Forestry 2B

21/09/2019 Forestry 2B
FOREST ECOLOGY
Ecological Economics
Integrates economics, environmental science and public policy

Find methods to assign values to components of ecosystems, and assign economic values
Direct Values: Assigned directly to harvested products according to its demand
Consumptive Use Value: assigned to goods that are consumed like fuelwood. Does not figure in national or
international market
Productive Use Value: assigned to products harvested from forests and sold in markets
Indirect Values: Ecological benefits like water quality, soil protection, recreation, education, scientific research and
climate regulation
Non consumptive value: Protection of water and soil, climate regulation, waste disposal, species diversity
Option Value: Potential to provide economic benefits. e.g. Biotechnology
Existent Value: Protection offered to wildlife and natives
Main Attributes of an Ecosystem
Biotic Condition: Indicates biotic health of the ecosystem at different trophic levels
Landscape Condition: Landscape is an area composed of multiple interconnected ecosystems or habitat
patches. Measured by patch extent, landscape composition, landscape pattern/structure.
Chemical and Physical Condition: Critical to ecological patterns and processes. Indicates the habitat quality
of an ecosystem. Most important for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems besides water and soil quality.
Energy and material production: Balance of production, consumption and decomposition. Efficiency of this
balance determines the ability of an ecosystem to consistently produce a certain level of biological material
Hydrology and Geomorphology: Shows the interaction between water and landforms. Define rivers, lakes,
wetlands and groundwater systems. Influence physical and chemical conditions, landscape features, natural
disturbance regimes. Measured by water flow, dynamic structural features and patterns in sediment transport
Natural disturbance regime: Alter resource conditions, exert strong forces on the structural, functional and
biological diversity in an ecosystem.
Productivity
Rate of production of organic matter at any time in a unit area is generally referred to as productivity of an
ecosystem. Expressed in gm/m2/day
Primary productivity: Defined as the rate at which radiant energy is stored in producers such as plants and
photosynthetic microbes.
Gross Primary Productivity: Total rate of production by the phototrophs.
Net Primary Productivity: Balance between photosynthesis and respiration.
Secondary productivity: Rate of energy storage at consumer level
Net Productivity: Rate of increase of biomass of primary producers which has been left over by consumers
Forest Productivity
Accumulation of biomass in plant and animal life in forest.

Considers accumulation of organic matter (photosynthesis products) in plants and its losses due to
respiration and consumption by animals
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What factors affect the productivity?
Leaf Area Index

LAI is directly proportional to forest productivity as it is involved in photosynthesis. However,
productivity efficiency decreases with increasing LAI.
Highest in evergreen forests. LAI for mixed species forests is more than monoculture plantations
Both LAI and productivity decrease from low to high elevation, most likely due to decrease in
availability of carbon
Biologically maximum LAI may not be optimal LAI for maximum net primary productivity
Moisture availability which further limits nutrient availability
Stand structural characteristics: Stand development, natural disturbances and management practices
Soil characteristics and nutrient availability, water holding capacity of soil.
Temperature: Warmer regions have higher energy demands, and hence lesser carbon available for growth
Importance of Succession in Forestry
Classification of forest into different types

Facilitates choice of species for artificial regeneration
Determines successional stages of economically most valuable crop and methods of obtaining it.
Characteristics of Rainforest
Home to 2/3 of all the living animal and plant species on the planet
Characterised with a minimum rainfall of about 170-200 cm
Soil is poor in nutrients due to leaching by high rainfall
Soils are poor in organic matter and quality because of deep weathering and and decomposition
Concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by laterite formation gives a red colour
Due to lack of sunlight reaching ground levels, undergrowth is restricted
Broad branches and buttress at the base of the trunk
Woody climbers are common
Thin bark, which are usually smooth
Cauliflory: Development of flowers and fruits directly from the trunk, rather than tips of branches
Drought Response in Plants
Water Conservation
Stomatal mechanism: Open stomata mostly during night to reduce evaporative water loss
Increased photosynthetic efficiency: As a result of this, stomata are opened for a very short period daily,
reducing water loss
Lipid deposition on leaves reduces evaporative water loss
Reduction in leaf area
Leaf surface has thick cuticle and waxy surface
Water storage in plants
Improve Water Uptake
Efficient root system, with both deep and fibrous roots

Root Shoot ratio is such that roots are much higher compared to transpiring shoots, to maintain water
balance
Increase in liquid phase conductance
Osmotic adjustments: Increased solutes in cell sap cause decrease of osmotic potential
Mechanism to avoid water loss

Leaf angle is more or less perpendicular to earth surface, so that area by which light falls is reduced
Surface area of leaf is minimum
Leaves are small and thick
Reduction in resistance to water flow
Osmotic adjustments
Stomata presence at deep and mostly bottom of the leaf surface
Palisade parenchyma is present abundantly, spongy parenchyma is less
Cortex and Hypodermis is several layered
Inner layer has mucilage storage
Other adaptations
Rapid germination of seeds

Rapid phenological development
Development of plasticity
Larger transfer of assimilates from stem to grains
Adaptations to water logged conditions
Stomata are open most of the time. Guard cells on the stomata are generally inactive
Flat leaves with stomata mostly present on the upper side
Poorly developed root system with absence of root caps
Smaller and feathery roots
Some have specialised roots for taking in oxygen. e.g. Pneumatophores in Mangrove plants
Leaves have thin cuticle. Main function of cuticles is to prevent water loss, hence hydrophytes don’t have
much use
Less rigid structure of cell
Plant cells have air sacs which enhances flotation
Reduction in vascular and mechanical tissues
Adaptations for salt and alkali tolerance
Osmotic adaptation — Halophytes have low cytosolic sodium

Selective transport and uptake of ions. Reduced uptake of Na, Cl and reduced accumulation
Accumulate high amounts of salts in lower stem and root system
Reduced rate of translocation of ions from root to shoot
Synthesis of substantial amounts of solutes like Glycinebetaine
Sequestration of Na and Cl in vacuoles of the cells.
Salt excretion through glands.
Blocking of Na entry into cells
Na exclusion through transpiration stream
Succulent nature
Genetic control
Ecological Amplitude: Range of conditions (biotic and abiotic combines) within which an organism can survive.
Eurythermal: Wide amplitude

Stenothermal: Narrow amplitude
Forests in Climate Change
Carbon pool: A reservoir of carbon. A system which has the capacity to accumulate or release carbon.
Carbon stock: The absolute quantity of carbon held within a pool at a specified time. Measured as a mass
Carbon flux: Transfer of carbon from one carbon pool to another. Mass/area/time
Carbon sink: Mechanism which removes a GHG from the atmosphere. A given pool (reservoir) can be a sink
for atmospheric carbon if more carbon is flowing into it than is flowing out.
Sequestration (uptake): Process of increasing the carbon content of a carbon pool other than the atmosphere
Role of soils in Carbon Sequestration
Soils hold 3x carbon compared to the atmosphere

Reduced tillage and disturbance in forests, ensures carbon stays bounds for a long time
Forest Soils often are in an anaerobic condition, which reduces decomposition of organic matter into Carbon
Dioxide
Restoration of degraded soils can enable them to act as a carbon sink
Soils have the capacity to sequester 10% of anthropogenic emissions
Active soil carbon in the top soil is in continual flux between microbial hosts and the atmosphere. But carbon
in soil aggregates in deeper horizons is much more stable
Carbon Recycling
Using carbon from atmosphere for manufacturing useful products (mostly carbon based fuels), aligned with
principles of a circular economy.
By removing carbon from the atmosphere, it can mitigate the rate of increase in emission of GHGs, thus
helping combat climate change.
Technologies that involve Carbon Recycling are called Carbon Negative. i.e. removing carbon dioxide from
atmosphere.
These technologies mostly harness the carbon dioxide released in industrial, domestic and automobile
exhausts and store them to be used later.
Why is it important?
Combat climate change and global warming by reducing emissions of GHG

Protect marine life and coral reefs from ocean acidification
Preserve fossil fuel reserves
Limitations
Technology not sufficiently advanced for commercial scale production of fuel from carbon dioxide
Presently, the process of converting Carbon Dioxide to fuels like Gasoline requires a lot of energy
Fuels produced for this do not have sufficient calorific value
Bentham and Hooker Classification
Identification of Species
Specific keys for comparing plant specimens

Indented Keys: Alternatives of one character
Bracketed Keys
Matching of the plant specimen with previously identified specimens in the herbarium
Flowers and Fruits must also be collected for proper identification
HERBARIUM
Herbarium is a store house of plant specimens, kept according to an established system of classification after
suitable treatment and labelling
Depending on sizes, priorities etc. herbaria are different across large research organisations like BSI and FRI,
attached to botanical gardens and arboreta, of institutions interested in drugs and medicines, of universities and
colleges
Functions
Conservatory of preserved plant materials

Provides basic information on plants collected from around the world
Facilitates study of plants (comparative taxonomy, evolution, tissues for molecular studies)
Permanent record of flora of a region
Information on: Habit, habitat, Local names, Uses of the plant, abundance or frequency of species, natural
associates in its habitat, morphological descriptions or characters, range of variation and distribution
(Aspects of Dendrology)
Enhances botanical, ethnobotanical and phytogeographical studies.
Acts as a teaching aid and reference to identify unknown specimens

Herbaria Establishment
Plant Collection
Collection should be extensive and samples of all plant species in that area should be collected
Plant material should ideally contain both flowers and fruits
Grasses, sedges and herbaceous species: Entire plant including roots can be preserved
Poisoning of plant specimen
Poisoned in the field, which prevents formation of abscission layer

Poisions used: Mercuric Chloride, Lauryl pentachlorophenate, formalin
Size and Number of specimens
6-8 plant specimens of each species should be collected, to facilitate exchange of herbaria material.
Field Number is given serially for easy reference
Field Notes include: date of collection, vernacular names, local uses, habitat, field description and name of
the collector.
Pressing of plant specimen
Plant specimens are spread out in absorbents (blotting paper or news paper) to remove moisture
Sun drying or special drying chambers enhance the drying process
Mounting
Pressed specimen is mounted on a standard herbarium sheet.

One specimen should be placed on one sheet.
Lower part of the plant material should be at the base of the sheet
Space is left on the right hand bottom for labelling and field number
Filing and Storage
Accession numbers are used for filing after mounting is done.

Specimens are kept according to family, genus and species in a standard system of classification.
To kill pests in the mounted specimens, fumigation using Methyl Bromide, Carbon Disulphide, Carbon
Tetrachloride.
Electric heat may also be used
BOTANICAL GARDENS
Botanical Garden refers to the scientifically planned collection of living trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers and other
plants
Purpose of botanical gardens
Study taxonomy and growth of plants

Study introduction and acclimation process of exotics
Acts as a germ plasm collection
Facilitates development of new hybrids
Augments conservation of rare and threatened species
Facilitates training of staff
Acts as a source of recreation.

Types of Botanical Gardens
Arboreta: Woody Species

Orchidaria: Orchids
Pineta: Type of Arboreta with different conifers
Bambuseta: Containing a collection of Bamboos.
ETHNOBOTANY
Study of a region’s plants and their practical uses through traditional knowledge of the indigenous
populations
Relevance across disciplines: sociology, anthropology, taxonomy, phytochemistry, ecology, agriculture,
medicine
Considered an anthropological approach to Botany
Significance of Ethnobotany
Provides information for harnessing plant wealth

Information can be utilised in tribal development programs
Helps understand plant ecology and taxonomy better. May also help in discovery of novel species and
phenomena
Potential as new source of drugs for many ailments
Many tribes depend upon these species doe primary food, medicines and livelihood.
Conservation of germ plasm stocks of cultivated crops and wild plants
Assist tribals in conserving their local practices, which serves to prevent encroachment into forest lands
Ethnobotany in Indian Systems of medicine
Form the important drugs used in Indian Systems of medicine

Different parts of the plant are used for different ailments (leaves, seeds, flower buds, roots, etc.)
Ancient texts like Vedas, Charaka Samhita etc. and even inscriptions on Stupas have mentioned use of plant
species used in curing ailments
Instead of being a 'quick fix', they emphasise on curing the root causes, and thus focus more on a healthy
lifestyle. Thus, they can represent a paradigm shift in the way we view health care. And usher in a
prevention based health care instead of cure based one.
Compounds extracted from these species may be utilised in preparing better drugs, with lesser side effects
Can be used to boost overall metabolism and immunity, eliminating chances of non communicable diseases
like diabetes, obesity and cardiac issues
Common Species used: Euphorbia (Dudhi), Dalbergia sisoo (Sisam), Butea monosperma (Palas),
Emblica officinalis (Amla), Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), Santalum album (Sandalwood),
Ranwolfia serpentina (Sarpa Gandha), Ocimum sanclum (Tulsi), Terminalia chebula (Harida), Azadirachta indica
(Neem), Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Cinnamon)
Species used in curing ailments
Bronchial troubles: Bulbs of Urginea indica

Blood purification: Mollugo cerviana
Urinary trouble: Glinus lotoides
For swellings: Root paste of Corallocarpus epigaeus
As tonics: Neurada procumbens and Colchium luteum, seeds of Mimosa hamata, root of Asparagus
recemosus
Pneumonia: Achyranthus aspera
Diarrhoea: Podophyllum hexandrun; Salvia aegyptiaca
Chest pain: Cuscuta hyalina
Rheumatism: Carum carvi, Inula racemosa

Gastritis and fever: Achillea millaefolia
Spleen disorders: Capparis spinosa
Hyperacidity: Nepeta lingibracteata
Skin diseases: Ranunculus hirtellus
Conjunctivitis: Thalictum minus
FOREST PROTECTION
Forest Protection is the branch of forestry that deals with measures aimed at prevention and control of
damage to forests by man, animals, insect, fungi, injurious plants and adverse climatic factors.
Could be Preventive (legal safeguards, monitoring, overall economic development of tribals, awareness
generation) or Remedial
Factors that cause damage to forest: Human based, Climate based, pests
Forest Rights
Negative Rights: Prevent certain activities inside the forests. e.g. Smoking and diversion of river courses
Positive Rights: Freely enjoyed without any restrictions. e.g. Collection of fuel wood
Continuous Rights: Continuous in operation without any break. e.g. Right to travel inside the forest
Perspective Rights: e.g. Number of cattle allowed for grazing
Discontinuous Rights: Applicable for certain periods.
Adverse effects of granting rights
Access can lead to illicit exploitation for black marketing

Forest products are exploited in an unsustainable way. e.g. Shifting cultivation, over grazing
Entry concession may be misused
Control Measures
Demarcate areas and boundaries within which rights are applicable

Strict surveillance of forests, involve local people in monitoring
Specify rights and concessions clearly in working plans
Suitable employment to local population, justified access to forests
Live Fencing: Uses thorny plants like Acacia to make demarcations. Difficult for animals and humans to cross.
Can also be planted in trenches to prevent entry of elephants and rhino
Factors responsible for forest degradation
Vast expanse and easy access — makes it prone to damage to illicit felling, over grazing, forest fires
Forest laws are not enforced strictly — lack of funds to maintain adequate personnel, weak forest
governance system, inefficiency and lack of skill
Overexploitation of resources — timber, firewood, grasses
Natural Calamities
Pollution and Climate change
Faulty management practices
Diversion of land for non-forest purposes
FOREST FIRES

Any wild land fire, that utilises the natural fuel is termed as forest fire
Forest Fire is the 2nd most severe cause of forest degradation after deforestation
Fire in natural systems however plays a role in species in adaptations and ecosystem dynamics
Influences of Fire
Geomorphic and hydrologic processes of hill slopes and stream channels

Physical and Chemical properties of soil
Nutrient Loss
Biomass accumulation
Genetic adaptations of plants
Plant composition and diversity, regeneration, growth and succession
Wildlife habitat and wildlife population dynamics
Presence and abundance of forest insects, parasites and fungi
Features
Moves in direction of wind

Moves in direction of available combustible material
Moves fast upslope, and slow downslope
Fuel
Material that is consumed by fire

Continuity of fuel material helps the fire to spread through radiation, conduction and convection, both
horizontally and vertically.
Ground Fuel: Humus, peat, mucks
Surface Fuels: Weeds, Roots, Stumps
Aerial Fuels: Branches, Boles
Moisture content, wind movements, mode of heat transfer, fuel size and density affect the rate of spread of
fire
Causes of Forest Fires

Environmental Factors Human Factors
Intentional
Largely related to climatic conditions
Grazers start fire to promote growth of grasses
in next growing season
Temperature Gatherers start fire to facilitate gathering
Wind Speed. e.g. Friction of Bamboos swaying certain MFPs
due to high velocity winds
Soil Moisture
Unintentional
Duration of dry spells
Rolling Stones and Swaying Bamboo cause Shifting cultivation
sparks that result in fires Use of fires to ward of wild animals
Volcanos Fires lit for recreation
Lightning Accidentally by careless visitors like cigarette
butts
Types of Fire
General Wild Fires
Classification
Natural causes inside the forest

Forest plant communities are reverted to early succession stages

Infrequent, erratic and often severe
Prescribed Fires
Planned fire
Used in destruction of forests for agricultural and grazing operations
Particular interest from silvicultural standpoint
Use of Prescribed fires in forest resource management
Maintain dynamic between tree and grass

Create lands for grazing and agriculture
Removal of weeds and undergrowth
Enhance fertility
Cheap and simple option which saves time and cost
Under ground fire
Fuel some metres below the ground surface

Consumes organic matter
Difficult to detect and control, Longer period of time, Low intensity
Ground Fire
Fuel material on forest floor, like grasses and organic matter

Creeping fire
Position of Fuel Consumes ground flora such as weeds and small shrubs
Surface Fire
Ground flora + middle storey plants
Crown Fire
Occurs in coniferous forests

Restricted to upper parts
Natural Fire — Rubbing bamboos, Rolling Stones, Volcanos, Lightning. Mostly

rare.
Cause of fire
Accidental Fire — Railway engine, unextinguished camp fire, controlled burning
Intentional Fire — Grazing land fires, fire to ward of wild animals
Consequences of forest fire
What determines susceptibility to fire?
Initial temperature of vegetation

Thickness of bark — thicker bark means more resistance to fire
Size of the portion affected by fire
Extensive branching facilitates spread of fire
Higher organic matter in the soil surface facilitates spread of fire

Flora Damages trees, shrubs and plants.

