands and Asm and entr which were calculated in earlier step and copy
its Mean value in Excel sheet > Divide each bands mean value by 1.

Interpretation: The presented map illustrates the Land Use Land Cover of Punjab's Mansa district
using Unsupervised classification.
Here, The majority of Mansa's land is dedicated to cultivation and built-up activities. The yellow hue
on the map signifies the presence of cultivation in that specific region of the Mansa district. Cultivated
land includes the total area actually sown with crops and orchards . In the Mansa district, agriculture
is the primary occupation of the local population.
Following cultivation, the built-up area is also prominently featured, with clusters of dense
settlements dispersed throughout the district. This built-up area encompasses settlements, roads,
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buildings, bridges, and all other human-made structures, depicted in red on the map. The continuous
rise in population is contributing to the expansion of arable land and settlements over time.
However, this trend is accompanied by a decline in vegetation across the Mansa district and
concentrated mainly in the northern part of the district. Presented by dark green colour.
Notably, there are no rivers flowing through the district. Instead, drains likely flow, especially during
the rainy season, and a substantial network of canals, including the Sirhind feeder and Bathinda
branch of the S canal, traverse the district. Water access is predominantly through these canals.
Additionally, various small water patches, potentially ponds and lakes, are scattered across different
parts of the district. All of these are shown on map using blue colour.
Mansa district is a flat featureless area of Punjab-Haryana plains, majority of its land has been
taken down for use in farming and irrigation, about 79 per cent of the land is under cultivation.
There is no marked drainage system developed in this area, except for few canals in their
distributor. The vegetation of this area is majorly tropical dry deciduous forest or mostly man-
made plantation that too comprises a very small portion of total land area . There are trees
planted along the road and canal strips but there are no grass preserves in the area of
Mansa districts.

METHOD 2: SUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION

Supervised classification is based on the idea that a user can select sample pixels in an image that are
representative of specific classes and then direct the image processing software to use these training
sites as references for the classification of all other pixels in the image. Training sites are selected
based on the knowledge of the user. The user also sets the bounds for how similar another pixel must
be to group them together. These bounds are often set based on the spectral characteristic of the
training area, plus or minus a certain increment (often based on brightness or strength of reflection in
specific spectral bands). The user also designates the number of classes that the image is classified
into. Many analysts use a combination of supervised and unsupervised classification processes to
develop final output analysis and classified maps.
There are Three Steps for Performing Supervised Classification:
1. Create Training Set
2. Develop Signature File
3. Classify Image
Advantages
1. Analyst has control
2. Operator can often detect and rectify images Disadvantages
1. Collecting training data is time consuming and costly
2. There is no way to recognize and represent categories which are not represented in the
training data.

Steps followed for Supervised Classification are:

Step 1: First import the bands and create a virtual band by going into SCP → Band sat (a pop up
window will appear) → in the single band select all the bands → Create a new band
sat → Click (+).
Step 2: Now right click and activate the SCP Dock Panel.
Step 3: Now click on Training Input → Create a New Training Input → Create ROI
Polygon → Take Samples → Give some MC ID and C ID names Save.

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Step 4: After collection of all the samples merge the samples as one for that Select the samples that
you need to merge → Click on merge highlighted spectral signature.
Step 5: Once the samples are merged then → Go to SCP → Band Processing
Classification → a window will appear in that → in algorithm Select Maximum Likelihood
→ Run.
Step 6: Add the classified image to the QGIS canvas → Adjust the symbology for better
visualization → export the classified image.

Interpretation: The presented map illustrates the Land Use Land Cover of Punjab's Mansa district.
The majority of Mansa's land is dedicated to cultivation and built-up activities. The yellow hue on the
map signifies the presence of cultivation in that specific region of the Mansa district. Cultivated land
includes the total area actually sown with crops and orchards. In Mansa district, agriculture is the
primary occupation of the local population.
Following cultivation, the built-up area is also prominently featured, with clusters of dense
settlements dispersed throughout the district. This built-up area encompasses settlements, roads,
buildings, bridges, and all other human-made structures, depicted in red on the map. The continuous
rise in population is contributing to the expansion of arable land and settlements over time.
However, this trend is accompanied by a decline in vegetation across the Mansa district concentrated
mainly in the northern part of the district.

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There is only one river flowing through the Sadulgarh tehsil is Ghaggar river. Drains likely flow,
especially during the rainy season, and a substantial network of canals. Water access is predominantly
through these canals. Additionally, various small water patches, potentially ponds and lakes, are
scattered across different parts of the district.

Mansa district is a flat featureless area of Punjab-Haryana plains, majority of its land has been
taken down for use in farming and irrigation, about 79 per cent of the land is under cultivation.
There is no marked drainage system developed in this area, except for few canals in their
distributor. The vegetation of this area is majorly tropical dry deciduous forest or mostly man-
made plantation that too comprises a very small portion of total land area. There are trees
planted along the road and canal strips but there are no grass preserves in the area of
Mansa districts.

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