Source transformations

 A method that can be used to simplify circuits.

 Allows a voltage source in series with a resistor to be replaced by a current source in parallel
with the same resistor.

Relationship between Vs and is

 Suppose R L is connected between nodes a, b

iL

 Using Ohm’s law gives

Vs
iL 
R  RL

 Now suppose the same resistor R L is connected as

iL

 Using current division principle yields

R
iL  is
R  RL

 If the two circuits are equivalent, these resistor currents must be the same

3.1
  Equating i L expressions gives

Vs R Vs
 is  is 
R  RL R  RL R

 If the current through R L in both circuits are same

the circuits are EQUIVALENT at nodes a, b

 If the polarity V s is reversed,

the orientation of i s must be reversed to maintain equivalance.

Ex. For the circuit shown, find the power associated with the 6V source.

First step,

Second step,

3.2
Third step,

Fourth step,

 6  16i  19.2  0  i  0.825 A

P6V  6.(0.825 )  4.95W Absorbing power

Remark. What happens if there is a resistance R P in paralel with the voltage source or a resistance
R S in series with the current source ?

 In both cases,
the resistance has no effect on the equivalent circuit that preclicts the behavior with
respect to terminals a, b

3.3
 Ex. Use source transformations to find V0

Vs

a. Remove 125  and 10  and apply source transformation,

V0  2.10  20V

b. Find the power developed by the 250V voltage source.

250 250  20
i   11.2 A
125 25
P250V  250 .11.2  2800W

c. Find the power developed by the 8A current source.

Vs  8.10  20  Vs  60V
P8 A  60.8  480W

Thévenin and Norton equivalents

 They are circuit simplification techniques

that focus on terminal behavior

 Can be used to represent any circuit made up of linear elements

3.4
Thévenin equivalent circuit

 Consider a circuit made up of sources and resistors

a
A resistive
network with
sources b

 The Thévenin equivalent circuit is shown as

 A Thévenin equivalent circuit

an independent voltage source VTH in series with a resistor RTH

How to determine VTh ?

 If the load resistance is infinitely large

we have an open-circuit condition

 The open-circuit voltage at the terminals a, b is VTH .

By hypothesis ;
 This voltage must be the same as the open-circuit voltage at the terminals of the original
circuit
we simply calculate the open-circuit voltage in the original circuit.

How to determine RTh ?

 If we place a short circuit across the terminals of a, b of the Thévenin equivalent circuit
the short circuit current is

VTH VTH
i sc   RTH 
RTH i sc

3.5
Finding a Thévenin equivalent

 Consider

Note that ;
 When the terminals a, b are open
there is no current in the 4  resistor, therefore

VTh  V1 (voltage across 3A source)

 Applying node-voltage method,

V1  25 V1 V1  32V
 30  5V1  160  0 
5 20 VTh  32V

 Placing a short circuit across the terminals gives,

V2  25 V2 V
 3 2 0
5 20 4
 10V2  160  0  V2  16V
V2 16 VTh 32
i SC    4A , RTh    8
4 4 i SC 4

3.6
 The Norton equivalent

 A Norton equivalent consists of an independent current source in parallel with the Norton
equivalent resistance.

 We can derive it from a Thévenin equivalent circuit

by making a source transformation

 The Norton current is the short circuit current at the terminals.

 The Norton resistance is identical to the Thévenin resistance

VTh
R Nt  RTh , i Nt   i sc
RTh

Using source transformations

 Sometimes we can use source transformation method

to derive Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits.

 For the previous example, we have,

3.7
Ex. Find the Thévenin equivalent for the following circuit.

 Note that i x must be zero

because of the absence of a return path.

 then,
VTh  Vab  (20i )25  500 i

 and
5  3V 5  1500 i
i   500 i  5
2000 2000
VTh  5V

 We place a short-circuit across a, b

V  0 due to short-circuit

i sc  20i
5 then i sc  50 mA
i
2000

 5V
 RTh   100 
 50.10 3

3.8
 “Thévenin equivalent”

Alternative methods for deriving Thévenin equivalent

 Two alternative methods can be used to determine R Th

which are simpler to use.