Extent of fire damage depends on the species, intensity of fire and the age of the tree.
Broad leaved species are more vulnerable than conifers due to corky bark
Characteristics of vegetation that determines fire damage
Higher initial temperature, higher possibility of getting burnt

Thickness of bark reduces fire attack
Short and extensive branching makes it easier to catch fire
Higher organic matter in soil surface encourages spread of fire
Green foliage reduces fire impact, dry branches increase it
Kill eggs and young ones

Fauna Destroys habitat
Cause migration from one place to another
Eliminate organic matter content in soil

Soil colour becomes darker
Increases the soil temperature
Removal of litter affects mulching properties in temperate zones
Reduces soil moisture by decreasing water absorption
Soil Reduces rate of water infiltration and increases run-off, thereby causing soil erosion and
ground water depletion
Available nutrient status of soil after burning increases die to release of nutrients through
facilitated decomposition
Total nutrient reserves of the soil are depleted because of release of nutrients to atmosphere
Microbial population of soil decreases significantly
Associated pollution increases health problems

Society Tribal economy is affected as forest produce is hampered
Affects aesthetic value of forests
Forest Fire as a management tool
Convert forests to agricultural lands

Essential component of shifting cultivation
Destroy dry vegetation and facilitates new sprouting in plants
Augments livestock population through fodder manipulation in an area
Reduces unpalatable weeds by destructive action
Reduces the fire hazards in a forest by reducing fuel load
Enhances site preparation
Manipulates plant structure and habitats
Seed dormancy can be broken by fires. e.g. Cyrtanthus contractas
Promotes growth of species such as Lagopus lagopus
Enhances water yield in catchments
Soil acidity can be reduced slightly
Destruction of harmful pathogens
Forest Fire Control
Reduce fire fuel inside forests, especially by controlled and early burning before the fire season
Fire danger ratings based on pressure, wind condition, precipitation, temperature conditions, RH, ground
water level
Legislative measures to clearly combat fire hazards

Awareness among public regarding good practices
Stringent punishments and enforcement for offenders
Fire breaks and fire lines. Fire lines could be internal or external
Fire breaks
Mechanical method: Use bulldozer/plough to create fire lines

Chemical method: Herbicides and weedicides to kill vegetation that could act as fuel
Vegetative method: Use green vegetation as a fire line. Not useful in dry regions where maintaining green
vegetation throughout the year is difficult
Burning: Across a narrow width, so that fuel is exhausted along this line
Preventive Measures for Forest Fires
Direct Measures
Forecast of forest fire — through studies of temperature, wind, humidity etc. It can alter the forest personnel
and help them take precautionary measures
Limit exposure of forests to fires
Controlled Burning — reduce the availability of flammable materials that may be fuel for fire
Fireline — Cleared permanent firebreak to prevent spreading of forest fires from one area to another
Combative Measures — Includes detection, communication to proper quarters, Mobilisation of force and
logistics, launching of operations on ground
Patrolling and Watchtowers
Indirect Measures
Cooperation of fringe forest dwellers — tackle forest fires through JFM structure, awareness among public
Incorporate appropriate provisions in the Forest Acts
Place a system of incentives to better manage behaviour that may have an implication for forest fire
ANIMALS
Grazing: Feeding of leaves and twigs. e.g. Sheep

Browsing: Whole twigs and branches are eaten. More difficult for plants to recover. e.g. Goats
Adverse impact of animals on forests is due to
Increasing population of livestock in the fringe forest villages

Paucity of grazing land outside forests
Traditional practice of grazing cattle in the forest lands
Forest resources suffer from 'tragedy of commons'
Spread of diseases from domestic to live animals
Domestic animals may introduce invasive weed species as well
Light controlled grazing is good for forests. As grass and herbs are removed, the fire risk goes down. Therefore,
objective of forest management is never to completely prohibit grazing
Uncontrolled grazing leads to
Seedlings of desired species are also grazed along with grass. Regeneration of important tree species is also
affected
Mechanical injury to plants
Mortality to seedlings — trampling, dislodging of roots, crushing into earth

Soil becomes compacted and porosity is reduced, increasing water runoff and decreasing groundwater
recharge
Soil aggregates are broken down, causing loss of soil structure
Affects plant succession negatively
Compaction in case of clayey soil and Loosening in case of sandy soil leads to soil erosion
Depletion of palatable grass gives way to unpalatable grass growth which decreases grazing potential of the
forest (also artificially selects for grazing resistant inferior species)
Disturbs plant physiology
May lead to change in floral composition of the community
Preventive Measures
Discourage keeping of large number of cattle. Instead, focus on breed and quality of cattle.
Closure or regulation in areas which are vulnerable. e.g concentrated regeneration areas, areas under active
regeneration, catchments of river valley projects
Grazing by rotation
Invovlement of JFMC in planning measures — Social Forestry to make the fringe villages self reliant
Grazing fees on a reasonable basis
Imparting know how on grazing management to villagers
Plantations of fodder grass in reclaimed wastelands
Browsing
Browsing animals cause more damage than grazing animals

Leaves and shoots are damaged to such an extent that they cannot regrow
Grazing Management
Ensures balance between number of animals and available fodder resources

Grazing Capacity: Amount of grazing that the area can afford to sustain. Expressed as the number of
animals per unit area. Determined by factors like forest type, canopy density, climatic and edaphic factors,
slope, quality of grass.
Principles of Grazing
Continuous grazing on the same areas is destructive to grasses

Grazing should be kept at minimum in protection forests
Grazing must not be allowed in regeneration areas and young plantations
All grazing in forest should be permits based
Levy small fees, which discourages keeping too many cattle
Grazing Patterns
Migratory Grazing: Higher to lower altitude in winter season

24 hour grazing: Roam the forest the whole day
Day grazing: Grazing during day, return from forest at sun down
Penning and Stall feeding: Fodder collected from forest and fed to cattle in the shed
Grazing plans
Continuous Grazing: Throughout the year. Not recommended as it decreases palatable crops inside the forest
and increases the weeds
Unitary Grazing: Particular species are allowed and others are restricted
Mixed Grazing: All kinds of animals are allowed to graze inside the forest at the same time
Deferred Grazing: Delays the grazing, in order to establish the young generation safely
Favours growth of palatable species

Useful for plants regenerated by vegetative means
Beneficial to pastures
Large amount of seeds are produced in the time gap, which helps regeneration
Rotational Grazing: Grazing land is divided into a number of units. At one time, one part is allowed for
grazing and the other parts are allowed to regenerate. This ensures reestablishment of regeneration.
Controlled Grazing includes Rotational Grazing, Unitary Grazing, Deferred Grazing
Weeds, Epiphytes, Parasites, Climbers
Weeds are unwanted plants in an area. They hamper regeneration by competing with them.
Decreases survival of young seedlings
Act as a host for pathogens and increase vulnerability to diseases
Competition for light, nutrition and water among plants.
Increases danger of forest fire
Positives: Increases infiltration and reduces soil erosion
Willow, Oak, Chestnut, Fir are most susceptible. Acacia, Prosopis are tolerant to weeds
Control of Weeds: Frequent cutting and burning, Manual or mechanical removal, Nursery weeding and use
of herbicides
Epiphytes which depend on host plant for support and parasites which depend on host for nutrition, both
compete for resources and increase susceptibility to diseases. Parasites are more harmful than Epiphytes
Climbers cause grooves in the bole, which reduces the value of timber
Injuries caused by animals
Rubbing antler exposes the cambium, enhancing possibility of pest attacks

Bisons strip the bark of trees and graze on seedlings
Herbivores can cause severe damage to nurseries.
Birds consume seeds and seedlings
Elephants trample seedlings and remove bark of trees
Bears strip barks to suck the sap. Adversely affects plant growth and makes them vulnerable to pest and
disease attack.
Rodents can damage roots
Monkeys damage branches
Animals also play a positive role as they facilitate dispersal of seeds. Medium disturbance in most cases is
beneficial for forest regeneration
Issues with Stand Density
Excess of favoured plants reduces supply of food, light and water evenly to all plants
Leads to competition among the individuals and suppresses weaker ones
Decreases vigour of growing plants
Increases susceptibility to diseases
Measures such as timely thinning, correct spacing adoption during planting and periodic removal of weak and
diseased individuals is important for containing this
ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT
Deforestation
Diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes
Extension of agricultural and industrial development

Forest Policy of 1894, clearly favoured diversion of forest lands for agricultural purposes
Inefficient agricultural practices (such as shifting cultivation) have meant that forested lands have not been
used judiciously to ensure maximum productivity from minimum diversion of forests
Forestry being under state subject till the 42nd Amendment Act, Central Govt. had little role to play in
regulation of forest diversion
Relinquishment of forests for development projects
Lack of awareness on the productive value of forests.
Remedial Measures
Strict compliance to Forest Conservation Act, 1980 — regulates diversion of forested lands for non-forestry
purposes
Consideration of all alternatives before sanctioning diversion of forest land
Compensatory afforestation on equivalent land (Initiatives like CAMPA)
Penalties for illegal encroachment on forests
EIA must be carried out in a rigorous manner
Afforestation programs along railways, roads and community spaces
Shifting Cultivation
Shifting cultivation is defined as a method of cyclical cultivation, where the cultivators cut the tree crop,
burn the area, and raise field crops for one or more years before moving on to another forest site and
repeating the process.
Rotation of field, instead of rotation of crops
Jhum in NE India, Milpa in Central America, Ladang in Indonesia
Large population of tribals depends on shifting cultivation for their livelihood.
Features of Shifting Cultivation Merits
Suitable for region where good rainfall in Simple and requires no use of technology —
available in both monsoon seasons only option for primitive and backward rural
Population density is very low in these areas population
Terrain lands are most suitable for shifting No capital investment required
cultivation. Can help to contain and suppress weeds.
Optimum utilisation of water is not possible due Can help in establishment of seedlings in Sal
to lack of adequate facilities cultivation
Village owns the land as a whole
Sharp fall in yield due to repeated cultivation
Measures to control Shifting Cultivation
Technique Awareness among fringe population

Induce gradually into settled and scientific
Cutting down trees and other vegetation on the cultivation — counselling, training, provision
site during January to March of input
Burn the debris as it dries up in April Proper Land Use — lands should be assessed
Ash is mixed in soil and seeds are broadcast for moisture content, fertility etc. and cultivated
during pre-monsoon shower accordingly
Crop is harvested in September to October Alternative means of livelihood — to reduce
Process is repeated for 2 to 4 years, after which pressure on land resources
the site becomes thoroughly infertile due to Introduce animal husbandry to boost incomes
nutrient depletion and soil erosion Legal measures to be enforced in areas such as
Thereafter a new forest patch close by is taken Wildlife Protected areas
up and the process is repeated. Encourage non-farm activities to supplement
income
Political will for developmental measures
Adverse Effects Afforestation in fallow land with involvement
of fringe populations
Reduces fertility with each round of shifting and

ultimately renders the land unfit for cultivation
Production per unit area remains low.
Unscientific in practice
In hilly terrains, it leads to increased run off,
which may result in floods during the rainy
season.
Soil erosion, that leads to siltation of rivers and
reservoirs
Local extinction of biodiversity
Facilitates invasion of weeds
Mining
Mining is the activity of extraction of ore or raw material from earth both from surface as well as subsurface.
Classified into Open Cast mining and Surface mining.
Issues faced in afforestation of mined areas
Salinity and acidity

Damage caused Inadequate supply of nutrients
Severe soil erosion
Destroys vegetation while prospecting for Bulk density is less than original soils
mineral Low infiltration, water holding capacity and
Vegetation and soil are lost while digging pits porosity
for shafts and dumping the excavated soils
In open or surface mining, entire vegetation and
soil of the mined area is lost Remedial measures
Accelerates soil erosion in hilly areas
Contamination of soil and groundwater with Strict watch to ensure no illegal mining (e.g.
toxic metals Khan Prahari app)
Loss of habitat for species Proper EIA must be conducted before
Massive alteration of land use pattern sanctioning mining lease
Air pollution Adequate safeguards to prevent contamination
Radioactive contamination of soil due to mining.
Triggers rockslides and landslides Compensatory afforestation on land equivalent
to that diverted for mining
Ecological restoration of mined lands after the
mining operation is over
Encroachment
Act of illegally seizing possession of some forest land

Root cause lies in socio-economic structure — people with no land occupy lands without any apparent
owner. Driven by poverty, hunger and lack of means of a livelihood. However, encroachment due to greed of
adding land assets is also common.
Reasons Remedies
No clear demarcation of forest boundaries Clear demarcation and maintaining diligent

Lack of field inspection records
Leaving forest land barren for a long time Strengthening JFM committees
without any crop Strict enforcement and speedy resolution in
Lack of prompt action — delay in detection of case of encroachment (Indian Forest Act,
encroachment and enforcement of legal 1927)
measures Better monitoring and surveillance
Backward socio-economic conditions in fringe Development of forest dwellers
populations, coupled with low agricultural
output

Increasing number of landless people

Remoteness of forest resources
Illicit Felling
Illicit felling and removal of forest produce constitutes the most frequent damage to forests
Trees with valuable timber are the most vulnerable
Affect forest assets, biodiversity and the ability to regenerate
Mostly in areas close to human habitations
Prevention
Stricter enforcement of forest laws

Reasons Improve socio-economic conditions of fringe
population — create alternate means of
Household requirement of villagers (fuel, timber,
livelihood
fruits)
Regular patrolling
Form of livelihood in absence of other
Checking transit of illicitly extracted forest
employment — due to socio-economic structure
produce
Unscrupulous timber merchants and contractors
Strengthen JFM in order to facilitate
due to absence of enforcement of forest laws
sustainable utilisation of forest produce by
Nexus of corrupt officials, mafia and politicians
villagers
Genuine demands must be met as a part of
generating goodwill.
Silvicultural Felling
Wrong perceptions in objective of forest management — objective of quick revenue in short time may lead
to over exploitation of forest resources
Disproportionate focus on timber, while ignoring NWFP in the working plans
Absence of a sound plan for soil and moisture
Regeneration is sometimes biased towards fast growing commercially important species — leads to mono
cropping
Rotation age being guided by economic considerations alone
Allotment of wrong periodic blocks
Extensive harvest in fragile zones like high altitudes and forests with endangered species
Introducing exotic species without trial
Repeated lopping weakens the trees, retards their growth and increases insect attacks
Removal of forest litter which otherwise improves physical profile of soil.
Felling not being adequately compensated by regeneration
Preventive Measures
Scrutiny of forest management plans by expert forest officers

Periodic review and revision if required
Trees with diameter less than 30 cm should not be allowed for lopping
Lopping should be restricted to lower 1/3 of the canopy
Poaching
Reasons Remedies
Vast expanses of forests, difficult to monitor Strict patrolling, especially for susceptible
Shortage of patrolling staff. Outdated arms with species like tigers, rhinos etc.
forest guards Quick trial and justice for poachers who are
Poverty drives many to take up illegal activities nabbed
Weak cross-state police cooperation
Weak monitoring at borders Police cooperation to intercept networks of

traffickers
Consider Eco Tourism as an option to
generating revenue
Enforce strict monitoring at airports and sea
ports from where trafficked animals are
exported
Impact of Pollution
Air Pollution - Sulphur and Nitrogen Oxides, Ozone
Necrotic lesions - further cause diseases and pest attacks

Stunted plant growth
Changing in color including chlorosis (aka yellowing leaves), reddening, bronzing, mottling
UV damage due to Ozone hole
Tropospheric Ozone obstructs stomata and prevents photosynthesis - restricts photosynthesis and stunts
growth
Land Or Soil Pollution: Improper waste disposal, from sources like oil spills, landfills, pesticides, or illegal
dumping
Chemicals seep into the soil and strip the land from any nutritional content
Chemicals or metals that damage plant cells and keep plants from obtaining nutrients and growing.
Poisoned by the toxic substances stored in contaminated soils
Change the plant metabolism and reduce crop yields
Cause soil pH fluctuations and salinity
Water Pollution: Sewage leakage, industrial spills or direct discharge into water bodies, biological contamination,
and from farm runoff
Excess of nutrients in the water which causes an excess in plant growth

Fluctuation in acidity and damages or kills the plant
NATURAL FACTORS
Solar Radiation Drought
Intense radiation causes intense desiccation effects on plants and soil

Effects vary across species, age, microhabitat, weather etc.
Certain species like Acacia and Prosopis are more drought resistant.
Effects of drought are higher in plains than in hills
Protection measures
Regeneration by artificial methods gives good results compared to Natural

Regeneration
Select drought resistant species in arid regions
Planting at the beginning of rainy seasons so that seedlings can escape the drought
period.
Evergreen hedges are planted along the boundary to reduce solar insolation
Thatching, trenching and mulching
Regular weeding and watering
Standing crop should be dense to cover the soil

Bark Scorching
Generally occurs on sides facing the sun or exposed to hot and dry winds.
Causes splitting of bark, drying of sapwood, browning of wood
Large trees in open are affected more than trees in plantation
Protection
Felling or opening up of susceptible species is avoided

Dense foliage reduces impact of bark scorching
High Pruning is avoided to decrease exposure of bark to sunlight and wind
Soil humus is not disturbed so that soil moisture condition is maintained
Heat Crack
Formed during the summer season, when day-night temperature ranges are high
Results in loosening and cracking of barks
Importance of air temperatures on plant community
Rate of photosynthesis and respiration increase within optimum range

At temperature above the upper limit, the food used by respiration exceeds the rate of
photosynthesis and hence reduces crop growth
Dehydration and scorching of leaves
Pollen abortion (Proper pollen development depends on ambient air temperature)
Quality of fruits and vegetables is reduced
Water demand increases
Flower colour fades and life period is reduced
Thermal Death Point: Critical temperature above which plants get killed
Heavy Rain
Adverse effects depend on force, volume, frequency and intensity of rainfall, slope and
aspects of land, and type of soil.
Heavy rain carries away dead leaves, raw humus and seeds
Loosens the soil and increases erosion
Uproots young plants
Develops local swamps and causes water logging which decreases aeration
Rain Prevents ripening of fruit and usually breaks them
Destroys habitat
Protection Measures
Forest growth and cover is maintained to reduce soil erosion

Avoid indiscriminate deforestation // Afforestation measures
Provide trenches in dry slopes
Discourage stump removal, litter removal, over grazing
Soil and water conservation measures
Hail Size of ice crystals determines the extent of damage

Damages young saplings

Damage to bark of trees, make it susceptible to infections
Increment is reduced
Deformed growth
Reduces commercial value of plants
Harmful to small sized animals and birds
Protection Measures
Selection system is most suitable

In hilly regions, top of ridges should be under dense cover
Broad leaved species are mixed with conifers so that impact of hail on conifers is
reduced
Strong seedlings for transplanting
Planting deep rooted species
Protective belt establishment around forests
Wind related problems are more acute in coastal littoral zones, cultivated plains, mountain
tops and unsheltered plateaus
Impact
Uproots trees and young saplings

Impedes the height growth of trees
Hampers formation of regular shaped crown
Bending of wood in particular direction and breaks the tender shoots
Increases forking of boles
Decreases the total increment
Enhances spread of diseases and pests
Wind Moving air enhances evaporation and depletes soil moisture
Enhances soil erosion and decreases soil productivity
Protection
Wind breaks and Shelter belts

Early, frequent and moderate thinning
Long rotation may be avoided
In mountain and hilly forest area, selection system is followed to reduce wind
damage.
Regeneration is done in narrow strips in direction opposite to prevailing wind
Snow
Snow softens the soil and increases erosion and run off
Branches bend and break due to weight of snow
Even aged forests are more prone to snow damages
Old and Young aged forests are less liable to snow damage compared to middle aged
forests
Crops in hilly regions face more damage than crops in plains
Thinned crops are less liable to damage
More damage in wetter and turbulent conditions
Protection
Frost hardy species are chosen

Mixture of species is preferable over mono cropping
Selection system is recommended over clear felling
Sowing in open places is avoided
Removal of excess weeds and grasses

Timely thinning.
2-3 seedlings planted per hole, so that atleast one survives
Radiation Frost: Occurs during clear sky due to reflection of all radiation. Soil
becomes cool and causes frost
Pool Frost: Occurs in hilly areas because of flowing down of cool wind in to the
natural depressions
Advective Frost: Caused by cold wind brought rom elsewhere.
Impact
Causes death of young plants and reduces their activities due to chilling effect
Heaving up of seedlings due to frozen effect of water in the soil
Freezing of water in the stem causes frost crack formation
Cell damage, injury to crown and canker formation
Factors affecting frost resistance
Small sized cells are more resistant to frost

Water content in cells should be low. Higher water content enhances susceptibility
Frost High Osmotic Potential — better resistance to frost. Dissolved solute in cell sap
increases resistance
Permeability — low permeability for high resistance
Water binding colloids in cytoplasm should be less, so that resistance to frost is
higher
Reduced light conditions increase frost susceptibility
Greater susceptibility in winter and in reduced temperatures
Minerals like Calcium and Potassium improve frost resistance
Protection
Wet localities and swamp places should be drained

Dry humus is retained on the surface
Avoid planting frost susceptible plants in the open
Frost hardy species should be chosen
Pruning of lower branches
Shelterwood forest system preferred over clear felling
Belt of protective species around the plantations
Nursery Diseases
Seed Diseases
Prone to attack by fungi while still on tree, during post harvest operations, storage and handling prior to
sowing
Common fungi: Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium
Fusarium causes poor germination of neem seeds
Phoma sp. attack Dalbergia
Control measures
Contaminated seeds may be separated so that further infection is avoided

Timely collection ,drying and storage are necessary to protect the seeds
Seed dressing with a suitable fungicide

Seedling Diseases
Most common and destructive disease in the nursery

Causal fungi: Pythium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia
Favourable conditions: High soil temperature, excessive soil moisture, high soil pH,
high nitrogen content, shading, clayey soil with poor drainage, dense sowing
Fusarium oxysporum causes Damping off in Neem
Damping Off
Control
Cultural practices that favour plant growth and discourage growth of the pathogen
Potting media should be properly sterilised by solar heating before use
Formaldehyde as a soil fumigant
Seed dressing with fungicide (Bavistin)
Caused by fungus
Increase in size rapidly, covering large leaf areas
Blighted leaves are eventually shed
Severely infected seedlings show premature defoliation
Leaf Spot Applying blitox (0.2%) twice at weekly intervals
Bacterial Leaf Spot of Neem - Xanthomonas azadirachtii

Alternaria Leaf Spot of Albizzia - Alternaria alternata
Pseudocercospora Leaf Spot of Neem - Pseudocercospora subsessilis
Infected plants show water soaked greyish brown patches that enlarge rapidly and
cover a large part of the entire lamina
Blighted leaves often show holes in the infected portion
Infected leaves dry up and are shed
Leaf Blight
Disease spreads laterally in the nursery through overlapping foliage, resulting in group
blighting of seedlings
Immediate removal of infected plant can help control the spread
Application of Dithane is effective
Appears after regular monsoon rains set in

Develops as greyish brown blotches, which increase in size with the advancing fungal
hyphae and engulf the entire leaf blade
Infected adjoining leaves get joined together by fungal hyphae
Leaf Web Blight Leaflets are detached prematurely
Disease spreads through contact of overlapping foliage
Control through sanitation and cultural practices
Bavistin fungicide is effective
Rhizoctonia leaf blight of Albizzia - Rhizoctonia solani
Powdery
Mildew White patches on surface of leaves
Patches coalesce and cover the whole leaf lamina, giving greyish white appearance
Severely infected leaves and leaflets defoliated prematurely
White powdery coating on the undersurface
Air borne spores cause fresh infection
Sulphur dust is most effective in controlling powdery mildew in seedlings
Spray of Bavistin is also effective

Neem - Oidium azadirachtae

Teak - Uncinula tectonic
Sisoo - Phylloctinia dalbergiae
Lower leaves initially turn yellow and then fall off

Yellowing proceeds towards the growing shoot and within a month the seedling dies.
Seedling Wilt Roots of affected seedling get discoloured
Dithane and Bavistin are effective
Treating seed beds before sowing with Bavistin also prevents disease development
Development of Pustules on leaf surface.

Affects the metabolic activity, resulting in death of plants.
Can be controlled by application of Dithane or Sulfax fungicide.
Leaf Rust
Leaf Rust of Albizzia - Ravenalia clemensiae

Leaf Rust of Teak - Olivia tectonae
Leaf Rust of Terminalia chebula - Uredo terminaliae
Root rot causes paling of foliage, leaf shedding and subsequent death of seedlings
Root and Collar Premature defoliation
Rot Can be controlled by soil drenching with Bavistin or Dithane
Gmelina arborea - Sclerotium rolfsii
Infected portion exhibits water soaked depression, which later turns dark brown
causing wilt and subsequent death of plants.
Foot Rot
Can be controlled by soil drenching with Bavistin or Dithane.
Gmelina arborea - Fusarium oxysporum
Caused by Phytoplasma like organisms.

Little Leaf Observed in seedlings after germination of seeds
Disease Cotyledons and first pair of seeds are turned into yellow.
Foliage becomes bunchy with much reduced leaves.
Depressions and Necrosis of the bark.

Numerous conidia are produced resulting in formation of canker.
Canker Disease Canker increases in size due to fungal invasion into the surrounding healthy tissues.
Bark later peels exposing dead wood.
Caused by Phone, Thyronectria, Hendersonula
Disease management in Nurseries
Potting media should be sterilised to kill all pathogens

Hygiene inside mist chambers, poly tunnels and shade house
Infected tissues should not be taken inside the nursery
Proper drainage system
Avoid excessive moisture and shade in clonal complex structures
Avoid injury to the seedling roots or stem which facilitates entry of pathogen
Affected portions are mechanically removed and burned outside the nursery
Disease affected plants are kept in isolation and treated separately
Application of bio-control agents like Trichiderma viride while preparing potting medium
Use of quality seeds and disease resistant planting material

Application of biofertilisers like Rhizobium, Azospirillium, Phosphobacterium
Pest Management
Major Pests
Most injurious to conifers and seedlings of teak, casuarina, cassia and cashew
Fertilised female moth lays eggs on humus, stones, weeds
Feed on the seedlings by cutting through the stem at ground level
Agrotis epsilon, Agrotis flammatro
Control
Cutworms
Edges of nursery beds, surroundings and transplant beds should be kept clean from
weed to prevent egg laying
Irrigation and flooding o nurseries, allows the cutworms to come out of their burrows,
which can then be destroyed
Mother beds are dusted with a mixture of quick lime and ash
Dusting with endosulfan and quinolphos
Larvae of cockchafer beetles

Beetles lay eggs in the soil
Hatched grubs feed on roots and rootlets
White Grubs Use of sandy soil should be avoided for raising nursery seedlings, as beetles prefer
sandy soil for egg laying
Ploughing and digging of soil in winter facilitate collection and destruction of white
grubs
Feed on under ground rhizomes, roots and stem of both seedlings and tree species.
Termites causing injuries to nursery seedlings: Odontotermes, Miccrotermes
Mostly affect Acacia, Barringtonia, Casuarina, Dalbergia
Widespread damage to seedlings and saplings in plantations.
Incidence and extent of damage varies from species to species
Damage is mostly below the ground level, in the upper 20 cm of soil layer.
Termites
Termites hollow out or debark the tap root and kill seedlings
In case of cuttings, the underground woody portion is decayed and attacked by
subterranean termites.
Affected seedlings show yellowing, wilting and die back.
Red ants can be released into nursery beds which kill termites.
Drenching of mother beds with Chlorpyrifos can control termites
Variety of leaf feeding beetles belonging to Melolonithidae, Chrysomelidae etc., leaf

feeding caterpillars, grasshoppers.
Adult beetles are polyphagous feeders of foliage and damage seedlings of many forest
Defoliators
species
Infested leaves may dry up and drop.
Larvae of Lepidoptera either devour the entire leaf tissue or skeletonise it.
Sucking Pests
Young leaves and tender shoots are pierced and the sap is sucked by the pest.
Some pests inject phytotoxic saliva into the plants that causes cell necrosis around
feeding punctures resulting in phytotoximia
Seedlings become stunted

Common spa sucking pests are mealy bugs, whiteflies, fulgorids, eurybrachids
Early detection and treatment are essential to manage sap feeders as they multiply
very rapidly and cause extensive damage
Sap feeders can be controlled by spraying systemic insecticides like Dimethoate,
Formothion etc.
Mites can be controlled by Acaricides.
Minor Pests
Polyphagous pests
Feed on young shoots and leaves in nurseries
Adults lay eggs in soil, and the nymphs come out from the soil to feed on the foliage.
As the nymphs grow, they feed on the foliage more voraciously, causing death of
Grasshoppers
seedlings
Species: Atractomorpha cremulaita, Aularches miliares
Regular weeding reduces incidence of grasshoppers
Spraying of Endosulfan or Phosalone
Young seedlings and foliage are dragged into tunnels where the young crickets live.
Cricket Flooding tunnels with water and putting kerosene causes coming out of the insects
which can then be killed
Abundantly found in light loamy soils in the plains

Nymphs and adults feed on the seedlings.
Mole Cricket Female lays eggs in cluster in earthen cell. Can be driven out of their tunnels by
pouring water mixed with kerosene
Application of carbaryl dust in soil is effective
Non Insect Pests
Monoculture environment is conducive for nematodes.

Root knot nematodes, Cyst nematodes, Spiral nematodes
Nematodes
Live in soil and feed on the plant root
Soil fumigants like Chloropicrin, Methyl bromide, Vapam are effective
Rodents damage by debarking and slicing the stem

Rodents If damage extends to xylem, it causes death of the plants
Zinc phosphide is used as bait poisoning
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
Aspects of Wildlife
Positive
Tangible:
Physical Utility: Food, Fur, domestic uses
Economic Utility: Furs, Hides, Ivory, Medicines
Recreational: Birdwatching, Parks, Tourism
Intangible
Scientific Value: Research and Discoveries
Ecological Value: Nutrient cycling and energy flows

Negative
Conflict with humans (crop and livestock raiding) leading to loss of life and property, Zoonotic
diseases
Prevention of Man-Animal Conflict
Trenches around core areas to prevent animals from wandering into villages. These trenches are typically 5-
10m wide and are planted with thorny plants
Land Use Planning: Protecting the key areas for wildlife, creating buffer zones and investing in alternative
land uses.
Real time monitoring in case of species like Elephants, and issuing warning signals when they are in vicinity
of crop lands or villages
Fencing around crop lands and villages
Strobe lights to ward off nocturnal animals. (But animals eventually get used to it)
Identify wildlife corridors
Dedicated response units to capture animals that have wandered into residential areas
Why restrict tribals in National Parks?
Prevent indiscriminate felling of trees

Prevent shifting cultivation
Prevent over grazing
Conflict with wildlife in core areas
Prevent hunting of endangered wildlife in critical habitats
Prevent the possibility of destructive forest fires.
Ecological Aspects
Long day animals: Spring breeding birds, turkeys, starlings

Light Short day animals: Deer, Sheep, Goats
Indifferent day length animals: Squirrels
Temperature influences
Metabolic rates
Temperature Reproduction of animals
Distribution of animals
Morphology and Physiology adaptation
Influences metabolism and reproduction of frogs, snakes and lizards

Rainfall
Influences distribution of animals
Available water determines carrying capacity of the land

Water
It will influence the migration as well as distribution of animals
Edaphic
Indirectly determine the health, size and vigour of animals through supply of minerals to
plants
Influences distribution. e.g. Snails prefer calcium rich areas and deer prefers fertile
alluvial soil.
Biotic Determines inter specific and intra specific relations
Age Determination in animals
Size
Body weight
Size of horn/tusk
Colour of skin or feather
General appearance
Basic principles in age determination
Embryonic Development: Examination of egg and foetus

Morphological development: Teeth, Horn rings, Bone annuli
Growth maturation
Replacement and wear: Condition of teeth, replacement of feathers an doctor change
General developmental features: Weight, Morphology, General consistence, hardness of bones
Sexual maturity: primary and secondary sexual organs
Methods of animal capturing
Why capture animals?
Control wild animals causing distress to public

Study animals
Translocate them from high density to low density habitats
Veterinary care for diseased animals
Use them in captive breeding programs
Methods of capturing
Baits and Scents

Kill trapping: Can use mechanical devices (most useful for small mammals), and toxic drugs (mixed with
food)
Live trapping: Snares, Box trap, Pit method
Use of tranquilliser darts
ANIMAL CENSUS
Uses of Census
Determine change in population size over a period of time.

Determine age and sex ratios
Inform wildlife management and planning
Types of Census
Total Count
Census Estimation of total population in the entire area of the forest or protected areas.
Disadvantages
Very difficult process when practically applying at field

Covers larger area
Counting of smaller animal is not possible
Time and labour requirement is high
Interpretation of result is difficult
Part of the sample population is counted and their result is extrapolated to the overall
area.
Sample Count Requires less labour, time and money.
Census Requires skill and understanding for choosing an appropriate sample. Wrong sample
selection leads to wrong estimates
Useful only when the population being surveyed can be considered as homogeneous
Census Methods
Roadside index Useful for deer, antelope, goat and sheep.

survey The survey tracks are selected such that all areas are represented properly
Observe must be skilled to identify dung

Different dung groups are identified and separated
Dung Survey
Sample plots are laid, surveyed and the results are extrapolated
Disadvantage: Dung decays beyond recognition very quickly
Most suitable for dry areas where limited water holes are available
Water Hole
Counting is done from a hidden place near the watering hole
Survey
In case of night surveys, moon lit nights are preferred
Requires skills to recognise species based on their calls.

Calls
Mostly suitable for birds and frogs
Fixed transects are laid at 0.5 km interval.

Fixed visibility Transects are laid parallel to each other.
transect survey Ideally, they should have clear visibility on both sides
Observer moves from time to time and counts are taken periodically
Most useful for large carnivores such as tiger, lion, etc.

Pug mark count Observer must have the skills to recognise pug marks of different animals
survey Liquid plaster of Paris is used to make an impression of the pug mark
Age and sex can both be inferred
Camera Traps
Cameras are fitted in paths that animals use for their daily foraging
Can be used to document different individuals
Expensive and cumbersome
Capture rate is very low
Effective only for large species and in open habitats

Aerial Survey Using drones, expansive areas can be covered
e.g. Elephants in African savanna
Aspects of Wildlife Management
Planting of fruits and fodder trees to meet the nutrition requirements of birds and
Food animals
Management Canopy of the trees should be trimmed time to time to yield more fruits and fodder
Controlled burning, pasture improvement and grazing control
Especially in summer, water management is essential. Otherwise, wild animals may

Water move towards human settlements in search of water
Management Natural water holes can be deepened. Artificial water holes can be created if it isn’t
sufficient
Protective covers help the animals stay protected from predators and extreme
weathers.
Shelter Hedge rows: Low, woody vegetation along fence rows in river and pond banks
Management Brush piles: Loose heaps of small trees, woods, shrubs, cut logs and old fence
Natural and Artificial roosts can be facilitated for animals by planting trees
Nesting covers and nest boxes if needed
Water management practices such as water harvesting and storage

Wetland Should consider topography, soil and climate
Management Existing succession levels should not be disturbed
Shallow marshes can be improved by artificial flooding, ditching and dredging
Needs a detailed study of the food cycle and ecological triangle.

Predation control Predator, prey and vegetation all determine density of each other. Hence,
disturbances at one level have repercussions at other levels.
Education and training to optimise people’s participation

Tourism control Sustainable management to minimise footprint
Increase conservation awareness
Causes for Wildlife Extinction
Severe habitat destruction

Unbalanced sex ratio
Tendency of some species to have a narrow habitat range
Hunting and poaching
Extinction or removal of prey species
Floods, volcanos, forest fires
Habitat degradation and destruction
Pollution, global warming and other natural hazards
Wildlife Conservation
In Situ Conservation Ex Situ Conservation
Conservation and preservation outside the

natural habitat of a species
Applicable when degree of threat is high and
Conservation in natural habitat population size is low
Applicable when animal population is sufficient There is an imminent threat of extinction, and
and threat is low the only choice is to facilitate its reproduction in
e.g. NP, Sanctuaries, Community and artificial settings
Conservation reserves, Biosphere reserves, e.g. Genetic enhancement centres, Captive
Sacred groves breeding, Zoos, DNA banks, Seed orchards
Advantages Advantages
Most suitable and acceptable Protection of animal is more certain

Animals are conserved under most natural Animals can be maintained and monitored
conditions regularly
Chance for increasing genetic variability in Studies and research on animal is possible
populations Population is maintained through inbreeding
measures
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Possibility of extinction in the long term
Augmentation of a particular animal is slow Costly and requires very skilled personnel
and uncertain Genetic inbreeding
Requires improvement of habitat as a whole Animals become domesticated and lose natural
vigour
Animal is in an artificial habitat — removed
from tis ecological setting
Zoo
Objectives: Conservation, Education, Research, Captive Breeding

While designing a zoo, the kind of animals to be stocked, their requirements and amenities like power,
drainage, fetching, enclosure etc. are considere
Factors determining location of zoo
Should be away from railway lines and air routes

Avoids undulating and sloppy areas
Sites with natural water source is preferable
Should have plenty of tree cover and shelter to animals
What factors are considered before designing a zoo?
Behaviour of animal
Enclosures to resemble habitat
Physical space needs
Breeding requirements
Food containers, Water holes and platforms
Light requirements
Information on diet
ECOTOURISM
Ecotourism involves tourism to enjoy natural beauty and wildlife in an environmentally sustainable manner, that
benefits the local populations in these areas, incentivising them further towards the cause of wildlife conservation
Guiding principles
Tourist activities must not degrade natural resources

Tourism must respect the intrinsic value of natural resources
Tourism revenue must provide conservation, scientific and cultural benefits to the resources and local
community
Benefits of Ecotourism
Environment friendly and sustainable alternative

Offers the local people a chance to overcome poverty while contributing to conservation
Business generated can enhance long term economic perspectives of communities
Helps to reduce hunting and poaching by these communities
Create jobs in rural regions
Improve awareness among the tourists
FOREST RESOURCE UTILISATION
Forest Utilisation is the branch of forestry which deals with harvesting, conversion, disposal and use of forest
produce.
Major Forest Produce: Timber, Firewood

Minor Forest Produce: Fruits, Leaves, animal products, soil, minerals
Logging
Trees as obtained on felling often cannot be transported and used as such. They need to be converted into
such size and form as would be suitable for utilization.
Logging renders logs or round timber of chosen dimensions.
Logging includes trimming of branches, and sawing the clean bole and sometimes the larger branches into
logs or round timber of required lengths.
Operations
Felling or cutting the trees

Delimbing the main stem: Trimming of branches is done by axe.
Bucking or cutting the stem into logs: Places (cross sections) where the bole is to be cut are marked. The
bole is cut at the marked sections at right angles to the stem axis. After cutting, the logs are debarked if
desired
Forwarding trees or logs to a landing (sometimes before bucking)
Sorting and loading individual logs or pieces onto trucks
Transporting logs or pieces to a mill
Unloading at the mill yard
Purpose of Logging
Division of weight of the whole tree – Can be manoeuvred and transported easily and more economically
Elimination of defects – Knots, bends, decay and other defects which reduce the marketability of otherwise
straight and sound logs can be eliminated during logging
Adaptation to methods of transportation
Market requirement – Produce lengths which have great demand in the market
What determines log lengths?
Long log lengths at 5m (or multiples), Small log lengths at 1.5m (or multiples)
Wood length determines the log length
Timber needed for specific purposes should conform to the specifications needed
For logs to be dragged by animals, short lengths are made
With use of trucks, improved roads and power haulage, the size of logs can now be bigger
Presence of defects of insect attacks reduces log length
Rules followed in felling of trees
Felling refers to removal of trees from a forest or stand.
Tree should be felled as near the ground as possible to prevent wastage

Felling should be concentrated as far as possible
Felling place should favour easy conversion
Felling during a strong wind is avoided
Felling is done such that stump may not split, and bark may not tear off
Direction and manner of felling should cause minimum damage to wood and surrounding trees
In the hills, felling is done from the upper reaches to the lower side
Felling should cause least damage to regeneration
Sink Cut: Cut given in a bird’s beak shape on the same side as expected fall of the tree
Felling Cut: Thin horizontal cut opposite to the sink cut
Impact of Mechanisation on Logging
Reduced employment of manpower as reliance on machines increased

Logging changed from a seasonal activity to a year long activity
Use of skilled personnel increased
Mechanisation necessitated many auxiliary infrastructure construction like bridges and roads, which
increased negative impacts on forest regeneration

Interfered more in wildlife habitat, made the forest more susceptible to wind and rain related damages (like
soil erosion)
Streamlined the process of felling to transport to mill site
TRANSPORT
Movement of logs and timbers from place of conversion to the markets
Factors affecting choice of transportation
Topography: Transportation by land in plain forest, transportation in water in undulating topography

Time: Ideally mode of transport should be chosen that requires least time
Labour: Trade off between skilled labour and large availability of unskilled labour from local regions
Mode that causes least damage to timber Land Transportation
Carriage by men
Carriage by animals and carts
Dragging: carried out on specially constructed roads. Round billets are placed in front of logs for easy
rolling
Rolling: in areas of gentle slopes, but it causes damage to log and the forest
Sliding: Only in slope or hilly ground using gravity
Tramways: Light railways of small gauge
Motor Transport
Water Transportation
Cheapest method, and suitable for both steep and slope areas
Conditions necessary for floating
Sufficient water flow throughout the season

Stream sufficiently wide and deep to take the largest sized logs
Banks should be high along the watercourse.
Current should be gentle
Stream path should be free from obstruction
Direction of stream should coincide with direction of markets
Should not be any backwaters or sunken rocks
Disadvantages
Advantages Losses occur due to sinking and breakage

during collision with rocks
Cheapest form of transportation when water flow Applicable only to species whose timber floats
is available Excess rain can cause loss of timber and boom
Initial investments and operation costs are low breakage
Unskilled labour can be employed Woods liable to sap stain cannot be transported
Time required for transportation is less by this method
Suitable for remote as well as inaccessible areas. Edge damage to wood is higher
Sand, Grit and Dirt accumulate on wood,
which harms saw during conversion.
Rafting
Transport of logs together. Woods are generally laid parallel and tied by canes, chains or ropes.