1st method

 Useful if the network contains only independent sources.

 We first deactivate all independent sources.

 Then calculate the resistance seen looking into the network at the designated terminal pair.

a voltage source a short circuit

deactivated
a current source an open circuit

Ex. Consider the circuit shown as

5.20
R ab  RTh  4   8
25

3.9
2nd method

 If the circuit contains dependent sources

we use an alternative method

 First deactivate all independent sources

 then apply either a test voltage source or a test current source to the Thévenin terminals a, b

Voltage across the test source

RTh 
Current delivered by the test source

Ex. Find the Thévenin resistance R Th fort he following circuit

VT
iT   20i VT 60VT 20VT
25 iT   
25 2000 2000

VT
 3VT   RTh  100 
i mA iT
2

Remark. In a network containing only resistors and dependent sources

Use the alternative method, because the ratio of the Thévenin voltage to the
short circuit current is indeterminate (i.e. 0/0)

Maximum power transfer

 Let us consider to transfer power from a source to a load

 We discuss power transfer in terms of two basic types of systems :

1. The efficiency of the power transfer

e.g. power utility systems

generation, transmission and distribution of large quantities of electric

power.

3.10
  If a power utility system is inefficient
a large percentage of the power generated is lost in the transmission and
distribution.

2. The amount of power transferred

e.g. Communication and instrumentation systems
transmitting as much power as possible to the receiver is desirable.

 We consider maximum power transfer in systems

that can be modeled by a purely resistive circuit

 Given a circuit shown as

Determine R L that permits maximum power


delivery to R L

 Using Thévenin equivalent circuit yield.

VTh
p( ) 2 RL
RTh  R L

 To find R L that maximizes the power, use differentation

p 2 ( RTh  R L )  2 R L ( RTh  R L )
2
 VTh 0
RL ( RTh  RL ) 4

  RL  RTh  0  RL  RTh
2 2

 Thus, maximum power transfer occurs

when the load resistance R L equals the Thévenin resistance R Th
2 2
VTh VTh
i.e. Pmax  RL 
(2 R L ) 2 4RL

3.11
Superposition

 A linear system obeys the principle of superposition.

 Whenever a linear system is excited or driven by more than one independent source of energy
the total response is the sum of the individual responses.

Individual response

 The result of an independent source acting alone

 Superposition can be applied in both the analysis and design of circuits.

simplify the circuit analysis.

Ex. Consider the following circuit.

120V source :

 Replace the ideal current source with an open circuit.

3.12
 V1  120 V1 V
  1 0  4V1  120  0  V1  30V
6 3 24

120  30
i1   15 A
'

6
30
i2   10 A
'

3
30
i3   5A
'

6
i4  5 A
'

12A source :

 Replace the ideal voltage source with a short circuit.

V2 V2 V2  V3
  0  6V2  3V3  0  V3  2V2
6 3 2

V3  V2 V3 V2  12V
  12  0  3V3  2V2  48  0 
2 4 V3  24V
(2)

 V2 12
i1    2A
''

6 6
 12
i2   4 A
''

3
 12  (24)
i3   6A
''

2
 24
i4   6 A
''

3.13
 Therefore ;

i1  i1  i1  15  2  17 A
' ''

i2  i2  i2  10  4  6 A
' ''

i3  i3  i3  5  6  11 A
' ''

i4  i4  i4  5  6  1A
' ''

Remark. When applying superposition to linear circuits containing both independent and
dependent sources

the dependent sources are never deactivated.

Ex. Use the principle of superposition to find V0 in the circuit shown as

10V source :

 Note that ;
V '   0.4V '  .10  V '  0

3.14
 Hence,

10  25i '   i '   0.4 A , V ' 0  20.0.4  8V

 5A source :

 V0
i ''  
5

'' ''
V0 V0
  0.4V ''   0  5V0  8V  0  V0  1.6V
'' '' '' ''

5 20

''
V
 0.4V  5  0  V  10V , V0  16V
'' '' ''

10
i  3.2 A
''

i  i '   i ''   0.4  3.2  3.6 A

V  V '   V ''   0  10  10V
V0  V ' 0  V '' 0  8  16  24V

3.15