Sawn timbers are made into bundles and flown down stream
Bamboo culms are tied into rafts and flown
Booms
Obstruction structure created by woods, which would intercept the logs floating down, without hampering
the flow of water.
River width should be narrow (reduces expenditure and minimises breakage)
Should be near the foothills
Speed of flow should be low
Banks of rivers should be high for suitable anchorage
There should be enough space on either side for stacking of timber
Should be near a railway or roadway for further transit
Extract scantlings from hill forests where sufficient water is available

Steady flow of water should be available at the head
Species must be floatable
Sufficient quantities of wood must be available for construction of wet slide
Transportation distance should be short
Advantages
Less expensive and economic mode of transport

Suitable for steep topography
Wet Slides
Requires much lesser space than other means of transport
Available local material can be used for construction
Cost of operation and maintenance is low
Unskilled labour can be utilised
Can be utilised irrespective of weather conditions
Limitations
Jams are likely to occur, hence need supervision

Limited to relatively short lengths of logs
Used when the route lies across the slope, or in localities where the terrain is too
difficult or rocky.
Surface of the slide must be kept wet by sprinkling water through artificial sources —
reduces friction during transport of woods
2 big logs make up the outer portions, and the smaller logs are in the inside.
Dry Slides
Disadvantages
More damage is caused to timber

The timber is liable to travel fast
Possibility of stopping together in some cases
Overhead Transport
Aerial ropes are used for transporting the wood material. Ropes are hauled by mechanical engines
May be single rope (1 way transport) or double ropes (2 way transport)
Advantages
Transportation is free from ground conditions

Power of concentration enhances the efficiency of works
Transport under steep slopes is easier
Limitations
Limited to short distances

Aligning of ropeways are difficult. Logs can only move in a straight line
Control over logs is difficult in certain cases
Initial investments are high
Storage of Timber
Transported wood is kept in depts before going for sale. (Depot is a place where wood and other forest
produce are stored before disposal)
Depot must be well planned, so that it is spacious and accommodates all kinds of woods.
All plots within the depot are serially numbered and proper sign boards are displayed where necessary.
Stacking of Wood
Minimise material degradation.

Stacks should be efficiently packed to minimise space
Preferably, stacked on a platform and not on the ground.
Shade is provided for valuable timber.
Woods must be protected against theft, fires and fungus
Must be fenced
Disposal and Sale
Factors considered in extraction and disposal
Fair return to the government

System should maintain and improve the forest
Should prevent the fraud and theft of forest produce during various operations
Safeguard the interests of local population
Suitability to available labour force
Suitable to capabilities and financial position of the purchasers
Systems of extraction
By government agency: All operations like felling, conversion, transport and disposal are carried out by the
FD. FD gets the net profit. Because it forms an additional work load on foresters, work efficiency is
generally low.
By purchasers alone: Most common system of extraction in the forest. Purchaser alone can carry out all the
works. Encourage healthy competition among private enterprises.
By government and purchases combined: FD carry out the important operations like marking and felling.
Done to avoid damage to the forest and obtain natural regeneration. All other operations are carried out by
private concerns.
Without previous previous agreement: Any person without a valid license can enter a forest and collect
permitted produce. Useful for MFP

System of disposal
Lump Sum Sale: Produce is sold at fixed sum without knowing the exact quantity. e.g. Area of grass, fuel
coupes
Payment on out turn: Produce is sold at fixed price per unit quantity of produce. e.g. Number of wood logs,
timber value per cubic meter.
Method of Sale
Sale by private bargain — price is fixed by direct negotiation between buyer and seller
Applicable where quantity of sale is small
Applicable where product demand is limited
Suitable where one person or a firm desires to purchase a particular produce
Applicable where popularisation of particular species is needed.
Advantages
Fair price can be obtained from the produce
Future markets can be created for the produce
Intermediaries in the market are eliminated
Reduces auction expenses
Gives better results when the market is dull or overstocked
Sale to the highest bidder
Sale by public auction
Sale by tender
NON WOOD FOREST PRODUCE
FAO describes NWFP as being goods of biological origin other than wood derived from forests, other wooded land
and trees outside forests.
Vegetable Products: Bamboos, Canes, Fibres, Flosses, Tannins, Dyes, Gums and Resins, Oil Seeds, Herbal
medicines
Animal Products: Honey and Wax, Silk, Lac
Mineral Products
Gums
Gum is a translucent and amorphous substance partly dissolved in water to produce a
viscous solution
Gum is formed from the decomposition of cellulose through a process called gummosis.
Soluble in water and not in organic solvents
True gums are formed due to disintegration of internal plant tissues
Uses of Gum
Fine Grade — Clarification of liquors, Finishing of silk, Preparation of water colours

Intermediate Grade — Confectionary, Pharmaceuticals, Printing Inks, Sizing, Finishing
textile fabrics
Coarse/Cheaper grade: Adhesives, Calico printing, Paint industry
Source plants
Arabic Gum — Acacia senegal — emulsifying agent in medicines, calico printing

Karaya Gum — Sterculia urens, Sterculia villosa — Used in ice-cream and
confectionaries
Babul Gum — Acacia nilotica
Ghatti Gum — Anogeissus latifolia — leaves are used for tanning
Semal Gum — Bauhinia retusa
Kino Gum — Pterocarpus marsupium

Uses
Adhesives
Emulsifying agent in medicines
Mucilage
Used in confectionary industries
Calico printing
Paste, Polish and Paint
Ice Cream manufacture (Karaya gum)
Factors affecting production and supply of gums and resins
Soil fertility and availability of irrigation: In fertile fields, farmers would prefer growing
crops. Gums and Resins are largely produced in arid areas with little irrigation
Govt. support in form of MSP, marketing infrastructure etc
Export duties: For e.g. in case of the increase in supply of Guar Gum used in hydraulic
extraction processes.
Insurance and Loans — Gum and Resin production largely don’t depend on external
capital
Policies for other crops, decides if production of gums and resins is economically viable
Natural disasters like drought adversely affect production
Choice of these species in reclaiming arid lands
Resins
Resins are soluble in alcohol but do not dissolve in water
They are exudation products of plants which ooze out from the barks exposures.
Originate from Carbohydrate through reduction and polymerisation process
Resin is brittle, amorphous and more or less transparent
Types of Resin
Hard Resin — Contains only a little essential oil. Usually solid, transparent, brittle
substance without any odour and taste
Oleo Resin — Contain considerable amount of essential oils in addition to resinous
material. It is in liquid form and has distinct aroma and odour. e.g. Pinus gerardiana,
Boswellia serrata — used in lithographic ink
Gum Resin — Mixture of gum and resin with characteristics of both. e.g.
Garcinia morella — Inferior quality paints and varnishes, caulking boat, indigenous
medicines and ointments for skin disease.
Source plants
Dammar Sal — Cannarium strictum

Rock Dammar — Hopea odorata
White Dammar — Valeria indica
Black Dammar — Canarium strictum
Uses
Ammoniacum resin: Used in perfumery, circulatory stimulant

Asafoetida: Favouring agent, drugs (coughs, asthma, digestive and nervous disorders)
Tonic, Stimulants and Antiseptics (mouth washes)
Incense sticks
Cosmetic properties due to fixative properties

Resin Tapping
A cut is made which removes a thin shaving of wood to open up the clogged resin ducts. The
resin contained in resin canals is released as the resin canal is cut.
Light continuous tapping
Tapping is applicable for trees having more than 0.9m in girth

One channel is made in trees having a diameter between 0.9 to 1.8 m girth, whereas two
channels are made if girth is more than 1.8m.
Each channel is tapped for 5 years
After that a new channel is made in the anti-clockwise direction
Tapping is progressed till right around the tree is completed.
Tree is always kept under tapping which yields sustainably
Heavy Tapping
Done in trees that are to be felled shortly.

Aim is to get maximum possible out turn from a tree
Involves cutting of many channels as it can bear with minimum inter space of 10 cm
between successive channels.
Lowest girth prescribed for this is 60cm.
Methods of Tapping
Box method
Oldest method of resin tapping

Cavity or box of 10cm x 10cm and upto 12 cm deep is chopped at the base of the trees.
Meant to collect the resin as it exudes from the blaze or incision that is made just below
the box, by chipping bark and outer layer of the sapwood.
Method is very damaging and the trees tend to die within few years after resin tapping is
started
Cup and lip method
Outer bark of the tree is scraped off to a reasonably smooth surface of 60 cm long, 15 cm
wide and 25 cm above the point where the lip is fixed
Channels are made in an anti-clockwise direction
Lip is a rectangular piece of galvanized iron (15 cm X 5 cm), driven into the cut to collect
resin into a pot kept below.
The pot is partially covered to prevent pieces of bark, dirt etc. from falling into the cone
and to minimize the evaporation of resins that accumulate into it
To open up the clogged resin ducts and aid in the smooth and continuous flow of resin, the
channels are freshened at definite intervals
Rill Method
Bark is removed over a surface of 45x30 cm with bark shaver

Position of blaze and groove is marked on the stem
Central groove is cut with the help of a groove cutter
Rills should be parallel to each other
Lip is fixed at the base of the rill with nail
For freshening, knife is pulled along the blaze line
Subsequent freshening is repeated at weekly interval
Application of chemical stimulants increases resin yield

Turpentine Crude pine resin consists of liquid oil called Turpentine (20%) and solid portion is called
Rosin (80%)
Turpentine and Rosin can be separated by distillation
Used in soap making, sealing wax, oil cloth, varnishes and lubricants
Turpentine oil Properties
Colourless oily liquid

Strong Odour, Hot disagreeable taste
Boiling point is 155 °C, melting point is 100-110 °C
Insoluble in water, Soluble in ether
Cutch and
Katha Obtained by boiling the heartwood of Acacia catechu
Country Method
Heartwood chips are boiled in water in earthen pots for 12 hours or till desired
consistency is obtained
This liquid is poured into an Iron cauldron and boiled till it becomes syrupy.
The syrup is poured into wooden frames lined with leaves and allowed to cool.
Forms a hardened dark brown mass.
Extraction of Katha
Katha is prepared from heartwood showing white specks

Syrup of desired consistency is made, like in Cutch.
It is poured into pits of fine sand. Sand absorbs tannic acid and leaves behind Catechin.
Residue of catechin is crystallised and sold as Katha. (Tannic Acid is wasted)
Modified Method
Heartwood chip is boiled in tinned copper vessels

Boiled liquid is further concentrated in another vessel.
Freshwater is added to the boiled chips and boiled again.
Cutch is obtained in both hot and cold water. Katha is soluble in hot water and but
sparingly soluble in cold water.
Cooling of solution causes crystallisation of Katha first.
Crystallised Katha is separated by filtering the liquid through a muslin cloth.
The cutch passes through and can be marketed separately
Uses of Katha
Preparation of chewing paans

Used in medicines as an astringent and digestive
Cooling agent to ulcers and eruptions on skin
Uses of Cutch
Dyeing and preserving agent

Dyeing of cotton, silks, canvas of boat sails
Used in Calico printing
Raw material for plywood adhesives
Astringent

Essential oils evaporate in air

Extracted by steam distillation, solvent extraction or destructive distillation
Trees: Santalum album, Cedrus deodara, Eucalyptus globulus

Shrubs: Gaultheria fragrantisima
Essential Grasses: Lemon Grass, Palmarosa Oil, Ginger Grass Oil, Citronella Oil
Oils
Role in economy
Used in cosmetics
Used in aromatherapy and naturopathy
High demand in export markets
Destructive Distillation in which wood is burned without contact with air.

When wood is burnt in closed retorts, charcoal is obtained from the cooled mass of
unburnt wood
Charcoal burning in Open Pits
Pit is dug on the ground, which is filled with firewood

Allowed to burn and covered to exclude air when it attains a full glowing
Left to cool, and then charcoal I removed
Wasteful method, not suitable on a large scale. Charcoal produced in poor in quality
Charcoal Produces charcoal in a short time
Charcoal burning in Kilns
Kilns may be paraboloid, oven, pit, prismatic, hill etc.

Billets are stacked inside the kiln closely to reduce air
Kiln is fired from top or bottom.
Kiln is plastered with wet earth.
Initially the flame is yellowish brown with thick pungent smoke
Clear blue flame indicates completion of carbonisation process.
Charcoal is allowed to cool and Kiln is opened
Fibres and Fibres are long cells with thick walls and small cavities found in various plant parts
Flosses
Caryota urens — Fibre is dusky brown or black, Used in fishing nets and fishing lines
Agave species — Yields durable fibre for ropes and cords.
Classification of Fibres
Seed: Cotton, Kapok

Flax: Jute, Hemp, Ramie
Leaf: Sisal, Pineapple, Banana
Fruit: Coir
Stem: Ficus, Calotropis, Grewia
Flosses are obtained from certain fruits. Used for stuffing pillows and mattresses.
E.g. — Ceiba pentandra, Bombax ceiba

Flosses are finer in texture, whereas fibres are coarse.

Fibres have higher tensile strength than flosses
Uses of Fibres and Flosses
Fishing nets and fishing lines

Gunny bags, Ropes and Mats (Jute, Coir)
Pillows and Mattresses
Textiles industry (cotton)
Handicrafts
Carpets (hemp)
Paper making
Dyes and Tannins are organic substances obtained from different plant parts which are complex in
Tannins chemical composition.
They are mostly secondary products of plant metabolism
Most plants contain some amount of tannin, but not all have significant amounts to be
commercially feasible.
Uses — make the animal hides and skins resistant to decomposition, make them flexible and
strong and improve their quality.
Bark Tans — Babul, Acacia, Sal, Arjun — Treating hides and skins of animals
Fruit Tans — Myrobalan, Terminalia, Acacia nilotica
Leaf Tans — Anogeissus latifolia
Dyes are colouring materials obtained from plant parts
Wood Dye — Acacia catechu (Cutch dye), Pterocarpus santalinus (Red Sanders tree
which yields a bright red dye) — Used for dyeing textiles and colouring food.
Flower and Fruit Dye — Bixa orellana (Arnotto Dye), Butea monosperma, Mallotus
philippensis (Kamela dye)
Root Dye
Leaf Dye
Bark Dye — Mostly yield a brown or black dye. But the dye is largely considered a
defect, since the bark is used for tanning.
Industrial Uses
Dyeing leather
Colouring agent
Add astringency and flavour to teas
Ink Manufacture
Preservatives
Medicinal Uses
Antiseptics
Drugs for conditions like Diarrhoea
Used in ointments to reduce inflammation
Can be used as an antidotes for poisoning by metals or alkalis, which they precipitate as
tannate
Potential anti carcinogen drugs
Inhibit lipid per-oxidation, thus helping reverse ageing
Decrease blood urea nitrogen content

Processing of Tannins
Method of extraction depends on source of tannin

Solvent used for extraction are a mixture of polar, non polar and semi polar nature. e.g.
Alcohol, Ether, Acetone, Water
Difficult to extract as they have a high molecular weight and do not crystallise
Methods include solvent extraction, destructive or fractional distillation, Alkaline ethanol
precipitation
Oil Seeds
Azadirachta indica — Used in medicine and soaps
Madhuca butyracea — Soap, Chocolates, Adulterant of ghee
Madhuca indica — Cooking, hair oil, soap making
Mesua ferrea — Lubrication, soap making, applying on sores
Pongamia pinnata — Medicine, soap making, lighting
Schleichera oleosa — Kusum Oil — Cooking, Lighting, Soap making
Role in economy
Major source of income for tribal communities

Used to cure many ailments in traditional medicine
Potential GI
Used in cottage industries such as soap making and hair oils
Used as a lighting oil in rural regions
Provide employment
Processing of Oil Seeds
Extraction is the first step in the refining process. Oils and fats are extracted from their original
source (seeds, fruits or other oil-bearing raw materials) using a variety of different methods
Olive Oil: Oil is extracted directly from the fruit by means of a simple mechanical press
and used without the need for any further processing. Called Cold Pressing
Modern oil mills extract oil using a combination of pressing, cooking and solvent extraction.
Seed/bean is cleaned, dried and foreign material is removed.

Crushing used to be done between mill stones that later became steel rolls.
Seeds with a high oil content like rapeseed and sunflower seed are usually mechanically
pressed in expellers after a preheating step in indirectly heated conditioners.
Oil bearing material is fed into one end of a cylinder where a power-driven worm
conveyor forces the material to the other end of the cylinder and out against resistance.
The pressure exerted in the process squeezes out the oil.
Solvent extraction
Pre-processed seeds/beans are treated in a multistage counter current process with solvent
until the remaining oil content is reduced to the lowest possible level.
The mixture of oil and solvent is separated by distillation
Solvent is recycled into the extraction process and the crude oil is stored ready for
refining.
Areca Nut
Cashew Nut
Nuts
Almonds, Walnuts, Chestnut
Coconut — coir production, oil seeds, consumption
Stem of climbing palm of the genus Calamus

Calamus genus has around 30 species in India — Himalayas, Assam, West Bengal,
Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andaman and Nicobar
Stems of canes are long, usually cylindrical, solid and straw-yellow in colour. Strong,
tough and elastic.
Canes
Mature canes after harvest are dried in the sun. Silica layer is removed after rubbing the
canes over a knife or a sharp piece of bamboo.
Canes are bleached by fumigation with burning sulphur.
Uses — Furniture frames, Walking sticks, Umbrella handles, Baskets
Species — Calamus erectus, Calamus guruba
Bamboo Bamboo are tall tree-like woody grasses (Family: Graminae)
Properties of bamboo that make them useful
Straightness
Being light but hard
Easy to split
Availability in various sizes
Easy propagation
Uses — House construction, Masts, Cart Shafts, Basket Making, Furniture, raw material for
paper industry, tent poles, Musical instruments, Sports goods, Tender shoots are used as food,
Bambusa genus is used as timber, Ornaments
Cottage Industries: Ornaments, Basket Making, traditional musical instruments, bamboo shoots
as food and in pickles, masts, cart shafts, Mats, Lampshades, Hand fans, Ladders
Corporate Industries: Sports goods, Musical instruments, Paper industry, Furniture, Timber
Distribution of Bamboo
148 species in 29 genera occur in India

Maximum diversity and occurrence: Deciduous and Semi-evergreen regions of NE India,
tropical moist deciduous forests of North and South India
NE Hilly states of India harbour nearly 90 species, 41 of which are endemic to that
region.
3 large genera: Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Ochlandra

Great diversity in habitat, ranging from tropical to sub-alpine zones.


Bidi Leaves
Leaves obtained from Diospyros melanoxylon
Leaves of coppice shoots are prepared for bidi wrapping because of its bigger size.
(Leaves of mature trees are shorter, thicker and brittle)
Found in forests, wastelands and cultivated lands in MP, Odisha, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, UP, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and WB
Leaves of coppice shoots are largely used due to bigger size. Leaves of mature trees are
shorter, thicker and brittle. Larger leaves with inconspicuous veins are considered as
superior quality leaves.
Features of Diospyros melanoxylon
Medium sized tree

Pollards and Coppices well
Avoids water loggin
Light demander, Susceptible to frost
Produces extensive root suckers
NR from seeds as well as root suckers
Artificially raised by direct sowing or transplantation of seedlings. Germination % of fresh
seeds is about 40%.
Pruning or trenching around the trees or coppicing is useful in enhancing quality and
quantity of the leaves
Collection and Processing
Leaves are collected manually from standing bushes. Soft and least pubescent leaves are
preferred.
Leaves are plucked just after the new flush (coming after coppicing) have turned from
crimson to bright green and have a leathery texture. Generally, collection starts from the
second fortnight of April and continues until the onset of the monsoon
Leaves are collected from the coppice shoots. Collected leaves are graded and tied into
bundles

Optimum drying is essential. High moisture in leaf leads to black colour due to moulds.
Over dried leaves are too brittle and cannot be used for bidi rolling. It takes around 10
days for drying under natural conditions of drying the bundles in the sun. With a drier, it
takes 18-20 hours.
Dried leaves are sprinkled with little water and packed in gunny bags for storage. Wetting
of leaves softens the leaves that facilitate packing and transport.
Measures for increasing tendu leaf production
Increased wages for collection of leaves

Studies of meteorological conditions in relation to growth
Improving storage and transport facilities
Standardisation of propagation techniques
Increasing period of collection
Medicinal
Plants 80% of people in developing countries rely on traditional medicines
More than 75% of herbal products are obtained through wild collection
Classified into Root drugs, Bark drugs, Flower/Fruit/Seed drugs, Leaf Drugs
Leaf Drugs
Asaparagus racemosus
Undershrub, climbing habit, mostly cultivated, not frequent in wild
Used in Blood Dysentery, Bloody Urine, Epilepsy
Berberis aristata
Shiny shrub. Native of Himalayas (2000-3000m)
Active ingredient is called Berberine
Roots are used for Opthalmia and Bronchial diseases
Gloriosa superba
Cylindric, fleshy tuber with fibrous roots — Anti cancer, Anti malarial, Skin
diseases, Chronic Ulcers
Roots used as Diuretic. Beneficial in Gout and Rheumatism
Bark Drugs
Holarrhena pubescens — Stem bark is used for Diarrhoea, Blood Dysentery, Fever,
Piles, Acute Rheumatism and other diseases
Alstonia scholaris — Evergreen tree with whorled leaves. Bark is used as tonic, fever
reducing agent, chronic diarrhoea, asthma, ulcers, cardiac issues
Terminalia arjuna — Large deciduous tree, thick trunk, Buttressed. Bark is used to check
bleeding, anti-dysenteric, cardio tonic, fever-reducing
Flower, Fruit and Seed Drugs
Strychnos vomica — Large deciduous tree. All parts of the plant, except the pulp of the
fruit are poisonous. Seed contains valuable alkaloids like Strychnine and Brucine. Seed is
used to treat nervous breakdown, blood dysentery, cold and cough, intermittent fever,
paralysis, low BP and other ailments.
Aegle marmelos — Ripe fruit is used as tonic, laxative
Emblica officinalis — Diarrhoea, Leprosy, Vomiting, Inflammation, Piles
Leaf Drugs
Andrographis paniculata — Improve digestion and liver function (Herb)

Azadirachta indica — Large evergreen tree, Leaves are used to treat opthalmia, leprosy;
consumed as preventive medicine to pox; paste applied to cure skin diseases; decoction
used to wash septic wounds; leaf extract used as febrifuge, blood purifier and to treat
diabetes
Gymnema sylvestre — Diuretic, Cardiac stimulant, Treat diabetes, Eye diseases
Swertia chirata — Tonic, Febrifuge, Laxative
Apluda mutica, Cenchrus ciliaris, Pasapalum dilatalum — Fodder

Grasses Saccharum sp. — Thatching
Eulaliopsis binata, Themed arundinacia — Paper Industry
Apiary
Bees are economically important social insects.
They provide us with honey and wax, they are also responsible for pollination of flowers
Apiculture is the technique of rearing honey bees for honey and wax from their comb or
beehives
Selection of sites for quality honey and protection of bees and combs from pests and
diseases are part of apiculture.
Indigenous methods
Immovable structures: Small structures are made in secluded and protected places.
During construction of dwelling houses, small permanent chambers are made in the outer
wall of the house for bees to build combs. Sometimes mud chambers are constructed. On
the outer-side of the chamber a horizontal slit is made for the entry of bees, while on the
inside wall a large opening is left for removal of comb
Movable structures: Bee chambers are made up of hollow bags, empty wooden boxes,
earthen pots, etc. which can be moved from place to place. The quality of honey is inferior
due to presence of dust, tissues of damaged bee larvae, pollen grains, etc.
Beehive
Two-tier structure. The chambers can be removed from or added to, as required
The hive is made up of wooden box
It has a basal plate or bottom board on which is placed a wooden box called brood
chamber
A small opening at the bottom of brood chamber permits passage for bees
Inside the brood chamber several frames hang vertically from the top. These frames can
be removed independently. For this arrangement, a modern hive is also called movable
frame hive.
The distance between the two frames, the bee space is narrow and serves as a passage for
the workers but small for building a comb.
It is meant for storage of honey only and known as honey chamber
Tools for Bees Keeping
Comb foundation: Small piece of comb is necessary to tie with one of the frames from
where the bees will start comb-building.
Bee gloves: Leather gloves are used to prevent bees from stinging during handling of the
comb and bees.
Bee veil: Cover neck, face and head of the keeper during handling.
Smoker: Smoke from paper, wood and coconut cover makes the bees inactive.

Hive tool: Narrow and flat piece of steel with a slightly bent head to scrap away dirty
materials deposited by bees or some other factors
Honey extractor: Used for extraction of honey from the frames without damaging the
comb
Typical Location of Apiary: Must have different varieties of pollen and nector-producing plants
in sufficient number within a short distance
Art and science of silkworm breeding for producing silks.

Bombyx mori is reared on mulberry leaves on a mass scale to get raw silk from the cocoons of
the caterpillars of the moth
The eggs of the silkworm moth hatch out within 10 days into creamy white rapidly
moving caterpillars. The latter feed voraciously on the fresh mulberry leaves and soon
undergo a fast growth and are popularly referred to as silkworms
The silk glands secrete a sticky secretion which is spun around the caterpillars to form a
Sericulture
hard covering of silk fibres, known as the cocoon (= pupal case)
Each caterpillar gradually metamorphoses in about a fortnight into a pupal stage called
chrysalis
After one or two days of cocoon formation, the pupae are killed either by drying them in
the sun or by boiling them
The raw silk fibres forming the cocoon are then reeled out into silk threads.
The pupae are killed, because with the emergence of the adult silkworm moth, the long
silk fibres will be broken and can only be spun like cotton
Lac
Lac is a resin like substance secreted by certain lac insects (Laccifera lacca), used in
varnishes and sealing wax.
Brood lac refers to the matured lac insect that is used for inoculating a new tree.
Kusmi strain — produces superior quality in small quantity (Schleichera oleosa)
Rangeeni strain — Produces average quality lac (Butea monosperma)
Lac Host Plants: Butea monosperma, Zizyphus mauritiana, Schleichera oleosa, Grewia,
Ficus
Traditional method of cultivation
Lac obtained from the same tree, under continuous self inoculation.
Involves heavy hacking of branches without giving rest to the trees
There is no pruning and no rest
Yield obtained is less and poor in quality
Improved methods of lac cultivation
Coupe System: Whole area is divided into coupes. One coupe is first inoculated fully.
After reaping matured lac, another coupe is taken for inoculation. This facilitates renewal
and fleshing of new shoots in the harvested coupe.
Pruning of branches during Feb or April
Inoculation
Heavy, matured brood is used for inoculation immediately
Brood lac sticks of 15-30 cm are tied to the branches for full inoculation
Tied in such a way that maximum contact is established between brood lac and
branches
Brood Lac should be kept in branches for minimum period, to prevent danger of
insects.
Inoculation must be optimum. Too heavy inoculation leads to mortality, while low
inoculation leads to poor yield
Trees should be completely covered
Crop should be fully harvested within a week of larval emergence. Branches bearing the
lac are cut and carried to a depot.
Lac purified by heating and filtering, usually in thin orange or yellow flakes
Objective
Refine the crude form of lac

Remove the dye, animal remains and other impurities
Raw material in moulding and gramophone industries
Component in varnishes, polishes, sealing waxes and electrical instruments
Properties of shellac
Insoluble in water
Soluble in organic solvents
Shellac Comparatively harder than most gums
Elastic in nature and hence assumes the shape of moulding
Adhesion property
Resistance to electricity
Manufacture
Separation of lac from broken twigs, stones and other dirt materials — achieved by
sieving and winnowing. The cleaned lac is ground in a stone mill.
Based on size, the cleaned grain is classified as large, medium and fine grade lac
Lac is changed into a cotton bag, the bag is stretched and rotated infant of the fire. After
melting, the bag is twisted so that the melted lac is squeezed out.
Sheet Lac Formation — utilised for making garment and button shellac.
Collection, Processing and Disposal of NWFP

Gums Resins
Formed by disintegration of internal plant tissues

Formed by cellulose decomposition called Formed in Resin cavities
Gummosis Formed through Polymerisation and reduction
Soluble in water process
Insoluble in organic solvents Insoluble in water
On heating it decomposes without melting and Soluble in organic solvents
shows charring Burns with smoky fumes
Translucent, Amorphous flakes Brittle, amorphous and transparent
e.g. Arabic gum, Ghutti Gum
Tans Dyes
Simple chemical compound consisting of C,

Simple chemical compound consisting of C, H
H, O and N
and O
Widely used in textile industry
Widely used in leather industry
Wood Dyes, Bark Dyes, Flower and Fruit
Wood tan, Bark tan, Fruit tan, Leaf Tan
Dyes, Root Dyes, Leaf Dyes
Essential Oil Seed Oil

Non Volatile
Volatile upon contact with air
Compounds of Glycerine with organic and
Consists of a variety of organic substances
fatty acids
Liquid substances
Solid substances
Pleasant taste and odour
Varies in taste and odour
Soluble in water
Soluble in organic solvent
Insoluble in organic solvents
Insoluble in water
Non edible
Edible
e.g Rose, Lemon Grass, Eucalyptus, Sandal
e.g. Neem, Madhuca latifolia
Issues with NWFP marketing Prospects of NWFP marketing
Lack of quality certification hinders exports

Generally of low value Tribal employment
Vary greatly over space and time — no Improve tribal economy — small scale
homogeneity leads to complications in extension industries, traditional cottage industries for
approaches value addition
Lack of formal research (initiatives like TKDL Sustainable forest management
can help) Use of natural products is healthier alternative
Lack of institutional arrangements linking forest Conserve indigenous knowledge
to market (encourage SHGs, FPOs and food Participation of tribals in forest management
processing) Women empowerment through SHGs and
Low labour wages FPOs.
Illiteracy of tribals and shyness of contact Improve exports to remedy CAD problem
Curtailment of tribal rights
WOOD
Wood is the hard, fibrous, lignified substance under the bark of trees. It makes up the greater part of stems
and branches of trees and shrubs plants, but is found to a lesser extent in herbaceous stems
Consists of elongated tubular or needle-shaped cells of various kinds
Wood consists chiefly of carbohydrates - cellulose and lignin (isomeric with starch)
Size: Depends on age of trees

Colour: Colour of wood helps us in identification of timber and decides the utility of
wood for aesthetic uses
Lustre: Wood showing good lustre is used in furniture industries
Physical
Odour: Sandalwood is in demand due to its odour. Bad odour wood is not preferred
Properties
for domestic purposes
Density and Weight: Lighter woods are used in the packing industry
Thermal expansion, thermal capacity, specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity,
combustibility and calorific value
Chemical
Properties Cell Wall substances: Insoluble in neutral solvents. Comprise of cellulose, other
polysaccharides and lignin.
Extraneous substances: Extractable by solvents. Varied in nature of inorganic and
organic composition.
Organic Substances

Essential oils: 1-12%, can be extracted by steam distillation, solvent extraction

or destructive distillation
Wood resins: composed of resin acids and fatty acids. Found in intercellular
passages in cell walls and in the interior of the cells. Soft woods have higher
percentage of resins than hard wood
Oleo resins: Used in paper, soap, paint, varnish and Pharma
Dyes and Tans: Obtained from certain woods like Acacia and Red Sanders
Carbohydrates, Sugars, Glycosides
Cyclitols
Fatty Oils and Alkaloids
Determine ability of wood to resist various types of external forces acting on it. Type and
extent of deformation caused due to external forces depends on mechanical properties.
Strength: Ability of wood to withstand various stresses such as tension and

compression
Hardness: Resistance to penetration. Depends on anatomical structure, specific
gravity, moisture content, presence of resinous substance and soundness. It
determines usability of wood into machineries, tool handles and sport goods
Flexibility: Enables the wood to bend out of shape without any rupture. Soft and light
woods are more flexible than hard woods. Steaming increases wood flexibility
Elasticity: Enables the wood to regain its shape when external forces are released.
Mechanical Soft wood has less elasticity
Properties Durability: Resistance to disease, decay, incest attacks etc. Teak is among the most
durable
Workability: Stand stress and impact of machines working at high speeds
Tests for mechanical properties
Compressibility test: Compression pressure is measured both along and across the
direction of the grain of sample blocks of uniform dimensions
Tension test: Both parallel and perpendicular to the grain
Bending test: Using a 4 point bending test apparatus. Failure load is measured (when
the block breaks)
Uses of wood // Wood based industries
Building ships, bridges, railway sleepers — Sal, Deodar

Agricultural equipment — Acacia, Dalbergia
Match industry — Bombax, Populus
Musical instruments - Teak, Artocarpus
Pencil industry — Juniperus, Cupressus
Sports equipment — Salix, Fraxinus
Residential construction
Making of composite wood material
Furniture and Packing Cases — Pinus, Bombax
Timber Identification
Aims at naming the species from which the timber has been cut — based on colour, odour, texture, density
etc.
Most reliable way is examination under microscope or lens, along the transverse, radial and tangential
planes
The features are compared to a known standard to ascertain the species

What is examined?
Hardwood or softwood?
Solid or Laminated wood?
Check colour — Natural or stained?
Grain pattern — coarseness, smoothness, open or close pore
Weight and hardiness
Geographical region if available
Softwoods Hardwoods
Hard woods from regions with strong seasonal

differences have different vessel size.
Woods from regions with strong seasonal In woods from tropical regions, they have the
differences had noticeable difference in tracheas same vessel size.
that form late wood and early wood Vessels can be solitary or can be clustered into
Softwoods from tropical regions have same radial multiples
tracheas size Pore groups can be distributed evenly or
Presence of resin canals arranged in radial, diagonal lines, tangential
Bordered pit arrangement lines
Parenchyma cells exhibit many different
patterns, which are useful for identification.
Relation of Site Quality and Timber Quality
The productivity of forest land is defined in terms of the maximum amount of volume that the land can
produce over a given amount of time.
Site quality is measured as an index related to this timber productivity.
Site quality can be changed by fertilization, vegetation control, irrigation, or drainage.
Only highly intensive treatment can make a productive site out of a poor one.
Measures of Site Index
Rate of height growth: Most practical indicator of site quality with respect to timber production. Standard
practice has been to define site index in terms of the total height of the dominants - the largest, full-crowned
trees in a stand.
Stand Density: Describe how much a site is being used and the intensity of competition between trees for the
site's resources (i.e., water, light, nutrients, space). At higher densities, the growth rates of individual trees
slow down because there are more trees competing for the site's limited resources.
Stocking: Stocking refers to the adequacy of a given stand density to meet some specified management
objective. Stands are often referred to as understocked, fully stocked, or overstocked. Stocking is a relative
concept - a stand that is overstocked for one management objective may be understocked for another
Anatomy of Wood
Small mass of tissues in the centre of the tree stem.

Pith
Varied in size and shape. Imparts mechanical strength to the wood
Lies outside the pith, composed of dead cells. This gives dark colour and rigidity to
Heartwood
wood, imparts durability
Sapwood
Sapwood lies over the heartwood. Lighter in colour and composed of living cells
Sapwood stores food and conducts cell sap. Less durable than heartwood
Outside the sapwood, cambium layer forms a ring of cells all round. The cells formed
Annual Rings during the spring differs with the cells formed during the summer. Wood forms 2
kinds of cells alternatively
Overlies the cambium layer, composed of dead as well as living cells.

Bark
Bark varies in thickness, colour and appearance in different species.
Grain is the arrangement of cells or wood elements relative to the main axis of the
Grain and
tree. Classified as straight, spiral or inter-locked.
Texture
Texture refers to the relative smoothness or coarseness of wood surface
Vessels are short cells with wide openings.

They appear like tube like rays running longitudinally through the wood when seen on
a longitudinal section. When cut across, they appear on the end surface of wood as
small circular or somewhat oval openings.
Vessel
Ring Porous Woods: Woods in which pores of the spring wood are distinctly larger
than the pores of summer woods. Form well defined rings
Diffused Porous Woods: Pores are scattered throughout the wood without forming
rings, no difference between spring and summer wood
Outgrowth in the pores. Sometimes occludes the pores entirely

Makes the timber more durable as they impede air and moisture movements,
Tyloses
protecting it against fungal attack.
Creates difficulties in impregnation of preservatives while preservation
Narrow elongated cells with tapering ends

Fibres
Gives mechanical support to wood
Hollow needle shaped longitudinal elements.

Tracheids Characterised by presence of large bordered pits on their walls in coniferous woods.
Conduct sap and give rigidity to wood.
In some timbers, soft tissues occur in irregular patches with no relation to general
Pith Flecks arrangement of Parenchyma.
Formed as a result of injury to the cambium
Groups of horizontally oriented parenchyma cells which run in a radial direction from
Rays
pith to periphery

Ripple Marks Series of fine equidistant wavy lines at right angles to the grain.
Inter Cellular Long tubular cavities found in wood. Serve as repositories of waste product of
Canals metabolic activity such as resin and gum — Resin Canals or Gum Ducts
Hardwood vs Softwood
Hardwood and Softwood are distinguished based on their reproduction, not by their end use or appearance.
Both are secondary xylem

Both contain Tracheids and Parenchyma
Both are heavy and hard
Both kinds of wood are economically valuable as timber
Characteristics Softwood Hardwood
Collected from conifer trees which are evergreen

having needle-shaped leaves. Hardwood is obtained from deciduous trees
Generally gymnosperms. Angiosperms
Source Simpler anatomical structure Complex anatomical structure
Fibre Less dense, straight fiber is found. Fibers are quite close and dense.
Resin quality Resinous wood contains good and regular texture Non-resinous woods have enough acid
Weight Lightweight and softer than hardwood. Heavyweight and harder than softwood.
Colour Softwood is light in color. Normally these are dark colored woods.
Fire resistance Poorer than hardwood, burn at a high rate. Better than softwood. Burn at a very slow rate
Weather If they are modified or treated then, Naturally resistant to weather having a less environmental
become resistant to an environmental impact.
resistance
impact.
Duration Less durable wood Hardwoods are highly durable and last for several
decades.
Ring Distinct annual rings are found The annual rings are not distinct
Vessels Absent Present (makes it porous)
Medullary rays Indistinct medullary rays Distinct medullary rays
Growth rate Soft wood trees grow faster than hardwood trees The growth rate of this type of trees is slower.
Wood branching Creates more branch or shoots. Have fewer shoots
Tensile and shear Weak tensile and comparatively weaker shear Good tensile and shear strength.
strength strength
Tyloses Absent Present
Cost Less expensive More expensive
Uses Paper pulp, paper, solid wood products, Generally flooring and furniture. Also used for
Woodwares like homes and cabins and also for papermaking.
furniture.
Workability Easier to carve. Difficult to carve
Example Black willow (Salix nigra), Redwood Sugar maple (Acer saccharum), Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus
(Sequoioideae sp). globulus).
Heartwood Sapwood
Cells are dead due to deposition of

50% of the cells are live
polysaccharides and process of embolism
Generally live woods
Generally dead wood
Light coloured wood
Dark coloured woods
Polyphenol is absent
Polyphenol is present
Less resistant to insect, pests and degradation
Resistant to insects, pests and degradation
Highly hygroscopic in nature
Less hygroscopic in nature
Lesser
Specific gravity is higher
Less strong
Wood is strong
Not useful for timber purposes
Useful for timber purposes
WOOD DEFECTS
Any feature that lowers the technical quality or commercial value of wood is called as wood defects
Natural Due to malformed growth in living trees
Defects
Knots: Portion of branch embedded within the wood. Inseparable during sawing. Presence of
knots reduces strength
Shake: Separation of fibre along the grain of standing or freshly felled tree. Forms a crack or
fissure that is confined to the interior of the timber.
If the separation follows the whole circle of the annual ring, it is called Ring Shake.
If the crack starts from the pith and extends radially outward, it is called heart shake.
If more than one shake radiate form the pith, it is called star shake.
Cross Grain: Alignment of fibre. It is the deviation of grains from the parallel direction of axis
of a timber. Could be diagonal grain or spiral grain. Restricts the usage of wood as a timber.
Reaction Wood: Formed due to leaning of trees and branches. The lower leaning branch is
called compression wood, which is undesirable in conifers as it produces more resins. In
hardwoods, reaction wood is found on upper sides of the leaning branch called tension wood.
Climber Growth: Results in a groove on the bole. Reduces economic value as it restricts the use
of wood.
Defects Defect during treatment of felled timber

other
than
natural Seasoning defects: Distortion of timber and ruptures of tissues due to seasoning. Arises due to
rapid drying of outer layers compared to the inner layers.
Warping — distortion in converted timber causing departures in its original plane due to
seasoning.
Bowing: Curvature of the plane so that it becomes concave or convex along the
grain
Cupping: Curvature of the plane such that it becomes concave or convex across the
grain
Spring: Distortion in the longitudinal plane of a plank such that if laid on its
tangential edge, it forms an arch
Twist: Spiral distortion along the grain, manifested in a turning or winding of face of
timber. Four corners do not fall in the same plane.
Checks — Rupture of fibres forming a fissure, not extending from one face to other.
Split — Rupture of fibres forming a crack, extending from face to face
Case Hardening — Surface layer is set in a stretched condition, but not the inner layers.
Can be removed by subjecting the timber to 70°C with suitable relative humidity.
Reverse Case Hardening — Outside layers are compressed

Honey Combing — Internal stress leading to development of internal cracking due to
shrinkage effect.
Collapse — Abnormal and irregular shrinking in wet hardwood. Can be reverted by
steaming at 100 °C.
Surface Cracking — Occurs during early stage of wood drying due to variation in moisture
gradient
End Cracking and Splitting — Rapid surface drying of wood than longitudinal faces
Crookedness — Longitudinal distortion formed during the drying of green timber under
high temperature.
Defects due to conversion and wood working
Boxed Heart — Timber is sawn in such a way that pith falls entirely throughout its length
Imperfect Grain — Chipped grain, Diagonal grain, Raised grain, Loosened grain, Totting
grain
Machine Burn — Charred patches on machined wood due to over heating
Machine Notches — Grooves due to excessive chipping
Machine Gauge — Formation of a groove across a timber due to cutting below desired
line of cut
Miscut Timber
Mismatching — imperfect aligning of two adjoining pieces due to faulty matching
Skip — Refers to missed and rough conditions of depressions on the boards
Wane — Presence of original sapwood surface with or without bark on any face.
Defect resulting from external agents
Fungus, Insects, Marine borers

Sap Stain Fungus - Found on food materials stored in sapwood and changes its colour and
strength. Does not attack the heartwood.
Decay Causing Fungus destroys the wood by rotting process. The fungi draw their nutrition
from cell wall material. Decayed wood has no lignin and becomes white.
WOOD SEASONING
Refers to the process of removal of excess moisture present in timber in its green state.
Purpose and Scope
Obtain satisfactory performance of wood

Attain equilibrium moisture content with prevailing atmosphere,
Retain a proper shape and size of timber
Make preservative treatment easier and effective
Achieve controlled drying in the shortest time with minimum degradation
Attain a maximum dimensional stability
Reduce seasonal defects
Protect timber against primary decay, fungal stains and insects
Advantages
Wood becomes lighter in weight

Transport and handling is easier and cheaper
Dried wood is stronger than green timber
Impregnation of preservative is easier
Seasoned wood works and glues better than green timber
Improves electrical and thermal insulation

Moisture in Wood
Wood has a strong affinity for moisture, being a Hygroscopic material.

Moisture content in wood causes shrinking and swelling
Free water is the water held in cavities of the wood, Bound water is held within the cells by H bonding
Free water is lost first, and then bound water
Moisture content in wood can vary from 30% to 200%
Factors determining moisture content for timber use
Locality: In humid conditions, higher absorption of moisture

Thickness of wood: Thicker wood has higher absorption
Species: Heaviness or lightness of wood
Internal factors that affect rate of drying
Species
Initial moisture content in wood
Grain direction
Thickness of wood
Drying of Wood
Increased temperature enhances drying rate

Low Relative Humidity enhances drying rate
Higher rate of air circulation of wind speed enhances the drying rate
Classification based on nature of drying
Highly refractory wood: Require protection against rapid drying. e.g. Sal, Hopea
Moderately refractory wood: Need little protection against rapid drying condition. e.g. Tectona grandis,
Dalbergia sisoo
Non refractory wood: Rapidly dried without any defects. e.g. Mango
Air
Seasoning Drying of wood with the help of air and sunlight.
Woods are stacked suitably on the raised foundation of the air seasoning bed.
Rate of seasoning is slow because there is no temperature and humidity controlling
mechanism.
Given time, the moisture content in the wood adjusts to the environment
Necessity of stacking
Ensures uniform drying of entire wood lot

Reduces seasoning degradation of woods
Rate of drying is controlled to a certain extent by regulation of air circulation
Horizontal Stacking
Commonly used for sawn timbers, veneers, scantlings, railway sleepers and poles.
Sanitation: Clearing and levelling of land on which woods are to be stacked

Foundation: Wood is stacked in a raised foundation
Orientation: Length of wood lots along the wood direction for refractory woods, across the
wind direction for non-refractory woods
Sorting: Long timbers are laid at the bottom to avoid bending. All layers should be of equal
thickness, else crookedness and warping occurs
If the height is more than 3m, a chimney is provided in the centre for uniform drying
Kinds of Horizontal stacking
One in Nine Method: Two wood sleepers are laid at the surface in one layer, over which 9
sleepers are laid in one layer. Successive layers are separated by placing one sleeper across
between the layers alternatively
Close Crib Method: Solid stack are made by placing wood logs in a criss cross manner
without any gap. Suitable for high refractory wood as it has reduced air circulation
Open Crib Method: Similar to Close Crib but gaps are provided between adjacent layers
Vertical Stacking
Woods are stacked over the specifically designed frame or against the wall.
Lower ends should stand on some waste wood material to prevent microorganism and termite
attack.
Both sides must be exposed by turning them around twice a day, to prevent warping.
Wood dries faster and exposed surface is larger — Suitable for non refractory wood
Air Seasoning Sheds may also be used stack timber for drying if open stacking is not feasible due
to strong tropical sun and fluctuation in climatic conditions. ASS controls the light and air
circulation, thus moderating the drying rate.
Light roof to avoid direct sunlight

Proper ventilation by admission of fresh air

Floor should be well drained and raised
Depending on refractory properties, the shed may have 3, 4 or no walls
Orientation of shed to wind direction is also based on refractory properties of wood
Kiln Kiln is an airtight, thermal proof, enclosed chamber with provision for controlling temperature, air
Seasoning circulation and humidity
Types of Kiln — Steam heated, Furnace, Dehumidification, Electrical, Solar
Working
Air Circulation
Forced air circulation: Done by fan or blowers
Thermal pr natural circulation: Movement of air due to natural convection process
inside the kiln.
Advantages
Process of seasoning is always under control

Seasoning can be continued irrespective of weather conditions
Rate of drying is higher and hence wood seasoning time is reduced
Seasoning degradation is less
Wood is well protected from adverse factors and agents
Wood can be made drier than the equilibrium moisture content
Solar Kiln
Drying is done by solar heat in a kiln

Superior to other kilns in terms of capital investment and energy efficiency
Except for the northern wall, other walls are fitted with glass panes for greater entry of sing
light.
Inner walls, ceiling and floor are painted in black to trap solar radiation.
Steam Heated Kiln
Thermal energy for drying wood comes from steam

Steam is moved from boilers into the kiln by pipes

Heat is then transferred to the circulating air in the kiln.
Fuel for generating steam may be wood or oil
Electric Kiln
Use of electric power to heat a dry kiln is currently most used for dehumidification
Electricity is used to power the compressor used to bring the kiln up to a minimum
temperature for efficient operation
WOOD PRESERVATION
Process of improvement of wood’s natural durability by treatment with chemicals that are toxic to insects,
fungi and other decaying agents
Increases lifespan of wood, increases market demand, reduces the need for frequent repair and replacement
Decay Hazards to Wood
Fungi: Decay Fungi and Sap Staining Fungi

Insects: beetles, moths, pinhole borers, carpenter bees
Termites: Subterranean termites, dry wood termites
Weathering Agents: Light, temperature, rainfall, snow, wind, etc.
Fire
Properties of ideal wood preservatives
Should be cheap and available in plenty

Should be toxic to adverse agents, and not to humans
Should impregnate the wood easily and be retained permanently
Should neither be volatile nor liable to to become inactive after a few years
Should not increase the inflammability of the wood
Should not corrode metals
Should be colourless, odourless and hold paint
Should not affect strength of wood
Types of Preservatives
Oil Type
Creosote: Brownish black oily distillation from coal. Used in mixture with petroleum oils. Effective
against borers and termites.
Leaching resistant and not corrosive
Gives bad odour, increases inflammability of wood
Water Based
Non Fixed: Easily washed away by water. e.g. Borax, Boric Acid, Mercuric chloride, Zinc sulphate
Fixed: Not liable to leaching in water and stays for a longer time. e.g. Colourless, odourless and non
corrosive. But may be toxic, as some contain Arsenic. e.g. Copper Chromate, Chromated Zinc
Chloride
Advantages of water soluble preservatives Disadvantages of water soluble preservatives
Easy to transport in both solid and liquid form Poisonous

Cheapest of all preservatives Causes wetting of treated wood and causes it to

Very effective against both insects and fungus swell
Leaves the wood in clean conditions
Easy for painting and gluing after preservative
treatment
Readily combined with fire retardants
Organic Solvent Type: Active ingredients of the preservatives are dissolved in specific organic solvents.
When treated with wood, the solvent evaporates leaving the preservative in the wood. Protective action
depends on these active ingredients and nt on the solvent. e.g. Lindane, Dieldrin, Copper Quinolate
Advantages of solvent based preservatives Disadvantages of solvent based preservatives
Leaves the wood clean

Very expensive
Penetrates deep
Increases inflammability of wood
Not easily leached out
Cannot be used to treat wood in domestic
Easy to paint and glue after treatment
settings, or where wood is used near cooking
Does not cause swelling
points
Used for remedial treatment of woods
Fire Retardants
Chemicals that reduce ignitability of wood. Prevents sustained combustibility of wood and reduces the
surface spread of fire.
Intumescent Coating: When wood is exposed to fire, the preservative produces the inflatable gases which
act as an insulating layer
Non Intumescent Coating: Coating interferes with the fire chemically.
Advantages
Cheap and affordable

Easy to apply
Decreases the rate of degradation and charring
Permanently fixed to wood
Does not affect the strength and quality of affected wood
Easier to paint and glue after treatment
Preparation of wood for preservatives
Debarking: Bark harbours insects, retards seasoning and resists the penetration of preservatives. Done by
mechanical peeling, manual removing or sawing with sap wood.
Drying: Improves the diffusion of preservatives into wood. Moisture should ideally be less than 30% before
preservative treatment. Can be done by air drying or kiln drying
Cutting: Of bigger logs into smaller pieces, increases the surface area and preservative action
Boring or incision of very hard or refractory timber for better penetration
Stem conditioning is needed in some cases,
Methods of application of preservatives
Non Pressure Method
Steeping process: Preservative in liquid form is applied as a spray by brushing, spraying or dipping for a
short period of time. Useful for water soluble preservatives. Cheap and quick, but efficiency is low.

Soaking process: Wood is immersed in preservative for week to months. Useful for both dry and green
woods. Big sized tanks and high amounts of preservatives are required.
Diffusion: Mostly water soluble preservatives for green timber
Normal Diffusion process: Normal green timber is soaked with wood preservative at 4-10%
concentration for a longer period. Suitable for refractory species
Steam quenching followed by diffusion: Green timber, partially dried timber and bamboos.
Preservatives are more easily absorbed after steam treatment at atmospheric pressure
Hot soaking: Green timber soaked in hot preservative
Momentary Tip Process: For veneers and green sawn timbers
Sap Displacement: Green round timber and bamboos are kept inclined or vertically in the preservative
solutions for 3-4 days. After some time, woods are inverted to get an uniform treatment. Suitable for water
soluble preservatives.
Heating and Cooling: Wood is immersed in heated preservatives at 100 ºC for 3h. Then wood is taken out
and cooled. Preservatives enter the wood as this creates a partial vacuum.
Pressure Method: Timber stacked in compact cylinder is treated with preservative at higher pressure.
Full cell process: Preservative is filled in the cell cavity as well as cell wall fully. Wood is stacked in a
cylinder and vacuum is created inside the cylinder, Then preservative is introduced and pressure is applied.
Empty cell process: Maximum penetration with minimum absorption. Reduces cost of operations
Lowry Process: Preservative is applied without an initial vacuum, other processes similar to full cell
process. Useful for treating thatches and ropes.
Rueping Process: Initially a low pressure is applied, and after addition of preservative higher pressure
is applied.
Advantages of pressure method
Gives the best desirable effects

Penetration of preservative is more uniform to a greater depth
Larger amounts of preservatives are absorbed
Alternate Pressure method
Higher concentration solution is first used for impregnation and dilute solution is recovered.
Treated wood is dried and again treated in a similar manner.
Convenient, cheaper and consumes less time.
Other methods
Boulton process: Combines seasoning and preservation. Wood is boiled under a gradual vacuum in presence
of a suitable preservative. This reduces boiling point of water in the wood and enables evaporation, aiding
drying of wood. Removal of water enhances preservative penetration
Steaming cum vacuum process: Steaming is done under pressure. Then subjected to vacuum and finally
treated with preservative
Charring and Spraying: Wooden posts are charred in fire. Charring destroys the stored food in outer layer of
wood which reduces the insect and fungi attack. The charred portion is sprayed with or dipped in
preservative.
Ground line treatment: If posts are already fixed into the ground.
COMPOSITE WOOD
General term used for built up bonded product consisting wholly of natural wood or of wood in combination with
metals, plastics, etc.
Plywood
Glued wood construction built up of veneers in such a manner that the grain of each
veneer is at right angles to the adjacent veneer in the assembly. Number of veneers is
odd
Manufacturing process
Production of veneers: Initially woods are softened by streaming. Then it is subjected

to rotatory peeling or slicing
Drying of veneer: Done in steam heated mechanical driers
Mixing and spreading the glue: Glues used are animal glues, starch, blood albumin,
synthetic resins. Thickness of glue spreading is regulated by a scraper.
Pressing: At room temperature or higher temperature, so that the layers stick to each
other
Conditioning: decreases moisture content up to 12%
Trimming, Sanding and storage
Properties
high strength and stability

high resistance to impact
resistance to water, chemicals, fire, and heat
Sound insulation
Flexibility in shape, size and thickness makes it fit for every requirement
Cost-effectiveness
Uses
Floors, walls and roofs in home constructions.

Wind bracing panels.
Vehicle internal body work.
Packages and boxes.
Fencing.
Built up product made of wood layers (veneers) in which all layers are laid with their
grain parallel and glued.
Laminated Wood
The veneers are seasoned in kilns and cut in to uniform width and length.
They are fed into a glue spreader and assembled into the required shape.
Composite board built up of a core composed of a strip of woods of various

dimensions to form a slab.
Core Boards
This is glued between two or more outer veneers with the direction of grain of the
core strips running perpendicular to that of adjacent veneer.
General term for built up boards having a core of light material, faced on both sides
Sandwich Board with relatively thin layers of woods having high strength properties.
Used in manufacturing parts of aircrafts, Motor boats, table tops, containers.
Fibre Board
Sheet of material made from fibre of wood.
Made from wood wastes and agricultural wastes
Wood is defibrillated or pulped and inter-felted in to a mat. Bonding agents and
supplementary agents are added at the felting stage to improve the mechanical
properties, and is consolidated by pressure and heat

It is then used as a core material in sandwich and core boards.

Can be classified as Hard Board, Semi hard board, Medium hard board, Soft board
Properties
Homogeneous, no grain direction

Dense but breathes
Acts as additional thermal insulation
Can withstand long term moisture stress
High durability
Char instead of burning, hence retard the rate of fire spread
Uses
Furniture
Home interior and exteriors
Sound proofing
Vapour barriers
Fire insulation
Easy to work with and quick to install
Competitive prices
Board constituted from the fragments of wood and other lignocellulostic materials
bonded with organic binders by heat, pressure, humidity, catalysts, etc.
Types: Chip board, flake board, shaving board
Properties and Uses
Weight and Density: As it is composed of wood chips, wood shavings and sawdust
which are waste materials and have very less weight, particle boards are also light in
weight as compared to medium density fiberboard or plywood. Due to its lightweight
nature, they are easy to transport and handle. Used in domestic and office furniture
Strength: Low strength as they are made from weak materials like wood chips and
sawdust. They cannot withstand heavy loads and are used when load application is
less.
Particle Board Resistance to Moisture: Low resistance to moisture. In the presence of moisture, the
boards experience swelling and development of cracks may occur. Also, get
discoloured on exposure to moisture.
Resistance to Warping: Low resistance to warping, but coating it with primer or
painting the particle board, can improve its resistance. The coating also helps in
increasing its strength up to some extent.
Durability: Less durable as compared to plywood or solid wood. Durability can be
increased by covering the surface with laminates or wood veneer
Insulation: Good sound insulation properties, thus they are used in partition walls and
ceilings of recording studios and concert halls
Fire Resistance: Can be made fire resistant by attaching a layer of melamine on the
top surface. Melamine particle boards are used in manufacturing of industrial
furniture
Eco-Friendly: Manufactured from recycled materials and waste. Thus, it helps in
environmental conservation to some extent.
Improved Wood General term for modified wood that has been treated to impart various properties like
hygroscopicity, strength, density, etc.

Impregnated Wood: Impregnated with wax, paraffin, resins, oils. Main objective is
to prevent water absorption.
Using thermosetting formaldehyde resins: Vacuum impregnation, followed by
thermosetting followed by another round if impregnation.
Heat Stabilised: Woods are passed beneath the surface of a molten metal or fused
salt. Subjected to 250-315 °C for a few minutes under non oxidising conditions
Compressed Wood: Woods are compressed without impregnation. It increases
specific gravity and strength of wood so that it can withstand wear and tear. Formed
from solid or laminated wood under pressure. Material obtained after compression
have a specific gravity of 1.2 to 1.3
Compregnated Wood: Wood which are subjected to impregnation and compressed.
Woods are spliced in to veneers and impregnated with urea formaldehyde by
compression. Decreases shrinking and swelling properties of the wood. Increases
tensile strength and improves insulation property.
Chemically Modified Wood: OH group of cellulose is replaced. Chemicals used for
this are Urea hydroxyl and Sulphuric acid. Decreases hygroscopicity and
swelling/shrinkage.
Status of Composite Wood in India
Plywood and laminates demand is increasing due to fast growth of housing sector. Growing at 10-20% per
annum
India plywood industry is a 10000 crore industry. Laminates are are a 5000 cr industry
Approx. 750 units are currently functional all over the country
Only 10-15% share is from organised industries, and the rest is from the unorganised sector.
PULP
Pulp is a crude fibrous material manufactured from fibrous cellulosic materials in the form of thick sheets.
Usually from wood, plant residues (bamboo, grasses) and waste paper.
It forms the basic material for production of paper, paperboard and rayon
Manufacture of Pulp
Pulp can be produced mechanically or chemically.

The yield of pulp depends on raw material used and quality of pulp desired
Poor in quality as it contains lignin. Poor colour, low strength and less durable.
The fibres exist as fibre bundles and fragments of fibres.
Woods like light coloured conifers or hardwoods like poplar and eucalyptus are used.
Cost is cheap, mostly used in manufacture of newsprint.
Process
Mechanical
Wood is debarked and subjected to steaming
Ground into a fibrous mass by holding it against a grinding stone. Length of logs are
held parallel to the axis of the grinding stone which helps separation of long fibres.
Pulp collected is screened to remove the coarse materials.
Pulp is refined to get finer pulp, and is screened again
The fine pulp is thickened and excess water is removed

Chemical Semi Wood pieces are digested with chemicals to get a lignin free pulp
Alkaline Process
Soda process uses NaOH as the cooking liquor, Sulphate process uses Sodium
Sulphide + NaOH
Process
Woods of desired size is digested in a steel digester using desired cooking medium
for certain time under pressure.
After digestion, cooked material is transferred into a blow tank.
After that, pulp is washed for a number of times before separating it
Waste water obtained from washing is called black liquor which is sent to the soda
recovery unit for recovering the chemicals
Advantages
Wide variety of woods can be used for pulping

Pulp obtained is brighter in colour and has better strength
Digestion period is relatively short
Methods to recover chemicals are optimised and efficient
Effluents cause less pollution
Acidic Process
Calcium bisulphate and Sulphur dioxide are used as a cooking medium.

Also known as Sulphate process.
Magnesium or ammonium bisulphate with sulphur dioxide is also used.
Digestion process similar as in alkaline process.
Combination of chemical and mechanical methods which involve a light chemical

treatment of the raw material, followed by mechanical processing.
Semi Chemical Chemical soften the raw material and remove the lignin.
NaOH is used as a cooking medium
Quality of pulp is intermediate between the tow methods
Manufacture of Paper
Pulping
Pulp cleaning: Raw pulp contains knots, shaves, dirt, grit. For pulp cleaning, it is passed through coarse
screen and then a fine screen. Centrifugal screen is done when required.
Pulp bleaching: Removes the impurities that impart poor colour. Chemical used are Calcium hypochlorite,
Chlorine gas, peroxides and hydrosulphides.
Beating: Pulp is subjected to bruising or crushing in a beater. Beating if pulp is carried out for 12h.
Cell walls are fractured and removed.
Fibre length is decreased which increase their flexibility and specific surface
Improves bursting and tensile strength, folding endurance and smoothness of paper.
Reduces tearing strength, porosity and opacity of paper.
Sizing: Addition of Rosin or Soap Wax emulsion along with aluminium sulphate to make the paper
impervious to inks.

Loading: Fillers are added to the pulp which improves the printing surface, absorption of printing inks, better
finishing and opacity, flatness and softness, dimensional stability and brightness of the paper. Materials used
are china clay, talc powder, titanium dioxide. Starches, vegetable gums, synthetic hydrophilic materials and
resin emulsions are also added to the pulp during various stages.
Colouring: Addition of suitable insoluble pigments to impart colour.
Formation of sheets
Pressing: forms sheets and removes excess moisture
Drying: Dried on a cotton, asbestos or synthetic belt. Several hollow and steam heated iron rolls are
used.
Calendaring: Dry web is passed through a stack of cast iron rolls
Polishing: One side of paper is polished and paper obtained is rolled and stored.
Rayon
Rayon refers to the artificial silk obtained from some specific woody species.
e.g. Balsam, Tamarind, Bamboo, Mulberry, Eucalpyptus
Types: Regular rayon, Cupramanium rayon, Saponified cellulose
Used in manufacturing of cloths and jackets
Manufacturing
Steeping: Pulp is soaked in caustic soda. Hemicellulose id soluble in caustic soda, which is leached out in
this process. Cellulose is insoluble. The cellulose after caustic soda treatment is called caustic cellulose
Shredding: Cellulose sheets are reduced in size to a mass of fibres in a shredder
Aging: Mass of fibres are discharged into a can and kept in a temperature controlled room. Structure of
cellulose molecules change due to this ageing process.
Xanthation: Conversion of alkali cellulose into a cellulose xanthate. After that, it is treated with carbon
disulphide for 3 hours at a temperature of 20-35 °C
Dissolving: Cellulose xanthate is dissolved in dilute caustic soda. Resulting product is called a Viscose.
Filtration: Process of removal of undissolved solids from a viscose.
Ripening: Viscose is transferred to a tank where it is kept for a certain time.
Spinning: Viscose is converted into rayon filaments
Washing: Rayong filament is washed, dried and desulphurised
Leaching: Bleached with dilute Hypochlorite. Bleached yarn is again washed and dried.
FOREST ECONOMICS
Forest Economics is the application of economic principles to forestry’s managerial and decision making problems.
Knowledge of forest economics will help us to appreciate various economic and social problems in forests
Application of forest economics in forest decisions
Appraise problems of demand and supply of natural resources

Ways and means of managing forest resources and constraints
Explains and predicts the future economic trends
Enhances planning and development
Analyses the impacts of silviculture, ecology, environmental conservation, etc.
Influences management practices relevant to human interest
Helps utilisation of natural resources on scientific lines
Makes better recommendations and judgements for the well being of the society.
Economic analysis in forestry decision making
Allotment of forestland to different purposes

Selection of trees suitable for protection of land from soil erosion
Determination of suitable and cost effective land use patterns

Assessment of the extent of employment potential in forestry
Alternative energy sources to be identified to reduce pressure on forest
Determination of economic rotation
Determine factors governing policy of forest produces
Determination of policies with relevant export of forest produce and extent of subsidy
Analysis of people’s involvement and participation in forest and wildlife management and its impact on
policy and decisions.
Features of Forestry enterprises
Long term investments

Products of varying quality from same place and species
Multiple and varied uses
Quantum of output obtained varies widely
Mostly in less accessible and remote areas.
FOREST VALUATION
Process of estimation of the value of a forest property

Includes the land and the trees growing on it. Includes both biotic and abiotic components
Purposes of Forest Valuation
Determine the capital value of forest and tree crops

Determine the rate of forest capital formation
Transfer the forest land to other govt and private agencies
Acquire private forest land by govt and determine appropriate compensation for that.
Analyse economic returns from investments made in forests
Predict future value trends of forests
Basis for Valuation
Cost Value
Based on historical cost, replacement cost, restoration cost and present land value cost
Poor base as historical costs are mostly unreliable
Income Value
Estimated present net worth of all future earnings or other returns expected from a forest property.
Depends on rate of interest
Not ideal as yield tables for various species and market prices for all products are not available
Market Value
Considers site quality, topography, composition, density, age, road accessibility, water availability and
mode of appraisal.
Gives better results and is the method of choice for acquiring private land for public use.
Soil Expectation Value (Faustman): sum of all intermittent and final yields.
Net Revenues are calculated for each rotation by compounding them upto rotation age.
Chapman’s calculation : ,
Steps in Project Preparation
Feasibility analysis
Techno economic analysis
Project design and network analysis

Input analysis
Financial analysis
Social cost benefit analysis
Project appraisal
Assessing Project Worth
Benefits to Cost Ratio
Both benefit and cost are discounted for the same period of time at a common rate of interest.
BCR = Present worth of benefits / Present worth of costs. Project is worthy when BCR value is more than
one.
Present Net Worth
Difference between present worth of benefits and present worth of costs

PNW = Present worth of benefits - Present worth of costs. Project is worthy if PNW > 0
Internal Rate of Returns
Rate at which present worth of benefits is equal to present worth of costs.

Project is worthy if IRR is higher than rate of interest.
Benefit Cost Analysis
Technique of estimating costs and returns from a production.

Inputs, interest on capital, wear and tear, maintenance and other relevant factors are considered while doing
BCA.
Tangible Benefits: Timber, Fodder, Fibres, Fuel wood, oils, resins
Intangible Benefits: Regulation of water cycle, carbon sequestration, ecological stability, soil conservation
Costs: Land value, cost of silvicultural practices, cost of raising plantations, cost of nursery
Features
Appraises costs and benefits of a project in monetary terms

Considers marketable goods, non marketable goods and services
Intangible costs and benefits are taken into account
Tool for economic planning in forestry
Helps in taking the right decision in respect to forests and plantations
Objective
Assesses worthiness of a project

Compares a number of projects meant for same purposes
Determine the best project that provides largest net benefit.
Limitations
Rate of interest is considered the same for the entire duration of the appraisal period
Sustained supply of raw material at all times in the future is not assured
Pollution is not considered

DEMAND AND SUPPLY
Interaction of demand and supply has a bearing on price of any commodity in the market.
Demand is the quantity required by the purchaser with respect to a specific commodity at the prevailing price
levels.
Factors influencing demand
Supply of materials
Preference of users
Price of commodity relative to other commodities (availability of alternatives)
Demand-Supply gap in wood
Gap between consumption and production of timber and wood based products in India is rapidly increasing
Difficult to estimate the quantum of this gap due to the lack of reliable data on the consumption of timber
and wood products since it is a highly unregulated market.
Forested areas contribute just 6% of the timber demand (State of Forest Report 2011)
Trees outside Forests (TOF), including agro-forestry, is meeting timber demand much more than natural
forests
Factors responsible
Low Productivity: Growth of tree in India (volume/hectare) is among the lowest in the world. 129 m3/ha
worldwide worldwide compared to 73 m3/ha in India.
Increasing Demand: Timber and pulpwood are mainly used by the construction, furniture, wood panels and
paper sectors. While the demand for furniture has been rising between 12-15 % annually, demand for paper
has been rising 8% annually. India is considered the fastest growing paper market in the world
Inefficiency of FDCs: Contribute only 5% of timber
Illegal Hoarding and Cartelisation
Tropical climate: Faster wastage of wood, higher rates of insect infestation
Lack of data as most timber demand is met through unorganised sector — impedes policy measures
How to mitigate this gap?
Improve productivity of forests

Switch to non-wood based building material
Mechanisation and technology adoption
Improve storage facilities in timber depts
Governance reforms to improve efficiency of supply
As a result, the country is meeting its shortage for wood increasingly through imports.
Thus, there is a significant gap between demand and supply of wood in India, and imports are only bound to
increase in the coming years.
Forest Development Corporations (FDCs)
Production and commercial wings of forest departments, were established in the 1970s based on the
recommendation of the NCA
The primary objective of FDCS was to launch an aggressive forestry production programme which could
meet the growing demand of wood based industries.
FDCs lease large tracts of forestlands to convert natural forests into plantations in some states, in others,
FDCs harvest and market timber from earmarked forestlands
FDCs produce less than 5% of total timber production of India

MARKET STRUCTURE
Almost all forests in India are owned by the govt. and the FD holds a monopoly in timber production.
Trees also grow everywhere else outside govt. forest and their produce also comes into the market,
accounting for almost 30% of the wood in the country.
There is no uniformity in wood products, and produce from same species varies considerably across regions
Barriers in resource mobility in case of wood products, where contractors and middlemen have a dominant
role in distribution of wood products
Besides that, the tribals and rural population obtain forest produce including wood products directly form the
forest without any middle men.
This shows that the market structure in Indian forestry is difficult to define sharply
Free competition in markets mostly does not exist in respect of forest products because
Buyers and seller are limited

Heterogenous character of forest product — differences in quality and access
Virtually no monopoly in forest products
FD by sheer size of their activities, dominate the market
Buyers of the wood from govt. forest determine the timber trade, its supplies, price etc.
Components of market structure
Private consumers — includes the population that depends on forests in their vicinity for small timber and
firewood for their own production
Domestic Users — domestic use of wood by individual households in its processed forms such as
construction material (doors, windows), furniture etc.
Industries — use wood as raw material
Govt. Departments — irrigation, defence, ship building, urban housing etc.
Export Market — catered by both FD and private contractors through the State Trading Corporations
Protection of Market Structure
Control illegal exploitation of forest produce

Recognition of indigenous people’s rights as per Forest Rights Act
Strengthen cross border anti-smuggling
Prevent cartelisation of wood. Regulation of middlemen and contractors
Proper regulation of exports (e.g Red Sanders)
Strengthen measures for adhering to international commitments like CITES and TRAFFIC (e.g. Dalbergia)

CORPORATE FINANCING
Significance
Feasibility of shifting from unsustainable to sustainable practices

Distribution of costs and benefits amongst different stakeholders
Consideration of the non-market costs and benefits of forests.
Prospect of private finance may motivate Govts to initiate much needed land reforms
Factors that affect corporate financing
Tree growing conditions

Access to markets
Growth potential
Physical and institutional infrastructure
Business environment
Political and economic stability
Security of land tenure
Main barriers to financing private investments
High, real and perceived risks such as those related to land tenure
Weak availability of both domestic and foreign equity and loan financing
Unfavorable terms for financing
High up-front costs of preparing investment projects in the forestry sector.
What can be done to improve corporate financing?
Strengthening land tenure systems

Policy and legal reforms clarifying the role of the private sector
Creating a policy framework for private sector investment in forestry and processing
Active investment promotion with targeted incentive schemes.
Reducing investment risks, both real and perceived
Improving access to financing. e.g. by developing new financial instruments favoring long-term investments
Collecting and improving access to information around the availability of suitable land for investments,
growth and yield, growing conditions in general, risks, etc.
Improving forest sector governance and transparency
Improving transport and other infrastructure
Supporting research and development to increase productivity
Helping to organize smallholders and communities so that they can enjoy economies of scale, become more
eligible for accessing finance, and gain negotiating power
Paris agreement will bring together corporate investors, developing countries and local communities
Concerns
Data on private forest financing is not systematically reported

Uneven distribution of corporate financing across regions and countries. 83% of private sector investment in
Latin America, and only 1% in Africa.
SOCIO ECONOMIC ATTRIBUTES
Socio-economic status of local community is known to significantly affect the types of activities they are
engaged in, as well as the impact on different types of interaction towards their natural resources.
Knowing more about local people’s usage of forests is an important factor that could enhance planning of
land use and minimise the conflict with them.
Understanding the social factors affecting people usage of natural resources is an essential element to
conserve natural resources.
Attributes that affect forest productivity
Public and private investment in the development of low-cost, practical technologies

Support for and coordination of evolving markets for ecosystem services and products
Subsidies and crop insurance programs
General level of economic development in the country -- higher development leads to lesser forest
productivity
Population Composition
Nature of agriculture -- emphasis on plantations leads to increased forset productivity
Primitive agricultural practices and shifting cultivation decrease forest productivity
Capacity of forest sector to provide employment
Efficiency of forest cooperatives
FOREST LEGISLATION
Forest Laws - Forest laws are the laws pertaining to forest and all other forest related activities. They form the
guiding principles for administration of forests, as recognised by the state.
General Principles
Define limits of forestry

Helps in classifying forests in distinct categories
Deals with provision on rights

Provisions for preventing abuse and offence

Defines public authorities involved and their empowerment
Necessity of Forest Laws
Deal with misconception of people that forests can be exploited at their will
Exercise of rights and concession by the people should be controlled
Forests are large in extent and are located in remote areas, hence it is difficult to protect them from adverse
agents
Forests are subjected to varieties of injuries and damage from adverse factors
Forest products are vulnerable to threat
Special powers are needed to shift the forest officials working in remote areas
Protection of wildlife from hunting and poaching is the immense need of the hour
History of Forest Legislation
1865: First Indian Forest Act was enacted

1918: IFA was amended
1927: IFA, 1927
1972: WPA, 1972
1976: Tree Protection Act, 1976
1980: Forest Conservation Act, 1980
1991: WPA, 1972 was amended.
2001: IFA, 1927 amended in many states
2002: Biological Diversity Act in alignment with CBD
2006: ST act was passed
Essential of Forest Management
Existing forests should be protected and its productivity improved.

Diversion of agricultural lands to forestry should be discouraged.
Conservation of biodiversity should be strengthened through NP, sanctuaries and BR
Afforestation to meet local needs and for carbon sequestration
MFP production to augment tribal employment
Management Strategy
Area under forests should be minimum of 1/3 of total geographic area. Hills and mountainous region should
have 2/3 cover.
Afforestation, social forestry and farm forestry are encouraged
Rights and concessions of local people are suitably addressed
Diversion of forest lands for non forestry purposes is discouraged
Wildlife conservation is given more importance
Shifting cultivation is discouraged and cultivation of perennial crops through horticulture and tree farming is
encouraged
Fire and grazing management is given special consideration
Forest based industries are advised to meet their raw materials requirement from outside the forest.
Forest extension, research and personal management are emphasised.
Applicability of IPC in forest offences
Theft of timber from govt depot

Buying of stolen timber
Thefts of FD property
Criminal breach of trust
Assault on staff of forest department
Unlawful assembly inside the forest
Omitting to give information about a forest offence
Giving false information to forest officials
Use of false property marks
Tampering of property marks
FOREST POLICIES
Forest Policy, 1894
On the basis of Dr. Voelker’s report titled 'Improvement of Indian agriculture'. First national forest policy enacted
under pre-Independence era
Objective of management is to promote the general well-being of the country

Maintenance of adequate forests is primarily for the preservation of climatic and physical conditions of the
country, and secondly to fulfil needs of the people.
Government owned forests have been classified as
Preservation Forest: Forest whose preservation is required on climate and physical grounds
Commercial Forest: Supply timber and other commercial products
Minor Forest
Pasture lands
Permanent cultivation over shifting cultivation
Importance to fulfilment of basic needs of people
Maximum revenue was the main goal instead of local people
Drawbacks
Satisfy needs of the British govt.

Priority to agriculture than forestry
Easy diversion of forestlands for non-forestry purposes
No guidelines for research and training in forestry
Less stress on problems like shifting cultivation, forest fire, etc.
No guidelines on conservation and preservation of biodiversity
No specific provisions for management of wildlife
Less emphasis on management of catchments and forest on it.
Forest Policy, 1952
Based on the following needs of the country
Need for developing a system of balanced and complementary land use

Check denudation in mountain region, soil erosion in river banks and invasion of sea sands on coastal tracks
and invasion of sea sands on coastal tracks
Need for establishment of tree lands wherever possible
Manage progressively increasing demands of grazing and wod
Sustained supply of timber and forest produce
Need for realisation of maximum annual revenue in perpetuity
Features
Stressed on having 33% of land area of the country under forest cover, and the need for wildlife
conservation.

Forest is to be for maintenance of physical conditions of the country.

Protected Forest: essential for preservation of physical and climatic conditions of the country
National Forest: Maintained and managed to meet the national needs
Village Forest: Maintained for providing firewood, small timber and other forest produce to local people
and grazing for cattle.
Tree Land: Areas through which the scope of ordinary people outside the forest is satisfied
Forest Policy, 1988
Ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance for sustenance of all life forms, humans,
animal and plant.
Meet increasing energy demands of the population

Obey the new DPSP and FD
Constitutional amendments of 1976 and its stress on environment
Marked growth of forest based industries during this era
Need for guidelines on conservation of wildlife
Objectives
Maintain environmental stability and ecological restoration through preservation

Check soil erosion and denudation in the catchment areas and mitigation of floods
Check sand dune extension in desert and coastal lands
Increase forest and tree cover in the denuded and degraded lands
Meet requirements of tribals
Conserve the natural heritage
Increase productivity of forest to meet the various needs
Encourage substitution of wood and reduction of wood usage
Create a massive people movement and minimise pressure on existing forest
1894 1952 1988
Improvement of agriculture Conservation of natural

Balanced and complementary
Objective and public interest and heritage, biodiversity and
use of forest produce
rights genetic resources
1. Forest for timber

1. Protection Forests
production
Forest 2. National Forests
2. Minor forests
Classification 3. Village Forests
3. Preservation forest
4. Tree lands
4. Pasture lands
Symbiotic relationship
Tribals No clear guidelines between forest dept and
tribals
Planting on railways, PWD

Increasing forest Massive afforestation
lands for increasing
cover programmes
vegetative cover
Private Forests Few guidelines Detailed guidelines
Proportion of 1/3 area 33% under forests cover,

forest area 60% in hills, 20% in plains 66% tree cover in hills
Network of protection
Wildlife Rare and EN only
measures strengthened
Grazing Nominal fee According to carrying

capacity
Shifting
No coercive measures to stop Discouraged
cultivation
Sustainable yield Limited scope Detailed measures
Forest Trained foresters are Personal management for

administration recommended professional foresters
Few guidelines through Detailed guidelines on

Forestry training rangers college and training and scientific
universities forestry research
Focus on people’s
Locals Need for cooperation participation in forest
management
INDIAN FOREST ACT, 1927
Main legislation dealing with forests in India
Reserve Forest
State govt may notify any forestland or wasteland as a reserve forest.
Declares particular land as RF

Situation and limits of the land are specified
Forest Settlement Officer (FSO) is appointed to enquire and settle disputes regarding rights and
claims
After notification, no further acquisition of forest rights is allowed. Proclamation regarding extent of RF and
their rights is published by the FSO. After this, the right holders can apply to the FSO for their rights
FSO can take the following actions
Exclude that land from limits of proposed RF

Enter into an agreement with the owner for surrender of rights
Acquire the land under land acquisition act with proper compensation
There is a provision for appeal against the order of FSO regarding constitution of RF or rights related
conflicts
After all appeals are amicably settled, the orders of the FSO are disposed. Thereafter, a notification is
published by state govt. which specifies the exact limit of the boundaries of the reserve forest.
Protected Forest
State govt may notify any forestland or wasteland as a protected forest.

No notification is issued unless the nature and extent of rights in and over the area have been inquired.
Declare any tree or class of trees as a PF from date of notification

Declare that any specified portion of forest in the notification will be closed for a period of not more than 30
years
Rights of private persons are suspended, provided alternate sources are available
State govt. is empowered to regulate

Breaking up or clearing of land for cultivation

Cattle grazing inside the PF
Firing or clearing of vegetation
Cutting, sawing, conversion and removal of trees and timber
Collection and removal of forest produce from PF
Granting permits to the people in PF to make timber and MFP for own use
Grass cutting
Protecting reserved trees and timber from fires
Punishable offences inside PF
Felling, Lopping, Girdling, tapping, burning, bark stripping from a reserved tree.
Quarrying stone, burning lime, removal of MFP
Breaking up land for cultivation and clearing land in any PF
Causing fire (State Govt can suspend the right of pasture for a fixed period whenever a fire is caused wilfully
or by gross negligence)
Allowing cattle to damage a reserved tree.
Control on forest produce in transit
Provisions regarding routes along which forest produces can be imported or exported, or moved in and out
from a forest
Regulate movement of forest produce without a transit permit
Stoppage, reporting, examination and marking of all forest produces in transit
Establishment and regulation of depots — Govt shall be responsible for any loss or damage which may
occur in respect of any forest produce at depot.
Prohibition of any act which may cause river or channel to be closed or obstructed for transit of timber
Regulation of use of property marks on timber and registration of such marks
State Govt is also empowered to notify that any provision of the transit rules will not apply to a specific area
or class of timber
WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972
Basic law governing wildlife in India

Extends to whole of India, except JK
Defines animal, animal article and other terms explained in this act.
Authorities to be appointed by Central Govt.: Director of wildlife preservation, assistant director of wildlife
preservation, other officers if necessary
Authorities to be appointed by State Govt.: CWW, WW, other officers
Constitution of Wildlife Board by State Govt.
Procedure for setting up a Wildlife Advisory Board and its powers
Hunting of Wild Animals
Prohibits hunting of any wild animals in Schedules I to IV.

Under special conditions CWW can permit hunting of Schedule I animals
Killed animal is a govt. property
Killing of animal is allowed if
Animal is dangerous to human life

Animal is disabled or injured
Animal is diseased beyond recovery stage

CWW with permission of Central Govt. can permit collection or capturing of Schedule I animals for education,
research, scientific management or specimen collection for zoological gardens
Protection of Special Plants
Prohibits picking, uprooting, damaging, destroying and acquiring specified plants from forests
Possession, transforming and sale of these plants are prohibited except bonafide personal use by STs
WW by prior approval of state govt. can permit collection of these plants under specific conditions
Cultivation of specified plants without license is prohibited
Special plants are those under Schedule VI - Cycas beddomi, Red Panda, Blue Vanda, Ladies Slipper Orchid,
Pitcher Plant.
Sanctuary
Declared by State Govt. by notification if it considers that area has adequate ecological, faunal, floral,
geomorphologic significance
Before declaration, collector publishes a proclamation regarding sanctuary limits and claiming of rights.
Collector shall pass an order admitting or rejecting rights in whole or part.
In case of acquisitions of rights or land, collector with previous sanction of state govt. may provide an
alternative to rights holders.
No alteration of boundaries of a WLS shall be made except on a resolution passed by the state legislature
General restriction
Entry inside the sanctuary

CWW can permit entry inside the sanctuary for photography, research, tourism and transaction of business
with person residing inside the sanctuary.
Destruction to forest property e.g. fire, grazing
Possession of arms inside the sanctuary
All livestock in and around the sanctuary must be immunised.
National Park
Declared by State Govt. by notification if it considers that area has adequate ecological, faunal, floral,
geomorphologic significance
Before declaration, collector publishes a proclamation regarding sanctuary limits and claiming of rights.
Collector shall pass an order admitting or rejecting rights in whole or part.
In case of acquisitions of rights or land, collector with previous sanction of state govt. may provide an
alternative to rights holders.
No alteration of boundaries of a national park shall be made except on a resolution passed by the state
legislature
No grazing of cattle is permitted inside NP
No person shall destroy, exploit or remove wildlife or its habitat form the NP
Closed Area
State Govt. may by notification declare any area to be closed for hunting for a certain period. No hunting of
any wild animal shall be permitted in closed area.
Game Reserve

State Govt. may by notification, declare any area to be a game reserve. Hunting of any wild animal shall be
permitted inside the game reserve.
Central Zoo Authority
Housing, keeping and veterinary care of animals kept in zoo.

Recognition or de-recognition of zoo
Breeding of endangered species of wild animals
Coordinate acquisition and exchange of animals for breeding program
Technical guidance for zoo management
Management authority of zoo should apply for getting permit within 6 months from date of commencement
of zoo
No person shall acquire or transfer any wild animal specified in Schedule I and II except with previous
permission of CZA
Trade or Commerce of Wild Animals
Animal article, trophy or meat derived from any wild animal shall be treated as property of state govt. or
central govt. if it is collected from sanctuary or NP, respectively.
Dealing with trophy and animals article without license is prohibited
CWW can suspend license. Appeals can be made against such suspension.
CWW can issue certificate of ownership for any wild product.
WPA Amendment 1991
Representation of tribals in the State Advisory Board

Separate chapter to regulate exploitation of threatened species
No alteration in change of boundary lines of sanctuary and NP
Stringent laws on protection of sanctuary
Mandatory to immunise livestock around 5 km sq.
No new armed license would be granted in 10 km of a sanctuary without prior concurrence of CWW
Provision for setting up CZA
Vehicles, weapons, traps used for offence shall be property of the state and not be returned to the offenders
Rewards to persons who helps in prevention of poaching
WPA Amendment 2002
Setting up National Board of Wildlife with PM as chairman

State Govt. has to act according to NBWL
State Board of Wildlife in each state with CM as chairman
State has to get approval from NBWL to declare WLS and NP
Protected areas additionally include Community Reserves and Conservation Reserves
Participation of people living within and around the sanctuary to be encouraged
Permit from CWW and satisfaction of SG before permitting destructive action of wildlife in NP or WLS
ACF can clear encroachment in protected areas
Constitution of WLS or NP has to completed within 2 years from a date of initial declaration
Allows conditional resource extraction from NP and WLS
National Park Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve
Protects species along with Set up for a target species Considers the whole
their habitat ecosystem
Common size 100 to 500 km Common size 100 to 500 Generally larger than NP and
sq. km sq. WLS
Boundaries by legislation Boundaries by legislation Boundaries by legislation
Biotic interference only in Limited biotic interference Except the buffer zone, no
buffer zone biotic interference
Community and Conservation Reserves
Amendment to WPA in 2003, provided a mechanism to provide recognition and legal backing to community
initiated efforts
Aims at wildlife conservation ,without compromising on community needs.
Community Reserve
State Govt can declare private or community land (not comprised within a NP, Sanctuary or Cons Reserve)
where the community or individual has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat
Similar provisions apply, as to a WLS
After notification, no change in land use pattern shall be made within the community reserve, except in
accordance with resolution passed by the management committee, and agreed to by the State Govt.
Conservation Reserve
Sate Govt after consultations with local communities, declare area owned by govt. (particularly areas
adjacent to NP, WLS and corridors between PAs.
Similar provisions apply, as to a WLS
FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 1980
Preventing and regulating the diversion of forestland for non forestry purposes
Prior approval of central govt. is essential for de-reserving a forest area for non-forestry purposes. Govt. may
constitute an advisory committee for grant of approval
Central Govt can make rules under this act.
Applicable to all of India except JK
Prior approval is needed for reservation of forest lands for Mining, Raising commercial crops, Transmission
lines, Hydroelectric projects, irrigation schemes, road and railway lines, exploratory drillings
Amendments (1988)
Penalty for violation of provisions

Detailed guidelines for diversion of land
Rules framed for diversion of land for non-forestry purposes — prior approval of CG is necessary
Central Govt staff can make field inspections. Based on the recommendation, compensator afforestation
measures can be suggested.
Non forestry purposes include: Mining, Raising commercial crops, transmission lines, hydro electric
projects, irrigation schemes, road and railway lines, pipes for drinking water supply, exploratory drillings
FOREST RIGHTS ACT, 2006
Tribals enjoyed full privileges inside the forest in the pre-independence era. British forest management prevented
few rights from them in the form of forest management. After independence, forest conservation measures took
away most of their rights.
ST and other traditional Forest Dwellers Act, 2006

Persons who primarily reside in forests and who depend on forests and forestland for a livelihood alone are
eligible.
Claimant must be a member of ST notified in that area, or must have been living in the forest for 75 years
Salient Features
Right to hold and live in forest land under the individual or common occupation for habitation or for self-
cultivation for livelihood
Community rights, including those used in erstwhile princely states, zamindari and intermediary regimes.
Right of ownership, access to collect, use and dispose off minor forest produce
Fish and products of water bodies, grazing (settled and transhumance), seasonal resource access of nomadic
or pastoral communities
Rights including community tenures of habitat for primitive tribal groups and pre-agricultural communities
Right of conversion of pastas or leases or grants issued by any local authority or State govt. on forest lands
to titles.
Rights of settlement and conversion of all forest villages, old habitation, unsurveyed villages etc. into
revenue villages
Protect, regenerate, conserve any community forest resource for sustainable use.
Rights recognised under any state law or laws of ADC, customary laws of tribals
Access of biodiversity and community right to IP and traditional knowledge related to biodiversity and
cultural diversity
Any other traditional right customarily enjoyed by forest dwelling ST or other traditional forest dwellers.
Does not include right of hunting or trapping wild animals
Categories of rights
Title rights: Ownership to land that is being farmed by tribal or forest dwellers subject to maximum of 4
hectares. Ownership is only for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned family as on Dec 13,
2005.
Use rights: Use of MFP, grazing and pastoral routes.
Relief and Development Right: Rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement, Access to
basic amenities subject to restrictions for forest protection.
Forest Management Right: Confines to role of tribals in protection of forests and wildlife
Process of Rights Recognition
Gram Sabha or Village Assembly will pass a resolution recommending eligible right holders with
specification of which lands belong to whom and how much land was under cultivation of each person as on
Dec 13, 2005.
This resolution is screened and approved at sub division and followed by district level. Screening committee
has 3 govt officials (forest, revenue and tribal welfare dept.), 3 elected members of local bodies.This
committee is also the appellate body
Rights recognised here may be modified or resettled in case of critical wildlife habitats, like NP or WLS.
Relocation only when there is no other alternative. The local community must consent to resettlement terms
(compensation and secure livelihood).

Forestry 2B

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Forestry 2B

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21/09/2019 Forestry 2B

Integrates economics, environmental science and public policy

Direct Values: Assigned directly to harvested products according to its demand

Main Attributes of an Ecosystem

Accumulation of biomass in plant and animal life in forest.

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What factors affect the productivity?

Leaf Area Index

Importance of Succession in Forestry

Classiﬁcation of forest into different types

Drought Response in Plants

Improve Water Uptake

Efﬁcient root system, with both deep and ﬁbrous roots

Mechanism to avoid water loss

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Rapid germination of seeds

Adaptations to water logged conditions

Adaptations for salt and alkali tolerance

Osmotic adaptation — Halophytes have low cytosolic sodium

Eurythermal: Wide amplitude

Forests in Climate Change

Role of soils in Carbon Sequestration

Soils hold 3x carbon compared to the atmosphere

Combat climate change and global warming by reducing emissions of GHG

Fuels produced for this do not have sufﬁcient caloriﬁc value

Bentham and Hooker Classiﬁcation

Speciﬁc keys for comparing plant specimens

Conservatory of preserved plant materials

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Poisoning of plant specimen

Poisoned in the ﬁeld, which prevents formation of abscission layer

Size and Number of specimens

Pressing of plant specimen

Pressed specimen is mounted on a standard herbarium sheet.

Filing and Storage

Accession numbers are used for ﬁling after mounting is done.

Purpose of botanical gardens

Study taxonomy and growth of plants

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Types of Botanical Gardens

Arboreta: Woody Species

Provides information for harnessing plant wealth

Ethnobotany in Indian Systems of medicine

Form the important drugs used in Indian Systems of medicine

Species used in curing ailments

Bronchial troubles: Bulbs of Urginea indica

Rheumatism: Carum carvi, Inula racemosa

Adverse effects of granting rights

Access can lead to illicit exploitation for black marketing

Demarcate areas and boundaries within which rights are applicable

Factors responsible for forest degradation

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Geomorphic and hydrologic processes of hill slopes and stream channels

Moves in direction of wind

Material that is consumed by ﬁre

Causes of Forest Fires

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Forest plant communities are reverted to early succession stages

Use of Prescribed ﬁres in forest resource management

Maintain dynamic between tree and grass

Under ground ﬁre

Fuel some metres below the ground surface

Fuel material on forest ﬂoor, like grasses and organic matter